Pet 326: Reservoir Phase Behaviour: Lecture Notes

PET 326: RESERVOIR PHASE BEHAVIOUR
LECTURE NOTES
2017/2018
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COURSE CONTENT
• Introduction: The Concept and Significance of Phase Behaviour Study in Petroleum

Engineering.
• Part 1: Components of Petroleum Fluids
• Part 2: A review of Thermodynamic Concepts
• Part 3: Describing the state of a System: The Phase Rule
• Part 4: Phase Behaviour of Various Systems
a. Phase Behaviour of Pure Substances (one-component systems)
b. Phase Behaviour of Binary (two-component) Systems
c. Phase Behaviour of Multi-component Systems
• Part 5: Classification and Identification of Reservoir Fluids
• Part 6: Reservoir Fluids Sampling Methods
• Part 7: PVT Laboratory Procedures and Analysis.
• Part 8: Equation of State (EOS)
a. Ideal Gas EOS
b. Real Gas EOS (Compressibility EOS)
• Part 9: Vapour-Liquid Equilibria
Timelines:
CU PET326: Reservoir Phase Behavior and Fluid Properties 2016/2017 TTOWG: To the only Wise God…
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RECOMMENDED TEXTS
• The Properties of Petroleum Fluids, William. D. McCain, Jr.
• Petroleum Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, Abhijit Y. Dandekar.
• Hydrocarbon Phase Behaviour, Tarek Ahmed
• Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics, Smith, Van Ness and Abbott.
• The Holy Bible.
“This BOOK of the law shall not depart out of thy mouth; but thou shalt meditate therein
day and night, that thou mayest observe to do according to all that is written therein: for
then thou shalt make thy way prosperous, and then thou shalt have good SUCCESS.”
Joshua 1:8
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INTRODUCTION
THE CONCEPTS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF PHASE

BEHAVIOUR STUDY IN PETROLEUM
ENGINEERING
Outline:
– The Concept of Phase Behaviour

– The Significance of the Knowledge of Phase Behaviour
– The Systematic Approach to Studying Phase Behaviour
1.1 THE CONCEPT OF PHASE BEHAVIOUR
1.1.1 The Complexity of Reservoir Fluids
The content of petroleum reservoirs (reservoir fluids) are complex mixtures of naturally
occurring hydrocarbons and non-hydrocarbons components. The various components of
the mixtures may exist in gaseous, liquid, or (rarely) solid states; depending on the
prevailing PRESSURE and TEMPERATURE in the reservoir.
Further still, when these hydrocarbon fluids are produced at the surface, the components
may exist in a state different from that which they had existed at the reservoirs; also
depending on the prevailing PRESSURE and TEMPERATURE at the surface.
The state of existence of the fluid is controlled not only by the prevailing PRESSURE and
TEMPERATURE at the point of consideration, but also by the chemistry/COMPOSITION
(denoted as x) of the mixture. Here, composition refers to the proportion/fraction of the
mixture that is composed of each components present in the mixture.
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Therefore, the state of a typical reservoir fluid system is fully defined when PRESSURE,
TEMPERATURE and COMPOSITION are specified.
1.1.2 The Ever-changing Conditions and the Effects on the Fate of Reservoir
Fluids
During the producing life of a reservoir, the average reservoir pressure changes
(decreases) continuously, consequently, variation occurs in the state of existence of the
various components of the reservoir fluid mixture. In addition, as the reservoir fluid moves
from reservoir to surface, pressure and temperature changes (decrease), therefore,
variation still occurs in the state of existence as well as in the relative amounts of each
component.
It is these changes in the prevailing conditions (T, P and x) and the manner in which
the changes cause variations in the state (phase) of existence (as well as quality and
quantity) of reservoir fluids that is known as Phase Behavior.
1.2 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE KNOWLEDGE OF PHASE BEHAVIOUR

The conditions (T, P, x) under which a component exists in a given phase is of practical
importance in petroleum engineering for the following reasons:
 Foremost, the knowledge of phase behavior enables petroleum engineers to
correctly evaluate both the amount of initial fluid in place and recovery profile in
terms of standard surface conditions (nobody wants such stuff expressed in
reservoir condition as oil is never sold downhole!!!)
 The knowledge is also required in the design of surface processing facilities

(separators, compressors, pumps, etc). Appropriating the knowledge of fluid phase
behavior, the petroleum engineer can forecast the relative amounts of oil, gas and
water to be expected at the surface and thereby design (in terms of size/capacity)
appropriate process vessels to handle the different fluids.
1.3 THE SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO STUDYING PHASE BEHAVIOUR

Since reservoir fluids are essentially mixtures of various pure components, it becomes
necessary to first understand the phase behaviour of simple pure component systems. The
concept is thereafter extended to binary (two-component) systems, and ultimately to
multi-component systems such as is the case in petroleum reservoirs.
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Figure 1.1: Systematic approach to understanding phase behaviour.
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PART 2
A REVIEW OF THERMODYNAMIC CONCEPTS

There exists a strong dependence of phase behaviour on the science of thermodynamics.
The dependence is better seen in the light of the definitions (in a somewhat loose language,
to aid understanding) given below for each of the twosome:
Thermodynamics concerns itself with the study of the changes in the energy content
(ΔE) of a system in relation to the state of the system before and after the change;
the states being specified by sets of values of properties of the system i.e. P1, T1, x1 ...
(before the change) and P2, T2, x2 (after the change).
∆𝐸 = 𝑓(𝑃1 𝑇1 𝑥1 … 𝑃2 𝑇2 𝑥2 )
Reservoir Phase Behaviour, on the other hand, concerns itself with the study of the
manner in which the changes in the properties of the reservoir system (T, P, and
composition) cause variations in the state of existence, quality and quantity of the
various components of the reservoir fluid.
From the foregoing, it is easily seen that phase behaviour is applied thermodynamics;
hence, thermodynamics is fundamental to the understanding of the phase behaviour of
reservoir fluids. Therefore, some thermodynamics concepts pertinent to this course are
explained here below:
1.1 SYSTEM
A definite quantity/body of matter, with fixed or moving boundary, may allow transfer
of heat and work across the boundary, but not mass transfer.
1.2 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM

These are measurable thermodynamic variables that quantitatively describe the
condition of a system. Examples are temperature; pressure; mass; chemical
composition; enthalpy; internal energy; specific volume; molar volume; mass/molar
density e.t.c. Properties may be Intensive or Extensive. Intensive properties do not
depend on quantity of the matter present, e.g. temperature, pressure, density,
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composition, e.t.c.; whereas, extensive properties depend on the quantity of matter

present; e.g. Mass and Volume. Note that specific volume (inverse of density) and molar
volume are intensive counterparts of Volume; whereas, temperature and pressure have
no intensive counterparts. Note also that the intensive counterpart of a given extensive
property is derived by dividing the extensive property value by either mass or volume.
1.3 STATE OF A SYSTEM

A set of values of properties of a system that must be specified to reproduce/describe
(uniquely) the system.
1.4 STATE FUNCTION/STATE VARIABLES

These are functions (properties) that describe the momentary condition of a system.
They don’t depend on the pathway that leads to that state. Examples are temperature,
pressure, internal energy, density etc.
1.5 EQUILIBRIUM
Refers to a static condition, absence of change or absence of tendency to change. The
concept of equilibrium is central to thermodynamic analysis of systems because if there
is no equilibrium, it would be impossible to specify single values for the system’s
properties; such values are needed for analysis.
1.6 PHASE
Any homogeneous, physically distinct part of a system that is separated from other
parts by a definite boundary. Here is an attempt to explain the difference between a
phase and a component:
 A component is generally an entity (say one kind of atom or molecule in the
midst of other entities) whereas; a phase is the appearance of one or more
components in a particular state of existence at an instance.
 A simple example: water is a component, whereas; ice is water appearing in the
solid state, water vapour is water appearing in the vapour phase and liquid
water is water appearing in liquid state.
 Permit an analogy here: In the class, John Bull, is a component (an entity, a
person) whereas; he perhaps appear in class today spotting an all-blue attire
(say blue state). On the other hand, Jane Chris is another component of the class,
but he is appearing today in an all-red attire (say red state).
 A component may distribute itself and so appear in different phases at a given
time, such that x% of it appears in a given phase while y% of it appears in
another phase. Just as it is possible for John Bull to appear in blue shirt and red
trousers.
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 By definition (see bullet point 1 above), it is well possible for a phase to be made
up of more than one components; just as it is possible for more than one persons
in the class be wholly or partly dressed in red colour. An example here is salt
solution – two components (salt and water), but you can’t physically
distinguished between the dissolved salt and the water, so both components are
in the same phase (aqueous phase)
 In clear terms then, the class as our analogy: each person in the class is a
component while the collection of all body parts covered in red attire becomes
the red phase and collection of all body parts covered in blue parts become
becomes the blue phase.
 One more thing: take note that the term ‘phase’ is not restricted to just the three
states of existence of matter (solid, liquid and gas), rather, phase is what it is – a
homogeneous distinct part. The implication of this is that two given parts may
both be in the liquid state and yet be classified as different phases as long as the
two parts are physically distinguishable from each other, with a definite
boundary separating them. A classical example of this is in the case of two
immiscible liquids (oil and water); they are both liquid, but since they are
immiscible (do not mix intimately with each other), then they are
distinguishable from each other and so are qualified to be taken as two different
phases.
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PART 3
DESCRIBING THE STATE OF A SYSTEM: THE

