Engineering Properties of Magnesium Alloys
Charles Moosbrugger, editor
Introduction to Magnesium Alloys
MAGNESIUM is the lightest common struc-
tural metal with a density of 1.74 g/cm3 in its
solid state. The data in this collection focus on
mechanical and physical properties of magne-
sium that are relevant to engineers in the design
of lightweight components and structures. Other
references (Ref 1, 2) are suggested for details on
the various manufacturing processes employed.
This collection contains physical data that are
helpful for the metal processor and for process
simulation. The effect that various manufactur-
ing processes have on the resulting magnesium
components is evident by comparing the data
among the various casting and wrought forms.
Proper use of the data requires a clear un-
derstanding of the material behavior the values
represent. Consensus definitions of material
properties are found in the Glossary of Terms in
this book.
Effort has been made to attribute the source of
the data. Multiple sources are given when avail-
able to give the reader an indication of the ve-
racity and range of the data. The comparison of
data found in literature is made challenging by
the variety of test methods and reporting formats
employed by researchers, and by varied designa-
tions given to alloys.
Representative Applications
Magnesium is used in a wide variety of appli-
cations from medical and metallurgical to chem-
ical and pyrotechnic. Although the main focus
of this book is on the structural applications of
magnesium, other uses of magnesium alloys are
also addressed.
Structural. The high strength-to-weight ratio
of magnesium alloys is usually a prime reason
for considering these materials in engineering
designs. High stiffness-to-weight, castability,
machinability, and excellent damping are desir-
able properties of magnesium alloys that factor
into the material selection process. The unique-
ness of the magnesium alloys is illustrated in
an Ashby diagram of Young’s modulus against
density among engineering materials (Fig. 1,
Ref 3). The position at a corner of the triangu-
lar shape representing all engineering alloys and
its position shared by engineering composites
highlight the special qualities of magnesium al-
loys. The thermal properties of magnesium fac-
tor into the castability of the alloys and serve in
CHAPTER 1
application. On the other side of the ledger, the
strong galvanic potential of magnesium and its
weak surface oxidation make corrosion behavior
a major consideration. Fortunately, good design
practices and preventive measures are available
to ameliorate environmental degradation.
Structural applications include automotive,
industrial, materials handling, commercial, and
aerospace equipment. The automotive applica-
tions include clutch and brake pedal support
brackets, steering column lock housings, and
manual transmission housings. In industrial ma-
chinery, such as textile and printing machines,
magnesium alloys are used for parts that oper-
ate at high speeds and must be lightweight to
minimize inertial forces. Materials-handling
equipment includes dockboards, grain shovels,
and gravity conveyors. Commercial applications
include handheld tools, luggage, computer hous-
ings, and ladders. Magnesium alloys are valu-
able for aerospace applications because they
are lightweight and exhibit good strength and
stiffness at both room and elevated temperatures
(Ref 2).
Pyrotechnics. The first applications of mag-
nesium powder were components of fireworks,
flares, and other incendiary devices to produce
brilliant white light. Fine magnesium wire was
used for photographic flash bulbs. Magnesium is
still used in fire starters for survival kits.
Metallurgical. Magnesium is used as an al-
loying element in nonferrous alloys, such as
aluminum, zinc, and lead. It is used as an oxy-
gen scavenger in nickel and copper alloys and
as a desulfurizer in iron and steel production.
Magnesium improves the toughness and ductil-
ity of cast iron by making the graphite particles
nodular. This is the greatest use of magnesium
by weight.
Electrochemical Applications. Magnesium
is highest on the electromotive series among
metals in salt water, making it desirable as a
sacrificial anode for cathodic protection. Con-
structive uses of this mechanism are employed
in batteries.
Medical. Magnesium alloys are used in por-
table medical equipment where light weight is
advantageous. It is also employed for wheel-
chairs used in sporting activities (where every
ounce is critical). Because of magnesium’s bio-
compatibility and bioabsorbability, alloys with
other biocompatible elements (such as calcium)
are being evaluated for cardiovascular stents and
orthopedic devices for internal bone fixation.
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All rights reserved
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Designation Systems
No designation system has universal accep-
tance. Names of alloys have evolved from trade
names of the pioneering companies to chemical
and numerical systems.
The ASTM Standard Alloy Designation
System is widely used by the industry. Details of
the ASTM system are given in Table 1 (Ref 2, 4).
As an example of how this alphanumeric system
works, consider magnesium alloy AZ91E-T6.
The first part of the designation, AZ, signifies
that aluminum and zinc are the two principal al-
loying elements. The second part, 91, gives the
rounded-off percentages of aluminum and zinc
(9 and 1, respectively). The third part, E, indi-
cates that this is the fifth alloy standardized with
approximately 9% Al and 1% Zn as the principal
alloying additions. Letters are used in alphabetic
order, except for O and I, which are not used.
The fourth part, T6, denotes that the alloy is so-
lution treated and artificially aged. The common
tempers are listed in Table 1.
Pure magnesium (98.8% Mg or higher) is
designated by the required minimum amount of
magnesium. Several grades are commercially
available for metallurgical and chemical uses.
These are rarely used for structural engineering
applications. The grades are designated 9880A
(UNS M19980) and 9880B (UNS M19981) for
98.80% min; 9990A (UNS M19990) for 99.90%
min, 9995 (UNS M19995) for 99.95% min, and
9998A (M199980) for 99.98% min. The Unified
Numbering System (UNS) is a complementary
designation system of ASTM and the Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE). It is not a specifi-
cation because it does not establish requirements
such as mechanical properties or heat treatment,
but it provides identifying numbers that are use-
ful for searching literature. All magnesium met-
als and alloys have UNS numbers starting with
M, but the M category is defined as “miscella-
neous nonferrous metals and alloys,” so several
UNS M alloy numbers are not magnesium-
based.
Using the ASTM alphanumeric designation
system encourages grouping magnesium alloys
by principal alloy composition:
• Magnesium-manganese (M)
• Magnesium-aluminum-manganese (AM)
• Magnesium-aluminum-zinc-manganese
(AZ)
• Magnesium-zirconium (K)
2 / Engineering Properties of Magnesium Alloys

Fig. 1  shby diagram of Young’s modulus, E, plotted against density, ρ, for various engineered materials. The heavy envelopes enclose data for a given class of material. The diagonal
A
contours show the longitudinal wave velocity. The guide lines of constant E/ρ, E1/2/ρ, and E1/3/ρ allow selection of materials for minimum weight, deflection-limited, design.
Source: Ref 3

