+D=FJAH

Subrings and Ideals

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we discuss, subrings, sub fields. Ideals and quotient ring. We
begin our study by defining a subring. If (R, +, ×) is a ring and S is a non-empty
subset of R, then ‘+’ and ‘×’, may induce binary operations ‘+’ and ‘×’ respectively
on S. If S is a ring with respect to these induced operations, then we call S, a
subring of R.

2.2 SUBRING
Definition 2.1 Let (R, +, ×) be a ring and let S be a non-empty subset of R. If
(S, +, ×) is a ring, then S is called a subring of R.
Every non-zero ring R has two trivial subrings, viz. the ring itself and the zero
ring consisting of the zero element of the ring R.
{0} and R are called the improper subrings of R.
If S is a subring of R, then
(i) S is a subgroup of additive group R.
i.e., (S, +) is a subgroup of (R, +).
(ii) S is closed with respect to multiplication.

éa 0ù
Example 1: The set S of all 2 ´ 2 matrices of the type ê where a, b, c are
ëb c úû
integers is subring of the ring M2 of all 2 ´ matrices over Z.
Example 2: The set of integers Z is a subring of the ring of real numbers.
Theorem 2.1: A non-empty subset S of a ring R is a subring of R if and only if
a - b Î S and ab Î S for all a, b Î S
Proof: Let S be a subring of R and let a, b Î S.
Then S is a subgroup of R under addition.
Hence, bÎSÞ-bÎS
and, a Î S, b Î S Þ a Î S, - b Î S
Þ a + (- b) Î S
Þa-b+S

Chapter-02 2nd Proof Anvi T12.p65 39 10/5/10, 11:53 AM

 Subrings and Ideals 41

Hence, S is a subring of R.
Example 2: Show that S = {0, 3} is a subring of (z6, +6, x6) under the operations
+6 and x6.
Solution: We construct the composition tables as follows:

+6 0 3 ´6 0 3
0 0 3 0 0 0
3 3 0 3 0 3
From the above composition tables
a Î S, b Î S Þ a +6 (- b) = a - b Î S
a ´6 b Î S " a, b Î S
Hence, S is a subring of R.
Example 3: Let m be any fixed integer and let S be any subset of Z, the set of
integers, such that
S = {..., - 3m, - 2m, - m, 0, m, 2m, 3m, ...}
show that S is a subring of (z, +, ×)
Solution: Let rm, s m Î S, then r, s Î Z
now rm - sm = (r - s)m Î Z (3 r-sÎZ " r, s Î Z)

and, (rm) (sm) = (rsm) m Î Z (3 rsmÎZ " r, s, m Î Z)

\ S is a subring of (Z, +, ×)
Theorem 2.2: The necessary and sufficient conditions for a non-empty subset
S of a ring R to be a subring of R are: (i) S + (- S) = S and (ii) SS Í S
Solution: Let S be a subring of R
Then (S, +) is a subgroup of (R, +)
let a + (- b) Î S + (- S), then
a + (- b) Î S + (- S) Þ a Î S, - b Î - S
Þ a Î S, b Î S
Þa-bÎS
Þ a + (- b) Î S
Thus, S + (- S) Í S (1)
0ÎSÞ0Î-S
Now a Î S, 0 Î - S Þ a + 0 Î ST (- S)
Hence, S Í S + (- S) (2)

Chapter-02 2nd Proof Anvi T12.p65 41 10/5/10, 11:53 AM

 42 Linear Algebra

From (1) and (2), we have

S + (- S) = S
Again, S is a subring of R Þ S is closed under multiplication.
Thus, a Î S, b Î S Þ a b Î S
but ab Î SS
Now ab Î SS Þ a Î S, b Î S
Þ ab Î S