PHASE RULE
The state of a thermodynamic system is said to be fully and uniquely described/defined if
all the state functions of the system are specified (i.e. are assigned values). Typically, all
that need be specified are Temperature, Pressure and Composition (T, P and x1, x2 ...xn);
these are called phase rule variables. However, once a minimum of these is arbitrarily
specified, the rest are automatically uniquely defined. The variables arbitrarily (with
freedom) specified i.e. would be known as independent variables. Any of the phase
variable may be arbitrarily specified thus; however, once the minimum arbitrary
specifications are made, every other phase variables must take on values (fixed) conferred
on them by the arbitrary choices already made; no more freedom.
For a system in equilibrium, the number (not the variable name) of independent variables
that must be arbitrarily specified (i.e. the degree of freedom) can be determined using
Gibbs’ Phase Rule given as follows:
𝐹 = 𝐶 − 𝑃 + 2 − − − − − − − − − − − −4.1
F = the degree of freedom; C = Number of components present, and P = number of phases in

existence.
The importance of knowing the degree of freedom for a system lies in the fact that, if the
number of arbitrarily specified variables is more than F, then the problem is over-specified,
hence wrong sets of solution; if on the other hand, less than F variable are arbitrarily fixed,
the problem is under-specified, hence no unique solution is possible.
Now a number of examples are given below to elucidate the application of the phase rule to
different systems.
Single Component Systems
Example 1: What is the degree of freedom for a single-component system existing in one
phase?
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Solution: Using the phase rule (equation 4.1); F=C–P+2
Here C = 1 (one component, P = 1 (one phase). Hence F = 1 – 1 + 2 = 2
Therefore the degree of freedom for the system is 2. The implication of this is that two
phase rule variables must be specified for the system to be fully uniquely described; the
two variables in this case would be Temperature and Pressure. Considering liquid water
for example (component: water; phase liquid): at atmospheric pressure (i.e. 14.7 psi,
specified), water can exist as liquid at various temperature (0 to 100 degrees; not just a
single value). So, just telling us that you have a system of liquid water at P = 14.7 psi; we
will still not be able to reproduce your system exactly for we cannot tell if you mean liquid
water at 14.7 psi and 24 degree Celsius; or liquid water at 14.7 psi and 67 degree Celsius.
Therefore to really describe your system, you must tell us the temperature too; i.e. you
must fix two (2) things; pressure and temperature. Is it clear to you?
Example 2: What is the degree of freedom for a single-component system existing in two
phases?
Here C = 1 (one component, P = 2 (two phase). Hence F = 1 – 2 + 2 = 1
Therefore the degree of freedom here is 1. The implication of this is that one phase rule
variable must be specified for the system to be fully uniquely described; the variable in this
case could be either Pressure or Temperature i.e. once pressure is specified, temperature is
automatically (without any choice!) fixed; and vice versa. For example, water at
atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psi (specified) can only vaporise/boil (i.e. produce vapour
phase that exist in equilibrium with the liquid water) at 100 degree Celsius (fixed, no more
a range of values as was the case in previous example). The simple meaning of this is that
once you mention that you have a system of liquid water coexisting with water vapour (to
make a two-phase system) at 14.7 psi; we need not ask you for temperature value again for
we should know that that situation (water in liquid and vapour phase at 14.7 psi) can only
exist at 100 degree Celsius. Similarly, if you fix temperature, pressure would be
automatically fixed, because for a specified temperature, water can only boil at a fixed
pressure. It is getting clearer. Right?
Example 3: What is the degree of freedom for a single-component system existing in three
phases?
Here C = 1 (one component, P = 3 (three phases). Hence F = 1 – 3 + 2 = 0
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Zero! No freedom at all? Yes, the implication of this is that there is nothing to specify at all.
Back to water as an example; for water to exist to exist simultaneously in the three phases
(ice, liquid water and steam) it could only happen at a single value of pressure and
temperature; i.e. the temperature and pressure are both fixed by nature leaving us with no
choice at all. You only need to tell us you have a system of water existing in three phases,
and we will never have to ask you for any temperature and pressure value for we know
that is only possible at a single value of temperature and pressure – known as triple point
of water.
Two-Component Systems
Example 4: What is the degree of freedom for a two-component system existing in one
phase?
Here C = 2 (two component, P = 1 (one phase). Hence F = 2 – 1 + 2 = 3
Therefore the degree of freedom for the system is 3. The implication of this is that three
three variables in this case would be Temperature, Pressure and Composition (say x1;
fraction) of one of the two components.
Example 5: What is the degree of freedom for a two-component system existing in two
phases?
Here C = 2 (two component, P = 2 (two phase). Hence F = 2 – 2 + 2 = 2
Therefore the degree of freedom for the system is 2. The implication of this is that two
two variables in this case would be T and P (or T and x1, or P and x1). As we shall see later
in this course, in a binary (two-component) system, for a given (specified) temperature,
two phases can coexist at various pressures (not just a single value as was the case in single
components; hence, to uniquely define the system you have in mind, the pressure too must
be specified in addition to the specified temperature, or else, we will not be able reproduce
your system for we have no crystalball (!!!) to read your mind.
Class Exercise: Now, here are some systems for you to analyse.
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1. What is the degree of freedom for a three-component system existing in one phase
region? Hence, suggest sets of phase rule variables that might be so specified.
2. What is the degree of freedom for a two-component system existing in the three
phase region?
3. For a seven-component system, determine the number of degrees of freedom that
must be specified for the system to exist in (a) one-phase region; (b) two phase
region. Suggest sets of such variables for case (a)
OBEY THE PHASE RULE ALWAYS!!!
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PART 4
PHASE BEHAVIOUR OF VARIOUS SYSTEMS

Outline:
 Phase Behaviour of Pure Substances (one-component systems)

 Phase Behaviour of Binary (two-component) Systems
 Phase Behaviour of Multi-component Systems
As stated in the introductory part of this course, there exists a systematic approach to
understanding phase behaviour. The approach is to begin with phase behaviour of single-
component systems, then to two-component systems and ultimately to multi-component
systems (as is the case in a petroleum reservoir system).
In simple terms, Phase Behaviour is defined as the conditions of pressure, temperature and
composition (in the case of two or more components) at which different phases can exist or
coexist. These conditions are conveniently expressed as plots of one variable versus
another variable in diagrams called Phase Diagrams. Typically, three variables are
employed in phase diagrams; they are Pressure, Temperature and Specific Volume;
altogether they are referred to as PVT. The choice of the three variables is justified thus:
 Pressure and Temperature imposed on the system determine the phase/phases that
exist/coexist.
 Phases in existence are identifiable by their respective Specific Volumes. For
instance the gas/vapour phase would have specific volume higher than the specific
volume of the liquid phase.
Again, it is important to highlight the relevance of phase behaviour in petroleum

engineering thus:
1. Classifying Reservoir Fluids: From the above definition, it follows that if the
temperature and the pressure of a newly discovered reservoir are known, then the
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type of fluid phase (oil, gas condensate, wet gas, dry gas) present in the reservoir
can be determined; i.e. the reservoir fluid can be easily classified/characterized.
Classification of reservoir fluids is covered treated in Part 6 of this course. Watch
out!!!
 Calculating Fluid-in-Place: Since the P, T condition at surface differs from the P, T