• Magnesium-zinc-zirconium (ZK), with rare
earth (ZE)
• Magnesium–rare earth metal–zirconium
(EZ)
• Magnesium-silver–rare earth metal–zirco-
nium (QE)
• strength and ductility at approximately 6%. Alu-
Magnesium–yttrium rare earth metal–zirco-
nium (WE)
• Magnesium-zinc-copper-manganese (ZC)
• Magnesium-aluminum-silicon-manganese
(AS)
• Magnesium-aluminum-strontium (AJ)
The Physical Properties of the Alloys Are
Influenced by Their Chemical Composition.
In general the constituent elements have the fol-
lowing effects.
Aluminum has a favorable effect on magne-
sium. It is used up to 10 wt%, with optimum
minum improves strength and hardness. It wid-
ens the melting range, which makes the alloy
easier to cast. With aluminum content higher
than 6%, the alloy is heat treatable.
Beryllium is used in small amounts (up to
0.001 wt%) to decrease surface oxidation when
melting, casting, and welding alloys. It is suc-
cessfully used in die-cast and wrought products
but must be used judiciously in sand-casting be-
cause it coarsens the grain.
Calcium is added in small amounts to help
metallurgical control because it increases grain
refinement. It is added just prior to pouring to
reduce oxidation. It improves rolling of sheet
products, where it is used below 0.3 wt% so
the product can be welded without cracking. It
improves thermal and mechanical properties of
the alloy, including creep resistance. There is
interest in magnesium-zinc-calcium alloys for
 Introduction to Magnesium Alloys / 3

Table 1  Standard four-part ASTM system of alloy and temper designations for magnesium alloys
See text for discussion. (Example AZ91E-T6 in parentheses)

First part (AZ) Second part (91) Third part (E) Fourth part (T6)
Indicates the two principal alloying elements Indicates the amount of the two principal Distinguishes between different alloys with the Indicates condition (temper)
alloying elements same percentages of the two principal alloying
elements
Consists of two code letters representing the Consists of two numbers corresponding to Consists of a letter of the alphabet assigned in Consists of a letter followed by a number
two main alloying elements arranged in order rounded-off percentages of the two main order as compositions become standard (separated from the third part of the
of decreasing percentage (or alphabetically if alloying elements and arranged in same order designation by a hyphen)
percentages are equal) as alloy designations in first part
A, aluminum Whole numbers Letters of alphabet except I and O F, as fabricated
O, annealed
B, bismuth(a) H, strain hardened (wrought products only)
Subdivisions of H temper:
C, copper H1, plus one or more digits, strain hardened
only
H2, plus one or more digits, strain hardened
and partially annealed
D, cadmium(a) H3, plus one or more digits, strain hardened
and then stabilized
W, solution heat treated, unstable temper,
only for alloys that spontaneously age at room
temperature
E, rare earth T, Thermally treated to produce stable tempers
(other than O,H, and F)
Subdivisions of T temper:
F, iron(a) T1, cooled and naturally aged
H, thorium T3, solution heat treated and cold worked
J, strontium T4, solution heat treated
K, zirconium T5, cooled and artificially aged only
T6, solution heat treated and artificially aged
L, lithium T7, solution heat treated and stabilized
T8, solution heat treated, cold worked, and
artificially aged
M, manganese T9, solution heat treated, artificially aged and
cold worked
T10, cooled, artificially aged, and cold worked
N, nickel(a)
P, lead(a)
Q, silver
R, chromium(a)
S, silicon
T, tin
V, gadolinium
W, yttrium
Y, antimony(a)
Z, zinc
(a) Elements found in Ref 2 that are not in ASTM Ref 4. Ref 4 notes that thorium, lithium and tin are listed for historical purpose. Source: Ref 2, 4

medical device applications because these three
elements are found naturally in the human body
and are biocompatible and biodegradable.
Cerium improves corrosion resistance, in-
creases plastic deformation capability such as
elongation, increases work hardening rates, and
reduces yield strength.
Copper improves room temperature and high-
temperature strength, but in quantities greater
than 0.05 wt% it adversely affects corrosion re-
sistance and ductility.
Iron is one of the most harmful impurities as
it significantly reduces the corrosion resistance
of magnesium alloys. For maximum corrosion
resistance, the upper limit of iron content is
specified at 0.005 wt%. Commercial grade al-
loys where corrosion is not a prime concern may
contain iron as high as 0.01 to 0.03 wt%.
Lithium is relatively soluble in magnesium,
so it has attracted interest for making ultra-light
structural materials; lithium has a solid density
of 0.53 g/cm3, 30% the weight of magnesium.
Lithium increases the ductility of magnesium
alloys, thus improving formability, but it de-
creases strength.
Manganese increases saltwater corrosion re-
sistance of aluminum and aluminum-zinc alloys
by capturing iron and other heavy metals in in-
termetallic compounds that can be removed dur-
ing melting. Commercial alloys rarely contain
over 1.5 wt% Mn; in the presence of aluminum
the solubility of Mn is reduced to approximately
0.3 wt%.
Nickel increases yield and ultimate strength
at room temperature, but negatively affects
ductility and corrosion resistance in even small
amounts. Like iron, for commercial grades
where corrosion is not a concern, Ni content can
average 0.01 to 0.03 wt%, but for maximum cor-
rosion resistance the upper limit of Ni content is
specified at 0.005 wt%.
Neodymium improves material strength.
4 / Engineering Properties of Magnesium Alloys