Þ SS Í S
Hence, proved.
Conversely, let S + (- S) = S and SS Í S
" a, b Î S, we have ab Î SS Þ ab Î S (3 SS Í S)
Again S + (- S) = S Þ S + (- S) Í S
we have a + (- b) Î S + (–S) Í S
Thus, Þ a + (- b) Î S " a, b Î S
Þa-bÎS " a, b Î S
Thus, a - b Î S, ab Î S " a, b Î S
Hence, S is a subring of R.
Theorem 2.3: The intersection of two subrings of a ring R is a subring of R.
Proof: Let S1 and S2 be two subrings of a ring R.
0 Î S1, 0 Î S2, therefore, 0 Î S1 Ç S2
Thus, S1 Ç S2 ¹ f
Now let a, b Î S1 Ç S2, then
a Î S1 Ç S2 Þ a Î S1, a Î S2
b Î S1 Ç S2 Þ b Î S1, b Î S2
But S1, S2 are subrings of R, therefore,
a Î S, b Î S1 Þ a - b Î S1, ab Î S1
and, a Î S2, b Î S2 Þ a - b Î S2, ab Î S2
a - b Î S1, a - b Î S2 Þ a - b Î S1 Ç S2
ab Î S1, ab Î S2 Þ ab Î S1 Ç S2
Consequently, a - b Î S1 Ç S2, ab Î S1 Ç S2 " a, b Î S1 Ç S2
Hence, S1 Ç S2 is a subring of R.
Theorem 2.4: Let R be a ring and S1, S2 be two subrings. Then S1 È S2 is a
subring of R if and only if S1 Í S2 or S2 Í 1.

Chapter-02 2nd Proof Anvi T12.p65 42 10/5/10, 11:53 AM

 44 Linear Algebra

3. Prove that the z of integers is a subring of R, the set real numbers under
addition and multiplication.
4. Show that the set of n ´ n matrices over the rational numbers is a subring of
n ´ n matrices over the real numbers under addition and multiplication
matrices.
5. Show that ({0, 2, 4}, +6, ´6) is a subring of (Z6, +6, ´6)
where, Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}.
6. R is an integral domain. Show that the set
S = {mx : x Î R, m is a fixed integer} is a subring of R.
7. If R is a ring, then show that the set
N(a) = {x Î R; ax = xa} is a subring of R.

2.3 IDEALS

2.3.1 Left Ideal

Definition 2.2: A non-empty subset U of a ring R is called a left ideal if
(i) a Î U, b Î U Þ a - b Î U
(ii) a Î U, r Î R Þ r a Î U
Example: In the ring M of 2 ´ 2 matrices over integers consider the set U
ì é a 0ù ü
= íê ú : a , b Î Zý
ï ë b 0û
î ï
þ
é0 0ù
ê0 0ú Î U Þ U ¹ f
ë û
Let
éa 0ù éc 0ù
A= ê ú , B= ê Î U, then
ëb 0û ëd 0úû

éa - c 0ù
A-B= ê ÎU
ëb - d 0úû
Also
éa b ù éa 0ù
P= ê ú Î M, A= ê ú ÎU
ëg d û ëb 0û
éa b ù é a 0ù
Þ PA = ê
ëg d úû êëb 0úû

Chapter-02 2nd Proof Anvi T12.p65 44 10/5/10, 11:53 AM

 Subrings and Ideals 45

éa a + b b 0ù
= ê ú ÎU
ë g a + d b 0û
This shows that U is a left ideal of M

2.3.2 Right Ideal

Definition 2.3: A non-empty set U of a ring R is called a right ideal of R if
(i) a Î U, b Î U Þ a - b Î U, and
(ii) a Î U, r Î R Þ ar Î U.
Example: Let M be the ring of 2 ´ 2 matrices one integers. Consider
ì éa b ù ü
U= íê ú : a , b Î zý
ï ë0 0 û
î ï
þ
é0 0ù
ê0 0ú Î U Þ U ¹ f
ë û
éa b ù éc d ù éa - c b - d ù
A=ê ú ÎUB= ê ú Î UÞ A-B= ê Î0
ë 0 0û ë0 0 û ë 0 0 úû

éa b ù éa 0ù
and, P= ê ú ,A= ê ú ÎU
ëg d û ëb 0û
éa b ù éa bù
we have AP = ê úê
ë 0 0û ëg d úû

éa a + b g a b + bd ù
= ê ÎU
ë 0 0 úû
Hence, U is a right ideal of M.