condition in the reservoir, it is expected that the reservoir fluid would have
experienced change in phase as well as change in the amount of each phase present
by the time it reaches the surface. The knowledge of phase behavior enables
petroleum engineers to correctly evaluate both the amount of initial fluid in place
and recovery profile in terms of standard surface conditions.
 Designing Surface Facilities: The knowledge is also required in the design of

surface processing facilities (separators, compressors, pumps, etc). Appropriating
the knowledge of fluid phase behavior, the petroleum engineer can forecast the
relative amounts of oil, gas and water to be expected at the surface and thereby
design (in terms of size/capacity) appropriate process vessels to handle the
different fluids.
5.1 PHASE BEHAVIOUR OF PURE SUBSTANCES (SINGLE-COMPONENT)
In particular, phase behaviour for single-component systems simply becomes the condition
of T and P at which phases of the substance can exist or coexist. In this case, composition is
not a variable since there is only one component whose composition will always be 1.0;
hence the phase diagrams employed in describing single-component systems are basically
P-T plots that show the temperature and pressure conditions at which phases exist/coexist.
Additionally however, another convenient way of presenting these conditions is the use of
P-V plots (i.e. Pressure-Specific volume plots). The P-T diagrams are taken at constant
specific volume (or density) while the P-V diagrams are taken at constant temperature. It is
rather convenient at this point to introduce the phase behaviour of pure substances using
the P-V diagram; thereafter, the P-T diagram shall be deduced from the P-V diagram.
5.1.1 Pressure-Volume Diagram for a Single-Component System.
The narration that follows refers to figure 5.1 below
Consider a given quantity of a pure substance placed in a cylinder fitted with a piston, for
compression (reduction of volume but increase in pressure) or expansion (increase in
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volume but reduction in pressure) purpose. Assuming that the pressure imposed on the
system is so low that the substance exists in the vapour phase, and that the system is
maintained at a fixed temperature T1; this initial P, T condition is denoted on the figure as
point E. With the initial condition thus set, the following experimental procedures
(essentially, compression) are performed on the system, at constant temperature
(isothermal).
1. The pressure is increased by compression; as expected, the volume reduces; hence

the new state of the system is identified by points on the line EF. This compression
continued until the gas volume reaches point F at which the first appearance of
liquid droplet (dew) is noticed. The pressure corresponding to this point of first dew
appearance is called the DEW POINT PRESSURE. At this point, the gas is referred to
as SATURATED VAPOR.
2. The pressure in increased further (still by compression) resulting into more liquid
droplets condensing out of the gas. The condensation process is characterized by
constant pressure (analogous to the popular latent heat of vaporisation) denoted by
line FG. Within this range of volume (specific volume actually), the gas and the liquid
phase coexist in the system, with the proportion of liquid increasing while the
proportion of the gas is reducing. This trend continued until point G at which the
last bubble of gas is seen. The corresponding pressure at this point is called BUBBLE
POINT pressure. At this point, the liquid is called SATURATED LIQUID. From this
point forward, only the liquid phase exists.
3. As the system is compressed further, a rapid increase in pressure is noticed (point
H) accompanied by only a slight decrease in volume; this is due to the low
compressibility of liquids.
The experiment described above, and performed at a fixed temperature T1 generated

the curve EFGH. If the same experiment is performed at some higher temperatures T2,
T3, e.t.c, the family of curves shown in figure 5.1 would be generated. Each curve is
called ISOTHERM (constant temperature line) and each curve has its own dew point
pressure and bubble point pressure. Notice that on each isotherm, the bubble point
pressure and the dew point pressure is equal; this is a characteristic of pure substances
only.
The curve (dotted line to the right) connecting all of the dew points is known as the
DEW POINT CURVE, and it is describes the PV states of saturated vapour at the
indicated temperatures. Similarly, the curve (dotted line to the left) connecting all the
bubble points together is known as the BUBBLE POINT CURVE, and it describes the
states of saturated liquid at the indicated temperature. The bubble point curve and the
dew point curve meet at a point C known as the CRITICAL point (discussed below). The
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area enclosed by the bubble point and dew point curves is known as the TWO-PHASE
ENVELOPE, simply because the vapour and liquid phases coexist under the area.
However, at every point to the right of the two-phase envelope; only vapour phase exist
whereas at every point to the left of the envelope, only liquid phase exist.
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2 2
Figure 5.1: PV Diagram for Pure Substances.
The following features of the PV diagram are here highlighted:
1. The isotherm corresponding to the higher temperature lies at a higher pressure

since, for a given amount (volume) of substance, energy content (which is measured
by temperature) is proportional to pressure.
2. At successive higher temperatures, the length of the horizontal line reduces. Great
Guys, recall that the end points of the horizontal line describes the state of saturated
vapour and saturated liquid; at higher temperature, the state of saturated liquid
approach that of saturated gas.
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THE CRITICAL POINT
As a consequence of the reducing horizontal line, a point comes that the horizontal line
vanishes implying that both gas and liquid phases have identical properties. The point at
which liquid and vapour phase have identical properties and are indistinguishable from
each other is known at THE CRITICAL POINT. More about the critical point is discussed in
the next section.
5.1.1 Pressure-Temperature Diagram for a Single-Component System.
The P-T diagram is easily deduced from the P-V diagram by simply plotting the bubble
points against the corresponding temperature of the isotherm and also plotting the dew
points against the corresponding temperature of the isotherm. The resulting P-T diagram is
shown below as figure 5.2.
10 9 7
Fully super-critical fluid. P
Partially super-critical
> Pc, and T > Tc
liquid-like. P > Pc, and T < Tc
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Partially
super-critical
5 vapor-like.
1 6 4 P < Pc, and
T > Tc
Figure 5.2: PT Diagram for Pure Substances.
Notice something interesting??? Yes! Only one curve! You probably expect to see two
curves (one for bubble points, one for dew points). Which is it? Which is missing? Actually,
none is missing, only that the dew points curve and the bubble points curve are now
overlapping. Oh, why??? They overlap because the dew point pressure and the bubble point
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pressure is equal for a given isotherm (refer to the PV diagram above). Hence, the two-
phase region that appeared on the P-V diagram as an enclosure/envelope now appear on
the PT diagram as a line. The line (AC) corresponds to the entire two-phase envelope of
figure 5.1 and so it represents the Pressure –Temperature conditions at which the two
phases can coexist. Whereas, points above the line represents the P-T conditions at which
only liquid phase can exist, while points below this line represents points at which only
vapour phase can exist.
Now let’s consider the fate of a substance at some given points as the P-T condition change.
Consider a liquid that exists at state (P-T condition) described by point 1 in figure 5.2
above. If the liquid is subjected to a pressure reduction at constant temperature – i.e.
isothermal expansion (just as it happens in the reservoir), then the path of the process is
that shown by line 1-2-3. As the liquid is subjected to pressure reduction, it eventually
reaches point 2 whereupon the substance now exist both in liquid and vapour phase.
Further pressure reduction will result to a single vapour phase situation at point 3. The
implication of this is that a liquid can be vaporised if the pressure is reduced (by
expansion) at constant temperature; conversely, a gas can be condensed (to produce
liquid) if the pressure is increased (by compression) at constant temperature i.e.
isothermal compression; the path for this case will then be reversed (path 3-2-1). The same
analysis can be made for a process described by the path 4-5-6. The process 4-5-6 is
actually reduction in temperature at constant pressure (isobaric cooling) while the reverse
process 6-5-4 is increase in temperature at constant pressure (isobaric heating). Can you
then discuss the fate of a substance denoted by point 4 as it is subjected to the
process 4-5-6?
Notice that the discussion above is all about T and P points below the Critical point denoted
as C (i.e. Pc, Tc). Now, come with me Great Guys, let’s examine what will be the trend at
points either partially or fully above the critical point. A point is said to be fully super-
critical if the P, T condition are both above the critical point (P > Pc, and T > Tc). However if
a point is such that only the pressure is above the critical point while the temperature is
still below the critical point (i.e. P > Pc and T < Tc) or vice-versa (i.e. P < Pc, and T > Tc),
then such substances are referred to as partially super-critical liquid-like or partially
super-critical vapour-like. There is a marked difference between the fate of substances in
these supercritical conditions and that of substances in the sub-critical (below critical)
conditions. For example, if a vapour-like partially super-critical substance at point 8 is
compressed (pressure increase), it will move according to the path 8-7. Notice that it will
not cross the two-phase line; the implication of this is that no matter the pressure you
imposed on the vapour-like partially super-critical substance, it will not condense out
liquid. In the same vein, consider a liquid-like partially super-critical substance at point 10,
if it is heated (temperature increase), it will move along the path 10-9, such that it will not
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cross the two-phase line. What do you think is the implication of that? Note that the
processes 1-2-3 and 7-8 (constant temperature processes) can be identified on a
corresponding PV diagram, and have such been indicated on figure 5.1. Attempt to
correspond the processes on both diagrams.
The discussion above now gives us a new insight into and a new definition of the concept of
THE CRITICAL POINT.
THE CRITICAL POINT (AGAIN?)
It has been said earlier that the critical point on the phase diagram of a pure substance is
the point at which both vapour and liquid phase have identical properties. How else would
you define the critical point? From the discussion above, it can be said that the critical
point is the point beyond which two phases can no longer coexist. Specifically then, the
critical pressure is the pressure beyond which a liquid can no longer be vaporized,
regardless of the temperature imposed on it by heating. In a similar vein, the critical
temperature is the temperature beyond which a gas can no longer be liquefied regardless
of the pressure imposed on it by compression. Note that these definitions are only valid for
pure substances only.
5.2 PHASE BEHAVIOUR OF TWO-COMPONENTS (BINARY) MIXTURES
First, it is important to note that whereas in the one-component (pure substance) system,
Temperature and Pressure are the two variables that determine the phases that
exist/coexist; the same is true of the two-component system, however, for the two-
component systems, in addition to Temperature and Pressure, the Composition of the
mixture also affects the phase behaviour. By Composition, it is meant the proportion
(fraction) of the mixture attributable to each Component. By convention, Component 1
refers to the more volatile component while Component 2 refers to the less volatile
component. The more volatile component (MVC) is the one that will vaporize first in a
liquid phase mixture, i.e. will either vaporize at lower temperature (as we heat) or vaporize
at higher pressure (as we expand). Further still, the MVC is the one that will condense last
in a gas phase mixture, i.e. will either condense at lower temperature (as we cool) or at
higher pressure (as we compress). The other components that fits the reverse of these
descriptions is the less volatile component (LVC). Typically, phase behaviour of binary
mixtures are study with phase diagrams such as P-V, P-T, P-x,y and T-x,y. By convention x is
the composition of the MVC in the liquid phase while y is the composition of the MVC in the
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vapor phase. Did I hear you ask “what about the composition of the LVC in both liquid and
vapor phases”? Oh, it is simply 1-x and 1-y respectively, since there are only two
components and the total composition must add up to 1.0, in each phase.
5.2.1 Pressure-Volume Diagram for a Binary Mixture
Remember the experimental procedures that generated the P-V diagram for the pure
substance system in figure 5.1? Am sure you don’t forget stuff so soon. Right? If the same
experiment is performed with a two-component mixture in the cylinder, a similar but
somewhat different P-V diagram such as the ones shown below will be generated.
First, if the experiment is performed for a given fixed temperature, the isotherm (P-V curve
at constant temperature) is such as shown below:
Figure 5.3: PV Diagram for a Binary Mixture (one Isotherm).
Boy! Can you see the difference between the isotherm above and each of the isotherms for
pure substance in figure 5.1? You need some help in spotting the difference? Let’s go. First,
be told that between point 1 and point 2, the mixture exist on as a gas phase. At point 2, the
first droplet of liquid (dew) appears; between point 2 and point 3, more liquid condensed
out of the mixture leaving less gas, until the last trace of gas (bubble) is seen at point 3 just
before the entire mixture becomes liquid. The implication of this is that two phases exist
between point 2 and 3. However, unlike in the pure substance case, the condensation
19
process (that resulted into the two-phase situation) is accompanied by an increase in