Rare earth metals increase high-temperature

Table 2  Magnesium standards
creep and corrosion resistance and strength.
They improve castability by narrowing the Organization Designation Title Scope

freezing range of the alloys, which reduces po- ASTM—ASTM International

rosity. They also reduce weld cracking. Rare
earths are added to alloys in the form of mis-
chmetal or didymium. Mischmetal is a natural
mixture of 50 wt% cerium with the remainder
being lanthanum and neodymium. Didymium
is a natural mixture of approximately 85% neo-
dymium and 15% praseodymium. Check with
industry standards, such as ASTM, for the exact
material specifications by product form.
Silicon can increase molten alloy fluidity.
It is only used in high-pressure die-casting alloys.
It improves elevated temperature properties, es-
pecially creep resistance. It decreases corrosion
resistance if iron is also present in the alloy.
Strontium is used in conjunction with other
elements to enhance creep performance.
Silver improves mechanical properties by in-
creasing the response to age hardening.
Thorium was used to increase creep strength
at elevated temperatures. It improved weldabil-
ity of alloys also containing zinc. It is no longer
used because of its radioactivity.
Tin is useful when used with small amounts
of aluminum to improve ductility, and it reduces
the tendency to crack during processing, such as
forging. It is not a major alloying element.
Yttrium has relatively high solubility in
magnesium and enhances high-temperature
(up to 300 °C, 570 °F) strength and creep per-
formance when combined with other rare earth
metals.
Zinc is second to aluminum as the most ef-
fective and commonly used alloying metal with
magnesium. In conjunction with Al, it increases
B80-15 Magnesium-Alloy Sand Castings
B90/B90M-15 Magnesium-Alloy Sheet and Plate
B91-12 Magnesium-Alloy Forgings
B92/92M-11 Magnesium Ingot and Stick for Remelting
B93/B93M-15 Magnesium Alloys in Ingot Form for Sand
Casting, Permanent Mold Castings, and Die
Castings
B94 -13 Magnesium-Alloy Die Castings
B107/B107M-13 Magnesium-Alloy Extruded Bars, Rods,
Profiles, Tubes, and Wire
B199-12 Magnesium-Alloy Permanent Mold Castings Chemical and tensile requirements
B403 -12 Magnesium-Alloy Investment Castings
B843-13 Magnesium Alloy Anodes for Cathodic
Protection
B296-03(2014) Temper Designations of Magnesium Alloys, Practices for
Cast and Wrought
B661-12 Heat Treatment of Magnesium Alloys
B951-11 Codification of Unalloyed Magnesium and
Magnesium-Alloys, Cast and Wrought
B953-13 Sampling Magnesium and Magnesium
Alloys for Mass Spectrochemical Analysis
B954-15 Analysis of Magnesium and Magnesium
Alloys by Atomic Mass Spectrometry
ISO—International Organization for Standardization
Chemical and tensile requirements
Chemical and tensile requirements
(customary and metric units)
Chemical and tensile requirements
Chemical composition for unalloyed
magnesium in ingot and stick for remelting,
(customary and metric units)
Chemical composition of alloys for remelt to
manufacture forms listed in title (customary
and metric units)
Chemical and tensile requirements for high
pressure die castings
Chemical and tensile requirements
(customary and metric units)
Chemical and tensile requirements
Chemical requirements for cast and extruded
alloys used as anodes
Practices for
Practices for
Practices for
Test method

room-temperature strength. Additions of 1 wt%
or greater when Al is 7 to 10 wt% tend to make
the alloy prone to hot cracking. Zinc increases
alloy fluidity in casting. When added to magne-
sium alloys with nickel and iron impurities, it can
improve corrosion resistance. In combination
with Zr and rare earth metals, it produces pre-
cipitation-hardenable alloys with good strength.
Zirconium has a powerful grain-refining ef-
fect in sand and gravity castings. Zirconium is
added to alloys containing zinc and rare earth
metals (not combined with alloys containing
aluminum or manganese) when it serves as a
grain refiner (Ref 1).
International and Commercial Desig-
nations and Standards. Industrial and gov-
ernment standards are convenient means of
ensuring consistent performance of the material
and identifying alloys. Standards include man-
datory requirements and may include nonman-
datory typical values and information. See Table
2 for the major ASTM and International Stan-
dards devoted to magnesium.
A comparison of the designation of magne-
sium alloys used by the various organizations is
found in Table 3 (Ref 5). This also has several
designations (British Standards, BS) that may be
useful for interpreting older technical literature
and test results.
16220:2005 Magnesium and magnesium alloys— Chemical compositions and mechanical
Magnesium alloy ingots and castings properties of separately cast samples and
samples cut from castings. Last reviewed
2015
3116:2007 Magnesium and magnesium alloys— Chemical compositions and mechanical
Wrought magnesium alloys properties. Last reviewed 2013
8287:2013 Magnesium and magnesium alloys— Chemical compositions
Unalloyed magnesium—Chemical
composition
26202:2007 Magnesium and magnesium alloys— Chemical compositions
Magnesium alloys for cast anodes
CEN—European Committee for Standardization
EN 1753:1997 Magnesium and magnesium alloys— Chemical and tensile requirements for alloys
Magnesium alloy ingots and castings
EN 12438:1998 Magnesium and magnesium alloys— Chemical compositions and test method to
Magnesium alloys for cast anodes determine potential of anodes
ISO Standard 16220:2005, Magnesium mechanical properties for wrought magnesium
and magnesium alloys—magnesium alloy in- (Ref 7). There are also ISO standards for unal-
gots and castings, last reviewed in 2015, pro- loyed magnesium (ISO 8287:2013, Ref 8) and
vides chemical compositions of magnesium magnesium used for anodes (ISO 26202:2007,
alloy castings and mechanical properties of Ref 9).
separately cast samples and samples cut from EN 1753:1997, Magnesium and magnesium
castings (Ref 6). A new version is under de- alloys—magnesium alloy ingots and castings,
velopment. ISO 3116:2007, last reviewed in provides similar information from CEN, the
2013, provides chemical compositions and European Committee for Standarization (Ref 5).
 Introduction to Magnesium Alloys / 5