2.3.3 Ideal
Definition 2.4: A non-empty set U of a ring R is called an ideal (two-sided
ideal) of R if
(i) a Î U, b Î U Þ a - b Î U, and
(ii) a Î U, r Î R Þ a r Î U and r a Î U
Example: The set E of even integers is an ideal of the ring Z of integers.
a, b Î E Þ a = 2m, b = 2n for some integers m and n
we have a - b = 2m - 2n = 2(m - n) Î E
also r Î Z, a Î E Þ ra = r(2m) = 2(rm) Î E
and, ar = (2m) r = 2(mr) Î E
Hence, E is an ideal of Z.

Chapter-02 2nd Proof Anvi T12.p65 45 10/5/10, 11:53 AM

 Subrings and Ideals 47

Consider a(xr)
a(xr) = (ax) r = 0 × r = 0

ÞxrÎS " r Î R1 x Î S
Thus, S is a right ideal of R.
Example 3: If R is a commutative ring with unity, then the ideal Ra is the small-
est ideal containing a.
Proof: Let < a > = Ç {U: U is a ideal of R and a Î U}
Clearly, < a > is the smallest ideal which contains a.
We shall show that < a > = Ra.
Since Ra is an ideal and a Î Ra, we have
< a > Ì Ra
Let U be any ideal of R such that a Î U
For any r Î R, r a Î U by the definition of an ideal. Hence, Ra Ì U. Since U is
an arbitrary ideal containing a it follows that
R a Ì Ç {U: U is an ideal and a Î U}
i.e., Ra Ì < a >
Hence, Ra = < a >
Theorem 2.6: If R is a ring with unity and U is an ideal of R such that 1 Î U,
then U = R.
Proof: U is an ideal of R Þ U Í R (1)
Let x Î R
Now x Î R, 1 Î U Þ n × 1 Î U (since U is a ideal of R)
Þ xÎU
Hence, RÍU (2)
From (1) and (2), we have
U=R
Theorem 2.7: A field has no proper ideals.
Proof: Let F be a field and U be an ideal of R. Then we will prove that either
U = {0} or U = F.
From the definition of an ideal, we have U Í F. (1)
Let U ¹ {0}, a Î U and a ¹ 0
aÎUÞaÎF (since U Ì F)
Þ a-1 Î F (since F is a field)
-1 -1
Now a Î U, a Î F Þ aa = 1 Î U
Let x Î F: then x=x×1ÎF
x Î F, 1 Î U Þ x × 1 Î U (since U is an ideal)

Chapter-02 2nd Proof Anvi T12.p65 47 10/5/10, 11:53 AM

 48 Linear Algebra

ÞxÎU
Thus, FÍU (2)
From (1) and (2), we have
U=F
Therefore, {0} and F are the only ideals of F.
Theorem 2.8: A non-zero commutative ring with unity is a field if it has no
proper ideals.
Proof: Let R be a commutative ring with unity such that R has no proper ideals.
In order to prove that every non-zero element in R has a multiplicative inverse, let
a ¹ 0 Î R, then the set
Ra = {ra : r Î R}
is an ideal of R.
R is with unity; therefore, 1 Î R, such
1 × a = a Î Ra
i.e., a ¹ 0 Î Ra Þ Ra is not a zero ideal
R has no proper ideals and Ra ¹ {0}, therefore, it follows that
Ra = R
Now 1 Î R Þ 1 Î Ra
Þ there exists an element b Î R
such that 1 = ba
-1
Þ a =b
Thus, every non-zero element of R has a multiplicative inverse. Accordingly R
is a field.
Theorem 2.9: The intersection of two ideals of a ring R is an ideal of R.
Solution: Let U1 and U2 be two ideals of a ring R. Then 0 Î U1, 0 Î U2 where
0 is zero element of the ring R.
We have 0 Î U1 Ç U2
and, 0 Î U1 Ç U2 Þ U1 Ç U2 ¹ f
Let a, b Î U1 Ç U2, and r Î R
a, b Î U1 Ç U2 Þ a, b Î U1 and a, b Î U 2
Now a, b Î U1, r Î R Þ a - b Î U1, ar, ra Î U1 (1)
(since U1 is an ideal of R)
and, a, b Î U2, r Î R Þ a - b Î U2, ar, ra Î U2 (2)
(since U2 is an ideal of R)