pressure. Recall that the same condensation process for pure substance occurs at constant
pressure (indicated by the horizontal line from the dew point to the bubble point) whereas
for the binary mixture the condensation occurs with increase in pressure (indicated by the
rising line between the dew point (point 2) and the bubble point (point 3)). This
observation is very important as it is the main difference between the phase behaviour of
binary (or in general, multi-component) systems and the phase behaviour of pure
substances; the multi-component phase behaviour describes the situation in a typical
petroleum reservoir.
I am sure you want to know what is responsible for the observation made above; i.e. why is
the condensation process for a binary mixture accompanied by a rise in pressure. Here you
have it:
It has been said earlier on that for two- component (multi-component, in general) systems,
in addition to Temperature and Pressure, the Composition of the mixture also affects the
phase behaviour. Now see how that happens. Between point 1 and point 2, the mixture
exists entirely as vapor phase, hence the composition of the vapor phase remains constant
and equal to the overall mixture composition. However, just at point 2, the liquid phase
which before now has not been in existence just appeared. The first droplet (dew) of liquid
that appeared at point 2 did not appeared from the blues (from nowhere), actually, this
first liquid droplet appeared because some molecules of the less volatile component, LVC
(all of which has been in the vapor phase before now) left the vapor (condense) phase to
become liquid phase. The departure of those molecules invariably alters the composition of
the vapor phase which they left behind. Further still, the entrance of those molecules into
the liquid phase immediately creates a liquid phase composition (100% of LVC, 0% of
MVC). Think of it this way: a class is made up of gentlemen and ladies say in proportion
30% and 70% respectively; the departure of a gentle man will change the proportion to
29% to 71%. Also assuming the gentleman left and enter into another class that have been
empty before now (just as the liquid phase has been non-existent before now), the entrance
of the gentleman into the class will immediately create a composition in the empty class
(i.e. 100% gentlemen, % ladies). Now back to the mixture; as it moves from point 2 to point
3, more and more molecules of both MVC and LVC transform from vapor phase to liquid
phase; and always, the departure from vapor phase and the entrance into liquid phase
alters the vapor phase composition and the liquid phase composition respectively. In
contrast, however, for a pure substance, the transformation of molecules (departure and
entry) will not alter the compositions as the composition of a pure substance is always 1.
Think of the class analogy above, what do you think will happen if the class in made up of
only ladies: the departure and entrance notwithstanding, the percentage of ladies in the
class, and in the previously empty class will always be 100%. So, you agree that with
20
binary (or multi-component) systems, the compositions of the phases will be