Available Product Forms Table 3  Similar magnesium alloy designations

EN Standard
The thermal properties of magnesium alloys
ASTM Symbol Number ISO BS Designation Other previous
promotes cost-effective casting. A majority of
the alloys are created for casting processes. Most AZ81 EN-MCMgAl8Zn EN-MC21110 Mg-Al8Zn1 MAG 1 A8
are amenable to sand, permanent mold, and in- AZ91 EN-MCMgAl9Zn1(A) EN-MC21120 Mg-Al9Zn, No1 MAG 7 C
vestment casting. A smaller number are best for
AM60 EN-MCMgAl6Mn EN-MC21230 … … …
high-pressure die-casting, which is the most used
casting process. Together, magnesium alloys are AS41 EN-MCMgAlSi EN-MC21320 … … …
the third most popular nonferrous casting mate- EQ21 EN-MCMgRE2Ag1Zr EN-MC65220 … MAG 13 …
rial, behind aluminum and copper-based alloys. EZ33 EN-MCMgRE3Zn2Zr EN-MC65120 Mg-RE32Zr MAG 6 ZRE1
Another subset of magnesium alloys are de-
signed for the wrought products such as wire, QE22 EN-MCMgRE2Ag2Zr EN-MC65210 Mg-Ag3REZr MAG 12 MSR
rod, hollow tubes, shapes, sheet and plate, and WE43 EN-MCMgY4RE3Zr EN-MC95320 … … …
forgings. WE54 EN-MCMgY5RE4Zr EN-MC95310 … MAG 14
High-Pressure Die-Casting Alloys. The die-
ZC63 EN-MCMgZn6Cu3Mn EN-MC32110 … …. …
casting process is ideally suited to high-volume
production where the high cost of the die can be ZE41 EN-MCMgZn4RE1Zr EN-MC35110 Mg-Zn4REZr MAG 5 RZ5
amortized by the large production volume. Mag- Source: Ref 5
nesium alloys allow for high production rates
due to their relatively low melting temperatures,
thermal conductivity, and other factors. Tradi- Table 4  Nominal compositions of magnesium casting alloys for die casting
tionally, material is injected into the die in liquid
form, but the use of semisolid injection, thixo- Alloying elements
molding, is increasing. Alloy UNS number Al Mn Si Sr Zn Re Mg
Die-casting alloys are mainly of the Mg-Al-
Zn type (AZ), for example, AZ91. Two versions AJ52A M17520 5 0.4(a) … 2 … … bal
of this alloy from which die castings have been AJ62A M17620 6 0.4(a) … 2.4 … … bal
made for many years are AZ91A and AZ91B.
AM50A M10500 5 0.35(a) … … … … bal
The only difference between these two ver-
sions is the higher allowable copper impurity in AM60A M10600 6 0.3 … … … … bal
AZ91B, which can be made from scrap magne- AM60B M10602 6 0.35(a) … … … … bal
sium. The AZ91D version is a high-purity ver-
AS21A M10410 2.25 0.35 1 … … … bal
sion of the alloy in which the nickel, iron, and
copper impurity levels are very low and the AS21B M10412 2.25 0.1 1 … … … bal
iron-to-manganese ratio in the alloy is strictly AS41A M10410 4.25 0.35 1 … … … bal
controlled. This high-purity alloy shows a
much higher corrosion resistance than the ear- AS41B M10412 4.25 0.50(a) 1 … … … bal
lier grades and has good mechanical and physi- AZ91A M11910 9 0.13 min … … 0.7 … bal
cal properties. The nominal composition and AZ91B M11912 9 0.13 min … … 0.7 …
properties of the die-casting alloys are given in
Tables 4 and 5, respectively. AZ91D M11916 9 0.30(a) … … 0.7 … bal
When greater ductility is needed, the Mg- AE44 … 4 0.25 … … 4 bal
Al-Mn (AM) alloy is used. AM60B has greater (a) Manganese content is dependent on iron contaminant content. Source: Adapted from Ref 10
toughness and more elongation than AZ91D,
while retaining good corrosion resistance.
The Mg-Al-Si-Mg (AS) alloys are used for Table 5  Summary of selected die cast properties
elevated temperatures (up to 175 °C, 350 °F)
where superior creep strength is needed, while Alloy(a) General characteristics
retaining good corrosion resistance.
More recent work has produced alloys such AZ91D Most commonly used die casting alloy; good strength at room temperature, good castability, good atmospheric
stability, excellent saltwater corrosion resistance
as AJ52A and AJ62A containing strontium,
with the aim of improving the high-temperature AM60B Good elongation and toughness, excellent saltwater corrosion resistance, good yield and tensile properties
properties with good corrosion resistance. AE44 AS21A,B Best creep resistance of die casting alloys, good room-temperature properties, useful in high-temperature
alloy, containing rare earth metals, has also been applications
introduced. This type of magnesium alloy is in-
AS41A,B Good creep resistance up to 175 °C (350 °F), good room-temperature properties, excellent saltwater corrosion
creasingly being used in the automotive indus- resistance, useful in high-temperature applications
try.
Sand, Permanent Mold, and Investment (a) All alloys are in the as-cast condition. Source: Ref 2
Casting. Several alloying systems are used for
these processes. In general, alloys that are nor- Nominal compositions of these cast alloys are They are not suitable for applications in which
mally sand cast are also suitable for permanent found in Table 6. General characteristics of the temperatures of over 95 °C (200 °F) are experi-
mold casting. The exceptions to this are the Mg- cast alloys are in Table 7. enced. The Mg-RE-Zr alloys were developed to
Zn-Zr alloys (for example, ZK51 and ZK61A) The Mg-Al and Mg-Al-Zn alloys are generally overcome these limitations. A small amount of
that exhibit strong hot-shortness tendencies easy to cast but are limited in certain respects. zirconium is a potent grain refiner. The two Mg-
and are unsuitable for permanent mold casting. They exhibit microshrinkage when sand cast. Zn-Zr alloys originally developed, ZK51A and
6 / Engineering Properties of Magnesium Alloys