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 50 Linear Algebra

a Î U1, b Î U2 Þ a, b Î U1 È U2
Þ a, b Î U1 or a, b Î U2
Þ a - b Î U1 or a - b Î U2

If a - b Î U1, then a - (a - b) = b Î U1 (3 U1 is an ideal of R)

a contradiction
and ifa - b Î U2, then b + (a - b)= a Î U2 (3 U2 is an ideal of R)
a contradiction
Our assumption that U1 Ë U2 and U2 Ë U1 leads to a contradiction.
Hence, U1 Í U2 or U2 Í U1

2.3.5 Sum of Ideals

Definition 2.6: Let U1 and U2 be two ideals of a ring R, then the set
U1 + U2 = {a + b: a Î U1, b Î U2} is called the sum of ideals U1 and U2.
Theorem 2.12: If U1 and U 2 are any two ideals of a ring R, then U1 + U2 is an
ideal of R containing both A and B.
Proof: Clearly 0 = 0 + 0 Î U1 + U2; therefore, U1 + U2 ¹ f.
Consider a = a1 + b1, b = a2 + b2; a1, a2 Î U1, and b1, b2 Î U2
Then, we have a - b = (a1 - a2) + (b1 - b2) Î U1 + U2
(since a1 - a1 Î U1; b1 - b2 Î U2 for all a1, a2 Î U1, b1, b2 Î U2)
further, for any r Î R,
ar = a1r + b1r Î U1 + U2
ra = ra1 + rb1 Î U1 + U2
since a1r, ra1 Î N1, and b1r, rb1 Î U2
Hence, U1 + U2 is an ideal of R.
Now a Î U1 Þ a = a + 0 Î U1 + U2
Þ U1 Í U1 + U2 (3 0 Î U2 )
b Î U2 Þ b = 0 + b Î U1 + U2 (3 0 Î U1 )
Þ U2 Í U1 + U2
This proves the theorem.
Definition 2.7: Let S be any subset of a ring R and U be an ideal of R. Then U
is said be generated by S if
(i) S Í U; and
(ii) for any ideal V of R
SÍVÞUÍV

Chapter-02 2nd Proof Anvi T12.p65 50 10/5/10, 11:53 AM

 Subrings and Ideals 51

If the ideal U is generated by a subset S of a ring R, then we denote U by the

symbol < S >. From the definition, < S > is the intersection of all those ideals of R
which contain S.
Theorem 2.13: If U1 and U2 are any two ideals of a ring R, then U1 + U2 = < U1
È U2 >.
Proof: If U1, U2 are ideals of R, then by the previous theorem U1 + U2 is also an
ideal of R, such that U1 Í U1 + U2 and U2 Í U1 + U2.
We have U1 Í U1 + U2, U2 Í U1 + U2 Þ U1 È U2 Í U1 + U2
Let V be any ideal of R such that
U1 È U2 Í V
If x Î U1 + U2, then x = a + b, a Î U1, b Î U2
now a Î U1 È U2, b Î U1 È U2
Þ a, b Î V
Þa+bÎ V
ÞxÎV
Hence, U1 + U2 Í V, consequently, by definition
U1 + U2 = < U1 È U2 >.
Example: If R is a ring with an R has no right ideals except R and {0}, show
that R is a divisor ring.
Solution: Let x ¹ 0 Î R
Consider x R = {xr: r Î R}
x Î R Þ x = x × 1 Î xR, so xR ¹ f
Also xy - xz = x (y - z) Î xR " xy, xz Î xR
and for any S Î R, (xr) s = x (rs) Î x R.
Thus, xR is a right ideal of R.
Since x ¹ 0 Î xR, xR = R.
Since R is a ring with unity, there exists y Î R such that xy = 1.
Thus, R - {0} is a semigroup with unity and every non-zero element of R - {0}
is right invertible. Hence, R - {0} is a group under multiplication. Consequently,
R is a divisor ring.