changing. Anything imposed on you? The changing compositions affect
thermodynamic properties of the phases, and it is basically the factor responsible for
the fact that the condensation is accompanied with increase in pressure. The
implication of all of this is that for binary mixtures, Pb is not equal to Pd. As a matter of fact,
Pb is always greater than Pd; (you know why?).
Now that the trend is explained, let’s have the entire P-V diagram for binary mixtures
incorporating other isotherms (i.e. P-V at constant temperatures)
Figure 5.4: P-V Diagram for a Binary Mixture.
5.2.2 Pressure-Temperature Diagram for a Binary Mixture
Again, the P-T diagram is easily deduced from the P-V diagram by simply plotting the
bubble points against the corresponding temperature of the isotherm and also plotting the
dew points against the corresponding temperature of the isotherm. The resulting P-T
diagram is shown below as figure 5.5.
21
Figure 5.5: P-T Diagram for a Binary Mixture.
Now let’s examine some pertinent features of the diagram.
1. Bubble Point Curve and Dew Point Curve:
Expectedly, since for binary mixture the Pb and Pd are not equal, hence the bubble
points curve and the dew points curve no longer lie on each other again but appear as
separate curves. I am sure you know why the bubble points curves lies above the dew
point curve. Again, just as in pure substance case, the dew point curve represents the P,
T condition of a saturated gas binary mixture while the bubble point curve represent
the P, T condition of the saturated liquid mixture.
2. Liquid Quality Lines
The dashed lines within the two-phase envelope are called Liquid Quality Lines. In a
simple language, the quality lines are measures of degree of liquidity of a mixture in the
two phase region. The lines indicate the P, T conditions for a mixture existing in the
two-phase region with the percent of liquid phase volume as indicated. The spacing of
the quality lines inside the envelope is of practical importance in reservoir engineering,
as illustrated by the two phase diagrams below.
22
Figure A
Figure B
In figure A above, the liquid quality lines are widely spaced near the bubble point curve
(saturated liquid) and narrowly spaced near the dew point curve (saturated vapor).
Considering a reservoir pressure drop (at constant temperature) described by line EF, it is
observed that a large pressure drop will still result into the mixture having a significant
liquid volume (say 70%) because the lines are widely spaced toward the bubble point
curve. On the other hand, in figure B, the lines are narrowly spaced near the bubble point
curve, therefore, a slight pressure drop, the mixture would have traverse (pass through)
many of the lines and would have reached a line of low liquid volume. In summary, figure A
will produce more liquid whereas figure B will produce less liquid and more gas. Which of
them would then have the higher GOR?
23
3. The Critical Point (Again, and Again)
Earlier, for pure component systems, two definitions of the critical points have been
given as follows:
1. The critical point on the phase diagram of a pure substance is the point at which
both vapour and liquid phase have identical properties.
2. The critical point is the point beyond which two phases can no longer coexist.
While the two definitions above are valid for a pure substance system, only the first
definition is valid for a binary mixture (multi-component mixture in general). To reveal the
invalidity of the second definition, take a look at points M and N (in figure 5.6 below).
Figure 5.6: P-T Diagram for a Multi-Component Mixture.
What can you say? Do you see that at point M, even though the pressure corresponding to
point M is already greater than the critical pressure Pc, yet point M is still in the two phase
24
envelope, i.e. the two phase still coexist even above the critical pressure Pc. The same fact is
illustrated with point N; point N is still within the two-phase envelope even though the
temperature corresponding to the point is already above the critical temperature Tc. Now
do you agree that the second definition is invalid for binary and multi-component
mixtures? Or is this being imposed on you?
Notice that the critical pressure is no longer the highest pressure beyond which a liquid
cannot be vaporized, regardless of the temperature imposed on it by heating, and the
critical temperature is no longer the highest temperature beyond which a gas cannot be
liquefied regardless of the pressure imposed on it by compression. What then do we call
these highest pressure and highest temperature? Cricondenbar and Cricondentherm
respectively
4. Cricondenbar and Cricondentherm
The Cricondenbar is the highest pressure beyond which a liquid cannot be vaporized,
regardless of the temperature imposed on it by heating, i.e. point D in figure 5.6. The
Cricondentherm is the highest temperature beyond which a gas cannot be liquefied
regardless of the pressure imposed on it by compression; i.e. point E in figure 5.6. Both the
cricondenbar and the cricondentherm are of practical implications in classifying the fluid
content of a reservoir. For instance, if a gas reservoir is discovered such that its initial
temperature is above the crincondentherm; even though the pressure reduces due to
depletion, the reservoir will never condense liquid (no condensate) at the reservoir
condition, so the reservoir would always remain a single phase gas reservoir.
5.2.3 Effects of Mixture Composition on the Pressure-Temperature Diagram
As mentioned earlier, for two-component systems (as well as multi-component systems), in

addition to Temperature and Pressure, the Composition of the mixture also affects the
phase behaviour. The implication of this is that a given A-B binary mixture, say Mixture M1
(30% A and 70% B), will exhibit a phase behaviour different from that of another A-B
binary mixture say M2 (40% A, and 60% B). Further still, each of mixtures M1 and M2 will
exhibit different phase behaviour from that of Mixture M3 (70% A, and 30% B). Although,
the Mixtures M1, M2, and M3 all contain component A and B; each of M1, M2 and M3 will
behave differently from the other because their compositions (i.e. the percentages of A and
B present) differ. Now, the question in our hands, Ks and Qs, is: how does the composition
of a binary mixture affects its phase behaviour? Specifically: how does the composition of a
binary mixture affect the P-T diagram of the mixture? Come on with me, Great Guys! The
25
effect of the composition of a binary mixture on the P-T diagram of the mixture is
manifested in the following:
1. The location/position of the two-phase envelope in a space bounded by the two-

phase lines of the pure substances that are contained in the mixture.
2. The size (wide or narrow) of the two-phase envelope.
3. The location of the critical point.
We, (you and I) shall now examine these effects in details. In order to do this, we shall
adopt a binary mixture of methane-ethane, i.e. component A is methane (CH4) and
component is B (C2H6), for example.
1. Effects of Mixture Composition on Location/Position of the Two-Phase

Envelope
First, we need be reminded that the two-phase P-T conditions for a pure substance (one-
component) is represented by a single line on the P-T diagram whereas, the two-phase P-T
conditions for a binary mixture is represented by an envelope called two-phase envelope.
No doubt, a binary mixture contains two components. Each of the components is actually a
pure substance on its own. When each component stands alone (e.g. 100% A - 0% B;
or 0% A - 100% B), then it is called pure substance (i.e. pure substance A or pure substance
B respectively). In that case, the two-phase conditions will be represented by a straight
line. For the methane-ethane case being considered, figure 5.7 shows the two-phase P-T
line for pure methane and the two-phase P-T line for pure ethane. Note that in the mixture,
methane is the lighter component; hence its two-phase line occurs at lower temperature
(i.e. it vaporises at a lower temperature. In that wise, ethane is the heavier component.
26
Figure 5.7: Two-phase Lines for Pure Methane, and for Pure Ethane.
Now, for a methane-ethane binary mixture, we don’t expect that the two-phase P-T
conditions to be a straight line, rather we expect the two-phase P-T conditions to be an
envelope (i.e. the bubble points curve and the dew points curve meeting at the critical
point). Now the question at hand is: what will be the location/position of that two-phase
envelope on the P-T diagram? First, let it be known to you, Great Guys, that the two-phase
envelope will lie between the two (2) two-phase lines of the pure substances that
made up the mixture (i.e. the two lines in figure 5.7). The implication of this is that
the two-phase envelope of a binary mixture will lie between the two-phase line of the
lighter component (methane in this case) and the two-phase line of the heavier
component (ethane in this case). Hence, the arrangement (as temperature increases
from left to right) of the two-phase line/envelope will be thus: the two-phase line of the
lighter component (pure), followed the two-phase envelope of the binary mixture, followed
lastly by the two-phase line of the heavier component; this arrangement is shown in figure
5.8 below.
Figure 5.8: Two-phase Lines for Pure Methane, for Pure Ethane, and Two-phase envelope for Methane-Ethane Mixture
Is this arrangement imposed on you? If you think it is imposed, see the simple rationale
behind the arrangement. The lighter a component is, the more volatile that component
would be (i.e. the more the tendency for gas to evolve out of liquid). It would then mean
that the lighter component will evolve gas out of liquid at a lower temperature, hence gas
27
and liquid will coexist at a lower temperature, therefore the two-phase (where gas/liquid
coexist) will occur at a lower temperature. Whereas, for the heavier component, there is
less tendency to evolve gas out of liquid, hence the two-phase line occurs at a higher
temperature. Since the binary mixture incorporates the properties of the lighter
component and the properties of the heavier component, the resultant mixture properties
will be somewhere between the properties of the pure component, as shown in figure 5.8.
Now that you probably are convinced of the fact that the two-phase envelope would lie
between the two-phase lines of the components, the next question is: what would be the
exact location/position of the two-phase envelope in the space between the two (2) two-
phase lines? i.e. to which of the two-phase lines will the two-phase envelope be closer?
Simple! The two-phase envelope will be closer to the two-phase line of the most
dominant component in the mixture (i.e. the component that has the higher
percentage composition). Does that come as a surprise to you? No, it should not be a
surprise. It borders on the popular maxim: “majority carry the vote” Now on a lighter note,
imagine a game in which all you kings are pulling a rope at one end and all you queens are
pulling at the other end. Assuming a queen is as strong as a king (oh!); then the winning
team will be the team (team K or team Q) that has more persons. So the rope will shift
towards the winning team.
In summary, mixtures rich in the lighter component will have their two-phase envelope
closer to the two-phase line of the lighter component (pure component), and yes, mixtures
rich in the heavier component will have their two-phase envelope closer to the two-phase
line of the heavier component. Therefore, considering various binary mixtures of methane
(lighter)-ethane (heavier), the two-phase envelope will be shifting from left to right as the
composition changes from predominantly methane (100% methane, 98% methane, 93%
methane ...) to predominantly ethane (0% methane, 5% methane, 15% methane ...). Take
note that predominant methane means insignificant ethane, and insignificant methane
means predominant ethane. This trend is shown in figure 5.9.
28
Figure 5.9: Effects of mixture composition on the location of two-phase envelope.
Take note that in figure 5.9, the two-phase envelope at the middle of the pack is the one
corresponding to mixture composition of 50% methane (and of course, 50% ethane).
2. Effects of Mixture Composition on the Size of the Two-Phase Envelope
Mixture composition also has an effect on the size (wideness) of the two-phase envelope. In
a straightforward manner, let it be known to you that as one component becomes more
predominant in the mixture, the two phase envelope gets narrower. It doesn’t matter
which component is predominant; once a component is predominant, the two-phase
envelope gets narrow. A careful observation of figure 5.9 confirms this assertion; take note
that the narrowest situation (i.e. single line) occurs at 100% methane and at 0% methane
(equivalent to 100% ethane). Conversely, as the mixture composition is being distributed
between the components, the two-phase envelope gets wider. Take note also that the
widest two-phase envelope occurs at 50% methane (equivalent to 50% ethane).
29
3. Effects of Mixture Composition on the Location of the Critical Point
In a trend similar to that observed point 1 above, it is observed that the critical point of a
binary mixture will shift towards the critical point of the most dominant component
in the mixture (i.e. the component that has the higher percentage composition). A
careful observation of figure 5.9 shows that the mixture’s critical point shifts slightly up the
slope as the composition changes from predominantly methane (100% methane, 98%
methane, 93% methane ...) to predominantly ethane (0% methane, 5% methane, 15%
methane ...).
Additionally, take note that the mixture’s critical pressure is greater than the critical
pressure of any of the components. Also, the mixture’s critical temperature is always
greater than the critical temperature of the lighter component but less than the
critical temperature of the heavier component.
5.3 PHASE BEHAVIOUR OF MULTI-COMPONENTS MIXTURES
The phase behaviour of a multi-component system is to a large extent similar to that of a