Table 6  Nominal compositions for sand, investment, and permanent mold castings mag- ZK61A, exhibit high mechanical properties but
nesium alloys suffer from hot-shortness cracking and are not
Composition, %
weldable. Hot-shortness is a high-temperature
cracking mechanism that is mainly a function of
Alloy UNS number Al Zn Mn Rare earths Gd Y Zr how metal alloy systems solidify and is typically
AM100A M10100 10 … 0.1 min … … … … observed during welding or hot-working opera-
tions. This cracking mechanism is also known as
AZ63A M11630 6 3 0.15 … … … …
hot cracking, hot fissuring, solidification crack-
AZ81A M11810 8 0.7 0.13 … … … … ing, and liquation cracking.
AZ91C M11914 9 0.7 0.13 … … … … For normal, fairly moderate temperature ap-
plications (up to 160 °C, 320 °F), the two al-
AZ91E M11919 9 2 0.1 … … … …
loys ZE41A and EZ33A are finding the most
AZ92A M11920 9 2 0.1 … … … … use. They are very castable and can be used to
EV31A M12310 … 0.4 … 3.3(a) 1.4 … 0.6 make very satisfactory castings of considerable
complexity. A further development aimed at
EZ33A M12330 … 2.7 … 3.3 … … 0.6
improving both room temperature and elevated
QE22A(b) M18220 … … … 2 … … 0.6 temperature mechanical properties produced an
EQ21A(b)(c) M18330 … … … 2 … … 0.6 alloy designated QE22A. In it, silver replaced
some of the zinc, and the high mechanical prop-
K1A M18010 … … … … … … 0.6
erties were obtained by grain refinement with
ZE41A M16410 … 4.2 … 1.2 … … 0.7 zirconium and by heat treatment.
ZE63A M16630 … 5.7 … 2.5 … … 0.7 The more recent alloys emerging from re-
search contain yttrium in combination with other
ZK51A M16510 … 4.6 … … … … 0.7
rare earth metals (i.e., WE43A, WE43B, and
ZK61A M16610 … 6 … … … … 0.7 WE54A). These alloys have superior elevated
WE43B M18432 … … … 3.2(d) … 4 0.5 temperature properties and a corrosion resis-
tance almost as good as the high-purity Mg-Al-
WE54A M18410 … … … 3.5(e) … 5.25 0
Zn types (AZ91D). The latest alloy is Elektron
(a) Comprising up to 0.4% other rare earths in addition to the 2.9% Nd present. (b) These alloys also contain silver: 2.5% in QE22A and 1.5% in 21 (coded EV31A), which has good elevated
EQ21A. (c) EQ21A also contains 0.10% Cu. (d) Comprising 1.0.% other heavy rare earths in addition to the 2.25% Nd present. (e) Comprising
1.75% other heavy rare earths in addition to the 1.75% Nd present. Source: Adapted from Ref 10 temperature performance, good corrosion resis-
tance, and improved ease of casting. The alloys
used for investment casting are very similar to
Table 7  Summary of sand, investment, and permanent mold cast mold characteristics those used for the sand casting process (Ref 3).
Wrought Products include bars, extruded
Alloy Temper General characteristics shapes, tube, rods, wires, sheet, plate, and forg-
AM100A T4, T6 Permanent mold alloy. Pressure tight, weldable, good atmospheric stability
ing.
Extruded bars and shapes are made of several
AZ63A T4, T6 Good saltwater corrosion resistance even with a high iron level, good toughness, difficult to cast. Very types of magnesium alloys (Table 8). For nor-
seldom used today
mal strength requirements, one of the Mg-Al-Zn
AZ91E T6 General-purpose alloy. Good strength at room temperature, useful properties up to 175 °C (350 °F), (AZ) alloys is usually selected. The strength of
good atmospheric stability, and excellent saltwater corrosion resistance. The most commonly used these alloys increases as aluminum content in-
alloy in the Mg-Al-Zn family
creases. Alloy AZ31B is a widely used moder-
AZ92C T6 General-purpose alloy. Excellent strength at room temperature, useful properties up to 175 °C (350 ate-strength grade with good formability; it is
°F), good atmospheric stability used extensively for cathodic protection. Alloy
EQ21A T6 Heat-treated alloy. High yield strength up to 250 °C (480 °F), pressure tight, weldable AZ31C is a lower-purity commercial variation
EZ33A T5 Creep resistant up to 250 °C (480 °F), excellent castability, pressure tight, weldable of AZ31B for lightweight structural applica-
tions that do not require maximum corrosion
HK31A(a) T6 Creep resistant up to 345 °C (650 °F) for short-time applications, pressure tight, weldable resistance. The M1A and ZM21A alloys can be
HZ32A(a) T5 Creep resistant up to 345 °C (650 °F), pressure tight, weldable extruded at higher speeds than AZ31B, but they
QE22A T6 Heat-treated alloy. High yield strength up to 250 °C (480 °F), pressure tight, weldable
have limited use because of their lower strength.
Alloy AZ10A has a low aluminum content and
QH21A T6 Good creep resistance, high yield strength up to 300 °C (570 °F), pressure tight, weldable thus is of lower strength than AZ31B, but it can
WE43 T6 Heat-treated alloy. Good properties up to 250 °C (480 °F) for extended periods of time, pressure tight, be welded without subsequent stress relief. The
weldable, good corrosion resistance AZ61A and AZ80A alloys can be artificially
WE54A T6 The first of a new family of alloys containing yttrium. Exceptional strength at both room and elevated aged for additional strength (with a sacrifice
temperatures in ductility); AZ80A is not available in hollow
ZC63A T6 Good room-temperature properties, useful strength at moderately elevated temperatures, excellent
shapes. AZ21X1 is designed especially for use
castability, pressure tight, weldable in battery applications.
Alloy ZK60A is used where high strength and
ZE41A T5 Easily cast, weldable, pressure tight, useful strength at elevated temperatures
good toughness are required. This alloy is heat
ZE63A T6 Excellent castability, pressure tight, weldable, highly developed properties in thin-wall castings treatable and is normally used in the artificially
ZH62A T5 Stronger than but as castable as ZE41A, weldable, pressure tight
aged (T5) condition. ZK21A and ZK40A alloys
are of lower strength and are more readily ex-
ZK51A T5 Good strength at room temperature trudable than ZK60A; they have had limited use
ZK61A T6 Excellent strength at room temperature. Only fair castability but capable of developing excellent in hollow tubular strength requirements.
properties in castings Alloy ZC71 is a member of a new family of
(a) Obsolete, provided for historical reference. Source: Ref 2
magnesium alloys containing neither aluminum
 Introduction to Magnesium Alloys / 7