2.4 SIMPLE RING

Definition 2.8 A ring R is said to be simple, if
(i) there exist a, b Î R such that ab ¹ 0, and,
(ii) R has no proper ideals.
Theorem 2.14: A divisor ring is a simple ring.

Chapter-02 2nd Proof Anvi T12.p65 51 10/5/10, 11:53 AM

 Subrings and Ideals 53

Þ r1 a Î V (Since U is an ideal)
ÞxÎV
Thus, U Ì V
Hence, U is an ideal of R generated by a, i.e., U is a principal ideal.
Example: (Z, +, ×) is a commutative ring with unity.
E = < 2 > = {2n : n Î z} is an ideal of Z generated by 2
Thus E is a principal ideal of Z.

2.6 PRINCIPAL IDEAL RING

Definition 2.10: A ring for which every ideal is a principal ideal is called a
principal ideal ring.
Example: The ring (Z5, +5, x5) is a principal ideal ring.
Theorem 2.16: Every field is a principal ideal ring.
Proof: Let F be a field.
We know, that a field has no proper zero divisor, i.e., the null ideal and the unit
ideal are the only ideals of F.
The null ideal U = {0} = < 0 > is generated by 0 and the unit ideal F = < 1 > is
generated by, therefore U = < 0 > and F are the principal ideals of F.
i.e., every ideal of F, is a principal ideal.
Hence, F is a principal ideal ring.
Example: Find the principal ideals of the ring (Z6, +6, ´6)
Solution: We have Z6 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Clearly (Z6, +6, ´6) is a commutative ring with unity and it is not a field.
(3 Z6 is a ring with zero divisor)
(0) = {0} the null ideal is a principal ideal of Z6
(1) = z6, the unit ideal is a principal ideal of the ring
(2) = {0, 2, 4} is a principal ideal of the ring
(3) = {0, 3} is a principal ideal of the ring
(4) = (2) is a principal ideal
(5) = (1) is a principal ideal
Hence, the principal ideals of (Z6, +6, ´6) are (0), (1), {0, 3}, {0, 2, 4}
Theorem 2.17: The ring of integers Z is a principal ideal ring.
Proof: The ring of integers (Z, + , ×) is a commutative ring with unity and with-
out zero divisors; therefore, (Z, +, ×) is an integral domain.
Let U be an ideal of Z.
If U = {0} = < 0 >, then U is a principal ideal
Let us suppose that U ¹ (0).

Chapter-02 2nd Proof Anvi T12.p65 53 10/5/10, 11:53 AM

 54 Linear Algebra

U contains at least one non-zero integer say a.

Since U is a subgroup Z under addition; a Î U Þ - a Î U, where one of the
integers, a, - a is positive.
Hence, we conclude that U contains at least one positive integer. Let U+ denote
the set of all positive integers of U.
From the well ordering principle, U+ must have at least element. Let b denote
least element in U+.
We now show that U = (b); i.e., U is a principal ideal generated by b.
Let x Î U, then x, b are integers where b ¹ 0. There exist integers q, r such that
x = bq + r, 0 £ r < b
U is an ideal, therefore,
b Î U, q Î Z Þ bq Î U
also x Î U, bq Î U Þ x - bq = r Î U(Since U is a subgroup of (Z, +))
but 0 £ r < b and b is the least positive integer such that b Î U implies that
r < b and r Î U, which is a contradiction. Therefore, r must be zero.
Hence, x = bq
Therefore, U = {bq : q Î z} = (b)
i.e., U is a principal ideal of Z, generated by b.
Thus, every ideal of Z is a principal ideal.
Hence, the ring of integers is a principal ideal ring.
Example: If R is a commutative ring and a Î R, then the principal ideal (a) is
equal to the set
{a r + na : r Î R, n Î Z}
Solution: Let U = {ar + na : r Î R, n Î Z)}
We shall prove that U is the ideal generated by a.
Clearly a = a0 + 1a Î U so that U ¹ f
Let a r + na, as + ma Î U, where r, s Î R, n, m Î Z
Then (ar + na) - (as + ma) = a (r - s) + (n - m) a Î U
Further, if s Î R, then (a r + na)s = a (rs) + a (ns)
= a (rs + ns) + 0a Î U
which shows that U is a right ideal of R. Since R is commutative, U is also a left
ideal of R.
Hence, U is an ideal of R such that (a) Ì U.
Let V be another ideal of R, containing (a).
Since a Î V and V is an ideal of R, ar Î V, n a Î V for all r Î R and n Î Z.
Therefore, ar + na Î V for all r Î R and for all n Î Z.
Hence, UÍV
consequently, U = (a)