binary mixture. The only point to note here is that as the number of component increases,
so would the temperature and pressure ranges of the two-phase envelope increase, i.e. the
two-phase envelope becomes wider as the number of components present in the
mixture increases. A typical phase diagram of a multi-component has been shown in
figure 5.6 above. Every reservoir has a different phase diagram. In fact, a phase diagram is
to a reservoir what your fingerprint is to you. So PHASE DIAGRAMS ARE
FINGERPRINTS/SIGNATURES OF RESERVOIR FLUIDS.
30
PART 5
CLASSIFICATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF

RESERVOIR FLUIDS
Outline:
 Introduction.
 Broad Classifications of Reservoir Fluids.
 Classification based on Phase Behaviour: The Five Fluid Types
 Black Oils
 Volatile Oils
 Retrograde Gas Condensates
 Wet Gases
 Dry Gases
 Essence of Classification based on Phase Behaviour
6.1 INTRODUCTION
With the fundamentals of phase behaviour already established in the previous sections of
this course, the course now proceeds to present the classification of reservoir fluids
(essentially hydrocarbons) into different fluid types. The classification being considered
here is ultimately based on the phase behaviour of reservoir fluids both at the reservoir
condition and at the surface condition. Recall that phase behaviour essentially deals with
the changes in the prevailing conditions (T, P and x), and the manner in which the changes
cause variations in the existence/coexistence of phases (as well as quality and quantity) of
reservoir fluids. Recall also that P-T conditions changes dynamically through time as a
reservoir is being produced and as fluids move from bottom-hole to surface. At an instant
in time, the reservoir P-T condition is different from the P-T condition at the surface.
Furthermore, through production time, reservoir pressure reduces, and reservoir
temperature remains constant as fluids are being withdrawn from the reservoir. As fluids
travel up to the surface, the pressure as well as the temperature reduces. A given reservoir
31
fluid responds (in terms of existence/coexistence, quality and quantity of phases) in a

unique manner to those variations in P-T conditions either between bottomhole and
surface or through time (as reservoir is being depleted). The manner of these responses
therefore forms the basis of the classification of reservoir hydrocarbon fluids into the FIVE
FLUID TYPES as would be discussed in this part of the course.
To begin with, Great Guys, come with me as we examine the two important pieces of
information that are needed to fully classify a reservoir fluid as one of the five fluid types.
1. The P-T diagram (fingerprint) of the reservoir fluid, as imposed by its

composition.
The P-T diagram essentially presents the information on the dynamic phase behaviour of
the fluid in response to changes in P-T conditions as reservoir fluid is being withdrawn to
surface separators. The diagram shows the conditions at which the reservoir fluid may
exist entirely as single phase liquids (undersaturated oil) or single phase gases, as well as
the conditions at which liquid and gas phases may coexist together (e.g. gas-cap
reservoirs).
2. The location of the reservoir Initial Pressure and Temperature on the P-T
diagram.
When a reservoir is discovered, the fluid content is found to exist at a given temperature
and pressure ( Pi, Ti). While the P-T diagram shows the manner in which the fluid will
behave through time as P-T conditions change, the initial P and T shows the starting point
of that behaviour. I am sure you believe with me that a journey is fully described not only
by showing the path way to be taken, but also by showing the take-off point. Hence
information 1 above is the pathway while this information 2 is the take-off point. In order
to fully classify a given reservoir fluid, there is therefore the need not just to have the P-
T diagram of the reservoir fluid, but also to be able to locate the point on the diagram
(graph) that corresponds to Pi and Ti. It is from this initial point location that lines
can then be drawn to represent variations in Pressure and Temperature as events
unfold both in the reservoir and in the way up from bottomhole to surface
(separators).
Since Pressure is conventionally plotted on y-axis and temperature is conventionally

plotted on the x-axis, a vertical line drawn downward from the initial location would
therefore represent the fate of fluids in the reservoir through time. The reduction in
pressure (due to reservoir depletion) is represented by the fact that the line is
drawn downward (i.e. the direction of decrease in pressure while the fact that
temperature remains constant in the reservoir through time is represented by the
fact that the line is vertical with no variation in x-axis (i.e. temperature axis).
32
However, since both Pressure and Temperature reduces as fluids travel from
bottomhole to surface (separator), a vertical line is NOT used to describe the fate of
fluid as it makes the journey to the separator, rather, a down-backward line is used
(‘down’- represents reduction in pressure while ‘back’ represents reduction in
temperature; recall P and T reduces...). Ensure, Great Guys, that you watch out for these
lines as we present, in a short while, the five fluid types.
Now, take note of this: strictly speaking, a given reservoir fluid can only be properly
classified to be any of the five types if (and only if) the two pieces of information above are
available. However, there are some physical/field properties of reservoir fluids that may be
used as INDICATORS TO IDENTIFY (i.e. guess) the fluid type that a given reservoir fluid
may belong to. Take note, those physical/field properties are mere indicators, and not
definite proofs of the classification; they are typically used at some preliminary period
when phase behaviour laboratory analysis have not been conducted. Those physical/field
properties include: colour; API gravity; Initial GOR, and Oil FVF (Bo). Discussions
about these properties as they concern each fluid type are included in the sections that
follow.
6.2 BROAD CLASSIFICATIONS OF RESERVOIR FLUIDS
Reservoir fluids are broadly classified as either Oil Reservoirs or Gas Reservoirs on the
basis of the value of the initial reservoir temperature (Ti) in comparison with the critical
temperature of the reservoir fluid (Tc). If the reservoir initial temperature, Ti is less than
the critical temperature of the fluid, Tc (i.e. Ti < Tc), then the reservoir is taken generally to
be an oil reservoir. Conversely, if the reservoir initial temperature Ti is greater than the
critical temperature of the reservoir fluid, Tc (i.e. Ti > Tc) then the reservoir is taken
generally to be a gas reservoir.
Furthermore, oil reservoirs are further classified as undersaturated reservoirs;