Table 8  Nominal composition of wrought alloys • Processing specifications that detail the han-
dling and acceptance of materials at all stages
Composition, % of manufacturing
Alloy UNS number Al Mn Nd Zn Y Zr Other(a)
Extruded bars, shapes, tubes, and wires
Engineering is an exercise in the art of com-
promise. The most critical material charac-
AZ31B(b) M11311 2.5–3.5 0.2–1.0 … 0.6–1.4 … … … teristics must be ranked and choicesmade to
AZ31C M11312 2.4–3.6 0.15–1.0 … 0.5–1.5 … … … optimize the selection. All the “-ilities” should
AZ61A(b) M11610 5.8–7.2 0.15–0.5 … 0.4–1.5 … … …
be considered—affordability, availability, cast-
ability, machinability, and durability are a few.
AZ80A(b) M11800 7.8–9.2 0.12–0.5 … 0.20–0.8 … … … The cost includes not only the price of the raw
M1A M15100 … 1.2–2.0 … … … … … material but the amount of scrap generated and
WE43B M18432 … 0.03 2.0–2.5 … 3.7–4.3 0.4–1.0 1.9 RE the time and energy needed to cast, extrude, or
otherwise shape the material. To the consumer,
WE43C M18434 … 0.03 2.0–2.5 0.06 3.7–4.3 0.2 – 1.0 0.3–1.0 RE
cost factors include the expected life of the prod-
WE54A M18410 … 0.03 1.5–2.0 0.2 4.75–5.5 0.4–1.0 2.0 RE uct and the cost of using it.
ZK40A M16400 … … … 3.5–4.5 … 0.45(c) … At the first iteration of material selection,
magnesium alloys rank high when the customer
ZK60A(b) M116600 … … … 4.8–6.2 … 0.45(c) …
needs structural material for lightweight compo-
Sheet and plate nents to ease the cost or effort of moving them.
AZ31B 3 1 … 0.6–1.4 … … … This includes aerospace and vehicular compo-
nents, where weight is related to fuel efficiency.
ZE10A ... … … 1.0–1.5 … … 0.12–0.22 RE
It includes tools and appliances, from personal
PE(d) 3.3 … … 0.7 … … … electronics to chainsaws, where the ease of use
(a) RE, rare earth. (b) These may be forged. (c) Minimum. (d) Photoengraving grade, PE not specified in ASTM B90 for sheet and plate. Source: Ref is enhanced by light weight.
11 and 12

nor zirconium. The alloy can be extruded at high
rates and exhibits good strength properties. The
corrosion resistance of ZC71 is similar to that of
AZ91C, but it falls short of that of AZ91E.
Sheet and plate are rolled magnesium-
aluminum-zinc (AZ and photoengraving grade,
PE) and magnesium-zinc-rare earth (ZE) (Ta-
ble 8).
AZ31B is the most widely used alloy for sheet
and plate and is available in several grades and
tempers. It can be used at temperatures up to 100
°C (212 °F).
Alloy PE is a special-quality sheet with ex-
cellent flatness, corrosion resistance, and etch-
ability. It is used in photoengraving. ZE10A is
a newer grade that can we welded without the
need of postweld stress relief.
Good formability is an important requirement
for most sheet materials. When correct tempera-
tures and forming conditions are employed, all
magnesium alloys can be deep drawn to about
equal reduction.
Forgings are made of AZ31B, AZ61A,
AZ80A, and ZK60A; the compositions and
properties of these alloys are listed under ex-
truded bars and shapes in Table 8. Alloy AZ31B
may be used for hammer forgings (whereas the
other alloy are almost always press forged). The
AZ80A alloy has greater strength than AZ61A
and requires the slowest rate of deformation of
the magnesium-aluminum-zinc alloys. ZK60A
has essentially the same strength as AZ80A but
with greater ductility. To develop maximum
properties, both AZ80A and ZK60A are heat
treated to the artificially aged (T5) condition;
AZ80A may be given the T6 solution heat treat-
ment, followed by artificial aging to provide
maximum creep stability.
Hydraulic and mechanical processes are
both used for forging magnesium. A slow and
controlled rate of one deformation is desirable
because it facilitates control of the plastic flow
of metal; therefore, hydraulic press forging is
the most commonly used process. Magnesium,
which has a hexagonal crystal structure, is more
easily worked at elevated temperatures. Conse-
quently, forging stock (ingot or billet) is heated
to a temperature between 350 and 500 °C (650
and 950 °F) prior to forging.
Design Consideration
The enterprise of design involves many steps
from getting clarity on customer requirements to
marketing the product.
Material selection is an integral part of the
process of design engineering. The properties
of materials as they relate to performance of the
finished product and the behavior of the material
during manufacturing processes must be consid-
ered.
Whether creating new materials or choosing
from existing commercially available materials,
the material of a component will need certain
characteristics to perform the component’s in-
tended function. Each function or characteristic
will have a corresponding material property that
will be helpful in evaluating a material’s suit-
ability to satisfy that particular need.
Before choosing a material, it is customary to
formalize the desired performance accompanying
the material needs through formal specifications:
• Product or component specifications detail-
ing the customer needs
• Material specifications detailing the require-
ments and quality
Engineering Properties and
Component Functions
This book presents a collection of magnesium
engineering properties data sheets to aid design
engineers in choosing from among the many
available alloys and product forms. To clarify
the importance of each property, their effect on
function must be understood. See also the Glos-
sary of Terms in this book.
Density. Magnesium with a density of ap-
proximately 1.74 g/cm3 at 20 °C (68 °F) is the
lightest of structural metals. The difference be-
tween alloys is slight, varying with composition.
Currently, alloys with lithium as an alloying el-
ement are being developed to make ultra-light
alloys. Light weight is desired for aerospace and
automotive applications and personal-use items.
The density must be considered when evaluating
the cost per volume of material.
When the design environment requires that
corrosion behavior be evaluated, it should be re-
membered that the density or the material affects
the conversion of corrosion rates from weight
loss to loss of thickness.
Melting Range. The range between the soli-
dus and liquidus points is given. Generally a
lower range lessens the energy required to melt
the alloy for casting and increases speed of cast-
ing. The maximum heat-treating temperature
should be noted as well.
Service Temperatures. Recommended maxi-
mum operating temperatures are often listed.
These are guides, but the real world is compli-