Chapter-02 2nd Proof Anvi T12.p65 54 10/5/10, 11:53 AM

 56 Linear Algebra

= [r + U] + [(s + t) + U]
= (r + U) + [(s + U) + (t + U)
Thus, addition is associative in R/U
Existence of Identity: U = 0 + U Î R/U such that
(r + U) + (0 + U) = (r + 0) + U = r + U
and, (0 + U) + (r + U) = (0 + r) + U = r + U
for all r + U Î R/U
Hence, U = 0 + U is the identity with respect to addition.
Existence of inverse: r + U Î R/U Þ - r + U Î R/U
such that
(r + U) + (- r + U) = (r + (- r)) + U
=0+U=U
and, (- r + U) + (r + r) = (- r + r) + U
=0+U=U
Thus, each element is invertible under addition.
Commutative Property: r + U, s + U Î R/U
Þ (r + U) + (s + U) = (r + s) + U
= (s + r) + U = (s + U) + (r + U)
(Since (R, +) is abelian Þ r + s = s + r " r, s Î R)
Hence, (R/U, +) is an abelian group.
I. R/U is closed with respect to multiplication (by def.)
Association axiom:
r + U, s + U, t + U Î R/U
Þ [(r + U)] (s + U) (t + U)
= (rs + U) (t + U)
= (rs)t + U
= r (st) + U (3 r, s, t Î R Þ (rs) t = r (st)
= (r + U) (st + U)
= (r + U) [(s + U) (t + U)]
Thus, multiplication is associative in R/U.
II. Distributive Laws: We have
(r + U) [(s + U) + (t + U)]
= (r + U) [(s + t) + U] = (r + (s + t)] + U
= (rs + rt) + U = (rs + U) + (rt + U)
= (r + U) (s + U) + (r + U) (t + U)

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 Subrings and Ideals 57

for all r + U, s + U, t + U Î R/U

Similarly, we can prove that
[(s + U) + (t + U)] (r + U) = (s + U) (r + U) + (t + U) (r + U)
Hence, (R/U, +, ×) is a ring.
Definition 2.11: Let R be a ring and U be any ideal of R, then the system
(R/U, +, ×) where R/U = {r + U: r Î R} and ‘+’ ‘×’ are the binary operations on R/
U defined by
(r + U) + (s + U) = (r + s) + U
(r + U) + (s + U)= rs + U for all r, s Î R (i.e., for all r + U, S + U Î R/U)
is a ring called the quotient ring of R with respect to the ideal U.
Example: Let U = {6n: n Î Z}, U is an ideal of Z and
Z/U = {U, 1 + U, 2 + U, 3 + U, 4 + U, 5 + U}
is the quotient ring under the operations ‘*’ and ‘,’. Addition modulo 6 and mul-
tiplication modulo 6.
Remarks 1: If R is commutative then R/U is also commutative, since
(r + U) (s + U) = rs + U
= sr + U
= (s + U) (r + U)
(3 rs º sr " r, s Î R)
2. If R has unity element, then R/U also has unity element:
Let 1 be the unity element in R, then
1 + U Î R/U such that
(1 + U) × (r + U) = 1 × r + U
=r+U
for all r + U Î R/U
(3 1 × r = r for all r Î R)
Therefore, 1 + U is the unity element in R/U.