saturated reservoirs; or gas-cap reservoirs on the basis of the initial pressure of the
reservoir in comparison with the bubble-point pressure of the reservoir fluids. If the initial
pressure of the reservoir, Pi is greater than the bubble-point pressure of the reservoir fluid
Pb (i.e. there is no free gas found in the reservoir at discovery time), then the reservoir is
classified as undersaturated reservoirs. If the initial pressure of the reservoir Pi is exactly
equal to the bubble-point pressure of the reservoir fluid Pb (i.e. there is no free gas at
discovery but free gas would evolve immediately production starts and pressure drops),
then the reservoir is classified at saturated reservoirs. Lastly, if the initial pressure of the
reservoir, Pi is less than the bubble-point pressure of the reservoir fluid, Pb (i.e. there
already exist free gas in the reservoir at discovery time), then the reservoir is accordingly
33
classified as a gas-cap reservoir. Figure 6.1 below shows these two classifications discussed
here. Take note that to the left of the vertical dotted line labelled Tc would be generally oil
reservoirs, either the point falls inside or outside the two-phase envelope. Whereas, to the
right of the dotted line labelled Tc would be generally gas reservoirs either the point falls
inside or outside of the two-phase envelope.
Figure 6.1: Broad Classifications of Reservoir Fluids.
6.3 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON PHASE BEHAVIOUR: THE FIVE FLUID TYPES
All fundamentals put in place; we are now set to present the five fluid types. A given
reservoir fluid (hydrocarbon) may be classified as one of the five types. For each of the fluid
types, we shall present discussions on the following:
34
a. The Composition: Since fluid composition has a significant influence on the P-T
diagram, and the P-T diagram is the basis for classifying fluids, it is therefore
expected that fluid composition would have a significant effect on the fluid type to
which a given reservoir fluid may belong. Hydrocarbons are the essential
components of every reservoir fluid types. Reservoir fluids contain hydrocarbons
components of different molecular weights. Broadly speaking, there are light
components (essentially methane), intermediate components (ethane, propane,
butane, pentane and hexane), and heavy components (heptanes and above).
Because the heavy components refer to heptanes and other hydrocarbons heavier
than heptanes, they are commonly referred to as C7+. Unlike the other components
which refer to a single hydrocarbon (e.g. C1 refer to methane, C3 refer to propane),
the C7+ component refers to a group of hydrocarbons. The implication of this is that
the mere presence of the C7+ component introduces a large variety of different
hydrocarbons into the reservoir fluid. Recall that it has been pointed out in section
5.3 that as the number of component increases, so would the temperature and
pressure ranges of the two-phase envelope increase, i.e. the two-phase envelope
becomes wider as the number of components present in the mixture
increases. It would therefore mean that the presence of C7+ component in a
reservoir fluid would determine how wide or narrow the two-phase envelope of
fluid would be. The more of the C7+ we have in a reservoir fluid, the wider the two-
phase envelope of the reservoir fluid would be. Anything imposed???
b. Features of the P-T diagram: For each fluid type, we shall highlight various
features of the P-T diagram such as: the size of the two-phase envelope; the location
of the critical point; the spacing of the liquid quality lines (dashed lines in the two-
phase envelope); and the bubble point.
c. The Fate of Fluid: An essential part of the discussion for each fluid type shall be on
the fate of the reservoir fluid as pressure and temperature change both in the
reservoir (through production time), and between reservoir bottom hole and
surface. As stated earlier on, a downward vertical line shall be employed in
describing the fate of fluid in the reservoir. A point labelled Separator Point shall
be employed in describing the fate of the fluid when it reaches the separator.
d. Physical/field properties (indicators): The last focus of the discussion for each
fluid type shall be a presentation of the various physical/field properties (and their
values) that may be used as means of identifying a particular fluid type.
Here we go then, Great Guys!!!
35
6.3.1 Black Oils

a. Composition:
Black oil contains more than 20% C7+ components. By now you can tell the
implication of this composition on the size (wideness) of its two-phase envelope.
Right?
b. Features of the P-T Diagram:
Figure 6.2: P-T diagram of Black Oils
 Very wide two-phase envelope. Actually, black oil has the widest two-
phase envelope of all the five fluid types simply because it has the largest
percentage of C7+ components. Recall, again, that the more the C7+
percentage in a fluid type, the wider its two-phase envelope on the P-T
diagram.
 The critical point is located up the slope of the two-phase envelope,
hence, critical temperature is very high (indicated by the fact that the
critical point is towards the right – the direction of increasing temperature).
The high critical temperature is attributable to presence of significant
amount of the heavy components (C7+) which is more than 20%. The heavier
36
a component is, the higher its critical temperature, and of course, the more
the percentage of the heavy components present in a mixture, the more the
contribution of those heavy components to the overall mixture critical
temperature.
 Reservoir temperature much less than the critical temperature. Because
the critical temperature is very high, the reservoir temperature (indicated as
the x-axis coordinate of point 1 in figure 6.2) is relatively far lower than the
critical temperature.
 Low Bubble Point Pressure. A visual observation of figure 6.2 would reveal
that the location of the initial temperature on the P-T diagram is to the far left
of the two-phase envelope. The bubble point of a fluid is the point at which a
vertical line drawn from the initial temperature location (point 1) meets with
the saturated-liquid-line (bubble-point line) part of the two-phase envelope
(i.e point 2). Since the saturated-liquid line slopes downward towards the
left, it would therefore be expected that an initial temperature point at the far
left will result to a low bubble point pressure. Loosely said: the farther you
move towards the left, the lower you will encounter the saturated-liquid line,
and yes, the lower you encounter the saturated-liquid line, the lower the
bubble point pressure of the reservoir fluid. Check it yourself. Nothing
imposed!!!
 Liquid Quality Lines approximately equally spaced. For black oil, the
dashed lines inside the two-phase envelope are approximately equally
spaced. Each Liquid Quality Line (LQL) represents the percentage of liquid in
the two-phase (liquid-gas) mixture that exists at any point in the two-phase
envelope.
c. The Fate of Fluid:
 In the Reservoir: The vertical line in figure 6.2 describes the fate of a black oil
fluid in the reservoir as the pressure of the reservoir is reducing (due to
depletion) and the reservoir temperature remains constant. Recall that
depending on the location of the initial pressure, the reservoir may exist as
undersaturated reservoir (if initial pressure is located outside the envelope -
point 1); saturated reservoir (if the initial pressure is located on the saturated-
liquid line i.e. the bubble point curve – point 2) or gas-cap reservoir (if the
initial pressure is located anywhere inside the two-phase envelope – point 3).
For the undersaturated reservoir, as the reservoir pressure drops from point
1, following the path described by the vertical line, a point is reached when the
fluid will exist at its bubble point (point 2) and so the reservoir will become a
saturated reservoir; at this point, the fluid is still entirely in the liquid phase,
only that the liquid is now saturated liquid – a liquid ready to give off gas upon
any slight reduction in pressure. Further pressure reduction below the bubble
37
point (still as described by the vertical line) will yield a two-phase fluid simply
because the fluid condition has entered into the two-phase envelope (point 3).
By two-phase, we mean an oil (liquid phase) reservoir in which an overlying gas
cap (gas phase) is present. Hence such a reservoir is called gas-cap reservoir.
Take note that at the time of discovery, a reservoir may exist as undersaturated;
saturated; or gas-cap, depending on the reservoir pressure at discovery (initial
pressure). In any of these cases, the process discussed above still describes the
fate of the fluid; only that the starting point of the process description will differ.
Ensure you know where to start the discussion for a given case (not just for
exam purpose – afterall, there is more to life than exam!!!)
 In the Separator: The point labelled ‘Separator’ in figure 6.2 describes the fate
of the black oil fluid by the time the fluid has moved from the reservoir bottom
hole through the wellbore, the wellhead, the surface pipes into the separator
vessel. Take note that the fate of the fluid in the separator is not a process (as in
the case of fate in the reservoir); rather, it is the particular state of the fluid at a
given instant – separator; indeed, that is why it is not described by a line, but it is
described by a point. To start with, the theory behind the fate of the fluid in
the separator is founded simply on the fact that gas is being liberated from
the oil as the fluid experiences reduction in both pressure and
temperature while moving from the reservoir to the surface. The reduction
in both pressure and temperature is indicated by the fact that the separator
point (in figure 6.2) is a departure away from the vertical line (representing
reservoir condition) both in the pressure axis (y-axis) and temperature axis (x-
axis). Notice, please that visually moving from any point on the vertical line to
separator point will involve a downward (reduction) movement in the pressure
axis, and a backward (reduction again) in the temperature axis. Great Guys, don’t
you think this point is being overemphasized? The liberation of gas means more
gas will be present at separator condition than present at reservoir condition
(anywhere on the straight line); that is why the separator condition is lying on
a lower LQL than point 3. Obviously, for a black oil, the separator condition
lies inside the two-phase envelope; indicating that both liquid oil and gas
arrives at the surface. However, compared to other reservoir oil type to be
discussed, the separator condition for black oil still lies on a relatively high LQL;
the implication of this that the fluid still arrives at the surface with a significant
amount of liquid, having given off just a bit of gas. Since the liberation of gas
causes shrinkage, and since black oil only give off a bit of gas, black oils are
therefore otherwise known as low-shrinkage oils.
d. Physical/field properties (indicators): A black oil reservoir fluid will have the
following physical/field properties that may serve as indicators of its fluid type.
 Colour: Dark, due to the presence of heavy components.
38
 API Gravity: less than 450API