cated. The elevated temperature material prop-
erties should be consulted, and a determination
should be made to evaluate the need for elevated
temperature testing of the alloy or components.
When evaluating published elevated data, note
8 / Engineering Properties of Magnesium Alloys
whether the test was done at the elevated tem-
perature or at room temperature after exposure
to a high temperature.
Specific Heat. This is the amount of heat
energy required to raise a unit mass 1 °C. Mag-
nesium has a high specific heat, so for equal
masses of material, magnesium will stay cooler
as a heat sink. If comparing equal volumes of
metal, the lighter density of magnesium may
result in a heat sink rising in temperature more
quickly.
Thermal Conductivity. This is related to
dimensions rather than mass. Thermal conduc-
tivity is of interest for casting design. There is
often concern with regard to the flammability of
magnesium. Its specific heat and thermal con-
ductivity retard ignition in components of any
tangible size.
Electrical Conductivity and Resistivity.
Generally electrical properties are not prime
concerns, but they do play a role in corrosion.
Electrical conduction and resistance are impor-
tant for battery applications and corrosion.
Strength. The ability of a component to resist
failure by yielding or fracture is called strength.
The behavior of a material subject to stresses is
illustrated in stress-strain curves.
The simplest loading to visualize is a one-
dimensional tensile test, in which a uniform
slender test specimen is stretched along its long
central axis. The stress-strain curve is a repre-
sentation of the performance of the specimen as
the applied load is increased monotonically usu-
ally to fracture.
Stress-strain curves in the datasheets are usu-
ally presented as “engineering” stress-strain
curves, in which the original dimensions of the
specimen are used in most calculations (Fig. 2,
Ref 13).
To document the tension test, an engineering
stress-strain curve is constructed from the load-
elongation measurements made on the test spec-
imen (Fig. 2). The engineering stress, S, plotted
Fig. 2 E ngineering stress-strain curve. Intersection of the dashed line with the curve determines the offset yield
strength. Source: Ref 13
on this stress-strain curve is the average longitu-
dinal stress in the tensile specimen. It is obtained
by dividing the load, P, by the original area of
the cross section of the specimen, A0:
S = P/A0 (Eq 1)
The strain, e, plotted on the engineering
stress-strain curve, is the average linear strain,
which is obtained by dividing the elongation of
the gage length of the specimen, δ, by its origi-
nal length, L0:
e = δ/L0 = ΔL/L0 = (L − L0)/L0 (Eq 2)
Because both the stress and the strain are ob-
tained by dividing the load and elongation by
constant factors, the load-elongation curve has
the same shape as the engineering stress-strain
curve. The two curves are frequently used inter-
changeably.
The units of stress are force/length squared,
and the strain is unitless. The strain axis of
curves in this book are given units of in./in. or
mm/mm for the sake of tradition, rather than
being listed as a pure number, which in fact they
are. Strain is sometimes expressed as a percent
elongation.
The shape of the stress-strain curve and val-
ues assigned to the points on the stress-strain
curve of a metal depend on its:
• Composition
• Heat treatment and conditioning
• Prior history of plastic deformation
• The strain rate of test
• Temperature
• Orientation of applied stress relative to the
test specimens structure
• Size and shape
The points on the stress-strain curve that char-
acterize the performance and are often given in
tabular form, are the ultimate tensile strength
(or just tensile strength), yield strength or yield
point, percent elongation, and reduction in area.
The first three are strength parameters; the last
two indicate ductility.
The general shape of the engineering stress-
strain curve (Fig. 2) requires further explana-
tion. This curve represents the full loading of
a specimen from initial load to rupture. It is a
“full-range” curve. Often engineering curves are
truncated past the 0.2% yield point (YS) or at the
maximum stress. This is the case of many of the
curves in this book.
Segments of the curve are significant repre-
sentations of material behavior.
Proportional limit. From the origin, 0, the
initial straight-line portion is the elastic region,
where stress is linearly proportional to strain.
When the stress is removed, if the strain disap-
pears, the specimen is considered completely
elastic. The point at which the curve departs
from the straight-line proportionality, A, is the
proportional limit. Beyond this point permanent
deformation occurs.
Modulus of elasticity, E, also known as
Young’s modulus, is the slope of this initial lin-
ear portion of the stress-strain curve:
E = S/e (Eq 3)
where S is engineering stress and e is engineer-
ing strain. Modulus of elasticity is a measure
of the stiffness of the material. The greater the
modulus, the steeper the slope and the smaller
the elastic strain resulting from the application
of a given stress. Because the modulus of elas-
ticity is needed for computing deflections of
beams and other structural members, it is an im-
portant design value.
The modulus of elasticity is determined by the
binding forces between atoms. Because these
forces cannot be changed without changing the
basic nature of the material, the modulus of elas-
ticity is one of the most structure-insensitive of
the mechanical properties. Generally it is only
slightly affected by alloying additions, heat
treatment, or cold work. However, increasing
the temperature decreases the modulus of elas-
ticity.
The typical modulus of elasticity of magne-
sium is low in comparison with other structural
metals (Table 9).
Resilience is the ability of a material to absorb
energy when deformed elastically and return it
when unloaded. This property usually is mea-
sured by the modulus of resilience, which is the
strain energy per unit volume required to stress
the material from zero stress to the yield stress,
at B. The strain energy per unit volume for any
point on the line is the area under the curve.
Because of their low modulus of elasticity,
magnesium alloys can absorb energy elastically.
Combined with moderate strength, this provides
excellent dent resistance and high damping ca-
pacity. Magnesium has good fatigue resistance
and performs particularly well in applications