2.8 PRIME IDEAL

Definition 2.12: Let R be a commutative ring. An ideal P of R is called a prime
ideal if
ab Î P Þ a Î P or b Î P for all a, b Î R

Example 1: The ideal (3) = {3n : n Î z} is a prime ideal in z, since

3 |ab Þ 3|a or 3|b Þ a Î (3) or b Î (3)
In general, P = {pr; r Î Z, p is a prime} is a prime ideal of Z.

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 Subrings and Ideals 59

= {... - 21, - 14, - 7, 0, 7, 14, 21, ...}

is maximal ideal in z.
Alternative definition:
A proper ideal M of a ring R is called a maximal ideal if there does not exist an
ideal U of R such that M Í U Í R.
Theorem 2.20: An ideal ring Z of integers is a maximal ideal if and only if it is
generated by some prime number.
Proof: Let M be an ideal of Z generated by a prime number p, and let
M = {pn: n Î z} = < p >
Let U be any ideal of Z, such that
MÌUÌZ
Every ideal of Z is a principal ideal
Thus, U = < q >, q is an integer
Now M Ì U Ì Z Þ < p > Ì < q > Ì Z
Þ pÎ<q>
Þ p = qm for some m Î Z
but p is prime Þ q = 1 or m = 1
m=1Þp=qÞ<p>=<q>
Þ M=U
q=1Þ<q>=zÞU=Z
Hence, M is maximal ideal.
Conversely, let M be a maximal ideal in Z and let M = (p).
Let us assume that p is not a prime, then p must be a composite number. There
exist integers a and b such that
p = ab.
Let a, b be prime numbers, then U = < a > and U É M
Thus MÌUÌZ
but M is a maximal ideal
Hence, M=U or U = Z
Case (i) When U=z
we have U=<a>=<1>
Þ a=1
Therefore, p = ab Þ p = b
Þ p is a prime number.

Chapter-02 2nd Proof Anvi T12.p65 59 10/5/10, 11:53 AM

 60 Linear Algebra

Case (ii) when, U=M

We have U=<a>=M
Þ aÎM
Þ a Î rp, r Î Z
Therefore, p = ab = (rp) b = p(rb)
Þ 1 = rb
Þ r = 1, b = 1
Thus, p = a × 1 = a Þ p is prime
Hence, M is generated by the prime p.
Theorem 2.21: An ideal M ¹ R of a commutative ring R with unity is maximal
if and only if R/M is a field.
Proof: Let R be a commutative ring with unity and let M be a maximal ideal of
the ring R. The R/M is also a commutative with unity. 1 + M is the unity of the ring
R/M. R/M is a field, if we show that every non-zero element of R/M has a multipli-
cative inverse.
M is a maximal ideal of R, therefore
a Î R, a Ï M Þ < a > + M = R(1)
there exist elements b Î R, x Î M such that
x + ab = 1
or ab - 1 = x Î M
If ab - 1 Î M, then we have
ab + M = 1 + M Þ (a + M) (b + M) = 1 + M
i.e., to each non-zero element a + M Î R/M, there exists b + M Î R/M
such that (a + M) (b + M) = 1 + M
Thus, a + M Î R/M is invertible.
Hence, R/M is a field.
Conversely, let R/M be a field and U be an ideal of U ¹ M and M Ì U
We now show that U=R
Since U É M, U ¹ M there exists an element
a Î U such that a Ï M
a Ï M Þ a + M is a non-zero element of R/M.
R/M is a field and a + M is a non-zero element in R/M.
Hence, a + M is invertible

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 62 Linear Algebra

Solution: Let a + U = b + U
0ÎUÞa=a+0Îa+U=b+U
now at b + U Þ a = b + x for some x Î U
Þ a-b=xÎU
Conversely, let a - b Î U; and a - b = c, then
a-b=cÎUÞa=b+c
we have x Î a + U Þ x = a + d for some d Î U
Hence, x = (b + c) + d = b + (c + d) Î b + 0 (3 c + d Î U)
Thus, a+UÌb+U
Similarly, b + U Ì a + U
Therefore, a+U=b+U

Chapter-02 2nd Proof Anvi T12.p65 62 10/5/10, 11:53 AM