Table 9  Typical values for modulus of
elasticity
Elastic modulus (E)
Metal GPa 106 psi
Aluminum 100 14.5
Copper 130 18.9
Cast iron 152 22
Lead 16 2.3
Magnesium 45 6.5
Silver 83 12
Mild steel 211 30.6
Tin 50 7.3
Titanium 120 17.4
Zinc 105 15.2
involving a large number of cycles at relatively
low stress.
Elastic limit, shown at point B in Fig. 2, is the
greatest stress the material can withstand with-
out any measurable permanent strain remaining
after the complete release of load. An accurate
determination of this elastic limit is tedious, so a
yield strength value is given.
The yield strength, shown at point YS in Fig.
2, is the stress required to produce a small speci-
fied amount of plastic deformation. The usual
definition of this property is the offset yield
strength determined by the stress corresponding
to the intersection of the stress-strain curve off-
set by a specified strain. In the United States, the
offset is usually specified as a strain of 0.2% or
0.1% (e = 0.002 or 0.001).
Offset yield strength determination requires
a specimen that has been loaded to its 0.2%
offset yield strength and unloaded so that it is
0.2% longer than before the test. The offset yield
strength is referred to in ISO Standards as the
proof stress (Rp0,1 or Rp0,2). The yield strength
obtained by an offset method is commonly used
for design and specification purposes, because it
avoids the practical difficulties of measuring the
elastic limit or proportional limit (Ref 10).
The tensile strength, or ultimate tensile
strength, Su, is the maximum load divided by
the original cross-sectional area of the specimen:
Su = Pmax/A0 (Eq 4)
The tensile strength is the value most fre-
quently quoted from the results of a tension test.
However, it is a value of little fundamental sig-
nificance with regard to the strength of a metal.
For ductile metals, the tensile strength should be
regarded as a measure of the maximum load that
a metal can withstand under the very restrictive
conditions of uniaxial loading. This value bears
little relation to the useful strength of the metal
under the more complex conditions of stress that
usually are encountered.
For many years, it was customary to base the
strength of structural members on the tensile
strength, suitably reduced by a factor of safety.
The current trend is to the more rational ap-
proach of basing the static design of ductile met-
als on the yield strength. However, because of
the long practice of using the tensile strength to
describe the strength of materials, it has become a
familiar property; as such, it is a useful identifica-
tion of a material in the same sense that the chem-
ical composition serves to identify a metal or
alloy. Furthermore, because the tensile strength is
easy to determine and is a reproducible property,
it is useful for the purposes of specification and
for quality control of a product. Extensive em-
pirical correlations between tensile strength and
properties such as hardness and fatigue strength
are often useful. For brittle materials, the tensile
strength is a valid design criterion.
Measures of Ductility. Ductility is of interest
in several design aspects:
• An indication of the materials formability
during metalworking operations such as
forging, rolling, wire pulling, and extrusion
• To indicate the “forgiveness” of the compo-
nent to flow plastically before fracture should
the component be subjected to forces greater
than its design criteria.
• To serve as a quality control measure for im-
purities in composition or processing
discrepancies.
The conventional measures of ductility that
are obtained from the tension test are the engi-
neering strain at fracture, ef, (usually called the
elongation) and the reduction in area at fracture,
q. Elongation and reduction in area usually are
expressed in percentages. Both properties are
obtained after fracture by putting the specimen
back together and taking measurements of the
final length, Lf, and final specimen cross section,
Af:
ef = (Lf − L0)/L0 (Eq 5)
q = (A0 − Af)/A0 (Eq 6)
Because an appreciable fraction of the plastic
deformation is concentrated in the necked region
of the tension specimen, the value of elongation
depends on the gage length, L0. Therefore, the
gage length is given when reporting elongation.
Generally the test is conducted at 50 mm or 2 in.
The reduction in area does not depend on the
specimen length.
The Toughness of a material is its ability to
absorb energy up to the point of fracture or rup-
ture. The ability to withstand occasional stresses
above the yield stress without fracturing is par-
ticularly desirable in parts such as freight car
couplings, gears, chains, and crane hooks.
Toughness is a commonly used concept that is
difficult to precisely define. Toughness may be
considered to be the total area under the stress-
strain curve to the point of fracture. This area,
which is referred to as the modulus of toughness,
UT, is the amount of work per unit volume that
can be done on the material without causing it to
Introduction to Magnesium Alloys / 9
rupture. Toughness is a parameter that comprises
strength and ductility.
Torsion Tests can be carried out on most ma-
terials to determine mechanical properties such
as modulus of elasticity in shear, shear yield
strength, ultimate shear strength, modulus of
rupture in shear, and ductility. The torsion test
can also be conducted on full-size parts (shafts,
axles, and pipes) and structures (beams and
frames) to determine their response to torsional
loading. In torsion testing, unlike tensile test-
ing and compression testing, large strains can
be applied before plastic instability occurs, and
complications due to friction between the test
specimen and dies do not arise.
Damping is the ability of a material to dis-
sipate stain energy during mechanical vibration.
The energy is converted to heat. Low damping
materials would be selected for musical instru-
ments where sustaining vibrations is desired.
Low damping materials are useful where vibra-
tion is unwanted, such as chainsaws, enclosures
for guidance systems, and the like.
Magnesium alloys have the highest damping
index of structural metals. The specific damp-
ing capacity is measured at a stress of 0.1 times
the 0.2% proof stress. In general, materials with
high damping capacity, such as lead and cast
iron, have low stiffness, strength, hardness, and
ductility. Magnesium alloys, especially magne-
sium-zinc K1A alloy, are the exception, having
high damping capacity along with high ultimate
strength, hardness, and ductility.
Magnesium Design for the
Long Term
Most of the design considerations discussed
thus far are of a short-term nature—loading a
component and looking at an immediate effect.
Designers must also be concerned with the long-
term behavior of components made from mag-
nesium alloys.
As mentioned, magnesium is reactive, so cor-
rosion is an issue that is discussed in more detail
in its own section in this book.
Another issue is fatigue. Fatigue is defined
as the phenomenon leading to fracture under re-
peated or fluctuating stresses having a maximum
value less than the ultimate tensile strength of
the material. Fatigue failure generally occurs at
values of loads that applied statically produce
little effect. The fatigue fracture is progressive,
beginning as minute cracks that grow under the
action of the fluctuating stress. One means of
presenting fatigue behavior is in a stress-cycles
plot (S/N diagram) such as that of commercially
pure magnesium, seen in Fig. 3 (Ref 14).
The effect of elevated temperature operation
is addressed in the data sheets for magnesium
alloys.
Designers look at the entire life cycle of a
product, from where the material comes from
to its recycling and disposal. Availability is one
of the “-ilities” of concern. Magnesium is the
10 / Engineering Properties of Magnesium Alloys
Fig. 3 F atigue of commercial pure 9980A magnesium (UNS M19980) in air and in vacuum. Conditions: cantilever
bending, R = −1, 30 Hz, room temperature. Source: J. Spacecraft Rockets, Vol 5, 1968, p 700–704, as pre-
sented in Ref 14.
eighth most common element on Earth. It oc-
curs in ores such as brucite, camallite, dolomite,
and magnesite. As it is the third most common
element dissolved in seawater, it can also be
obtained from seawater or brine in lakes. This
makes the supply of magnesium unlimited for
all practical purposes.
Major producers of magnesium include China
(which in 2014 produced 88% of the world’s pri-
mary magnesium), Israel, Russia, and Kazakh-
stan (Ref 15).
Magnesium is readily recycled. In 1998, 33%
was recycled, with about 60% of that coming
from new scrap, primarily die-casting waste, and
60% of the postconsumer scrap coming from
aluminum-magnesium cans. The largest use of
magnesium is as an alloying element. Alumi-
num-magnesium cans, which are approximately
4.5% Mg in the lids and 1% in the body, are the
largest application for magnesium containing
aluminum alloys (Ref 16).
The structural uses of magnesium account for
15% of the magnesium produced.
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