 Initial Producing GOR: Between 250 and 2000 SCF/STB. This is rather low
compared to other fluid type; the reason being that black oil only gives off a
bit of gas as described above.
 Formation Volume Factor, Bo: less than 2.0 RB/STB.
Oh! Enough said of Black Oils!!! Afterall, they are blacks.
6.3.2 Volatile Oils

The discussion for Volatile Oils will take the same trends as that for black oils. Essentially,
we shall be highlighting the main differences between the two types of oil reservoirs; i.e.
the discussion will take a comparative approach. Here we go!!!
a. Composition:
Compared to black oils, Volatile oils contain less of the C7+ components, and more
of the intermediate components. Actually for Volatile Oils, the C7+ component is
always between 12.5 % and 20%. By now you can tell the implication of this
composition on the size (wideness) of the two-phase envelope for Volatile Oils.
Right?
Figure 6.3: P-T diagram of Volatile Oils
39
 Wide two-phase envelope. Because volatile oils still contains a significant

proportion of heavy components, the two-phase envelope is rather wide;
however, it is not as wide as that of black oils, since it volatile oils contains
lesser percentage of C7+. Again, recall that the more the C7+ percentage in a
fluid type, the wider its two-phase envelope on the P-T diagram.
 The critical point is located lower (compared to black oil) down the
slope of the two-phase envelope, hence, critical temperature is lower,
compared to the case in black oil. The lower critical temperature is
attributable to presence of lesser amount of the heavy components (C7+)
which is less than 20%. The less the percentage of the heavy components
present in a mixture, the less the contribution of those heavy components to
the overall mixture critical temperature.
 Reservoir temperature fairly (not much, as in black oil) less than the
critical temperature. Because the critical temperature is lower for volatile
oils, the reservoir temperature (indicated as the x-axis coordinate of point 1
in figure 6.3) is just fairly (not far, as in black oil) lower than the critical
temperature. Hence volatile oils are sometimes referred to as Near-Critical
Oils.
 Higher Bubble Point Pressure compared to black oils. A visual
observation of figure 6.3 would reveal that the location of the initial
temperature on the P-T diagram is just a little bit to the left of the two-phase
envelope; no more far to the left as in black oil case. Since the bubble-point
line slopes upward towards the right as you move nearer the critical point, it
would therefore be expected that an initial temperature point just a bit to the
left of the critical point will result to a higher bubble point pressure. Loosely
said: the closer you move towards the critical point, the higher you will
encounter the bubble-point line, and yes, the higher you encounter the
bubble-point line, the higher the bubble point pressure of the reservoir
fluid. Check it yourself. Nothing imposed!!!
 Liquid Quality Lines (LQL) not evenly spaced; rather, they are closely
spaced towards the bubble-point line and widely spaced towards the
dew-point line. It should interest you, Great Guys, that this feature is the
reason behind the volatility of volatile oils. You see, volatility is a measure of
how easy or how well a liquid can give off gas upon pressure reduction.
Therefore, a volatile oil is expected to give off more gas compared to a black
oil. Recall, more gas means higher GOR. How then can you justify, using the P-
T diagram, the ability of volatile oil to give off more gas? Here we go. As
highlighted above, the LQLs are closely spaced near the bubble-point line;
hence, as the pressure drops along the vertical line (line 123) in figure 6.3,
40
the fluid substance quickly moves through the closely spaced LQL so that
with just a little pressure drop, the fluid substance has moved down to a
lower LQL than would have been possible if the LQL were not closely spaced
along that path. You can visually compare figure 6.2 and 6.3 and see that to
move to the 80% LQL takes a shorter length of the vertical line in figure 6.3
(volatile oil) whereas, it takes a longer length to move to the same 80% LQL
in figure 6.2 (black oil). The implication of this is that a given pressure drop
(i.e. length of the vertical line) would land the fluid substance on a lower %
LQL for volatile oil than it will in black oils. Now that it seems you
understand that, would you then realize that a lower Liquid Quality Line in
the case of volatile oils means lower percentage of liquid phase in volatile
oils, and consequently, higher percentage of gas phase in a volatile oil than in
black oil, and ultimately (take a deep breath!), higher GOR (G for gas!!!) in
volatile oil than in black oil. Simple logical reasoning. Nothing imposed. Don’t
be shy in discussing this if you are asked to. Own the argument.

 In the Reservoir: The vertical line in figure 6.3 describes the fate of a volatile oil
depletion) and the reservoir temperature remains constant. Exactly the same
lines of argument as presented for black oils are applicable here. The only
difference is that for volatile oil, the ratio of the gas-cap volume to the oil volume
will be larger for volatile oil.
of the volatile oil fluid by the time the fluid has moved from the reservoir bottom
hole through the wellbore, the wellhead, the surface pipes into the separator
vessel. Again, the same lines of argument as presented for black oil is applicable
here. However, compared to black oil, the separator condition for volatile oil lies
on a relatively lower LQL; the implication of this is that the volatile oil would
produce more gas at the separator than the black oil would produce. Yes, this
feature also confirms the fact that volatile oil has a higher GOR. Simple
argument: the lower the separator point, the lower the percent of liquid
produced, and the higher the percent of gas produced. Higher GOR. (G for gas!)
d. Physical/field properties (indicators): A volatile oil reservoir fluid will have the
 Colour: Brown, orange or green
 API Gravity: greater than 400API
 Initial Producing GOR: Between 2000 and 3300 SCF/STB. You probably know
by now why the GOR values are higher compared to values for black oils.
41
 Formation Volume Factor, Bo: greater than 2. Attempt on your own to justify
the fact that the oil formation volume factor is greater in volatile oil than in
black oil. Hint: it has got to do with the spacing of the LQL as well as the
separator point on the P-T diagram.
6.3.3 Retrograde Gas Condensates

First, let’s start on a lighter note. See the name of this fluid type. Retro ...? Almost sounding
like some sort of ‘retrogressive guy’. ‘Retrograde’ implies some trends contrary to normal
expectation. Yeah, something ABNORMAL. So what is it in this fluid type that appeared
abnormal? Yes, that ABNORMAL thing is known as RETROGRADE CONDENSATION
(abnormal condensation, if you like). In order to fully grasp the discussion on this fluid
type, it is proper to first consider this abnormality that characterises its phase behaviour.
Here we go then.
Retrograde Condensation
As suggested above, retrograde condensation is some sort of abnormal condensation. To

understand the ‘abnormal’, it may be proper to understand the ‘normal’, first. The question
therefore is: what is condensation? i.e. normal condensation. Simply said, condensation
refers to a process of gradual change in phase of a substance from vapor phase to liquid
phase due to either isothermal compression (increase in pressure at constant temperature)
or isobaric cooling (reduction in temperature at constant pressure). Contrariwise,
vaporisation refers to a process of gradual change in phase of a substance from liquid
phase to vapor phase due to either isothermal expansion (reduction in pressure at constant
temperature) or isobaric heating (increase in temperature at constant pressure). Since the
situation in a reservoir is taken to be at constant temperature, we (you and I) shall limit
this discussion to isothermal processes. From these definitions, it is clear that condensation
should NORMALLY occur as pressure increases (compression); and conversely,
vaporisation should NORMALLY occur as pressure reduces (expansion). Recall that as a
reservoir is being depleted (due to production of fluid), then the reservoir pressure is
expected to drop; hence a vaporisation process is normally expected. Indeed, if you have
followed the discussions on black oils and volatile oils very well, you probably would have
noticed that as pressure drops, a reservoir that had initially been undersaturated (100%
liquid) eventually becomes a gas-cap reservoir (i.e. partly liquid, partly gas); this implies
that gas evolves out of liquid (vaporisation) as pressure drops. This behaviour (gas
evolving out of liquid as reservoir pressure drops) is the NORMAL expected behaviour.
However, all of that NORMAL behaviour stops with black oils and volatile oils. In its own
case, retrograde gas ‘chose’ to exhibit a rather ABNORMAL behaviour (call it
misbehaviour!!!). Retrograde gases would rather ABNORMALLY undergo (initially
though) condensation process as pressure drops. The condensation that takes place as
a result of pressure drops is known as RETROGRADE CONDENSATION. It is some
‘abnormal’ occurrence! If pressure drops, it should have NORMALLY resulted to
vaporisation, and not condensation; otherwise, if condensation is to happen, it could have
42
NORMALLY been made to happen by an increase in pressure, and not pressure drop.
However, RETROGRADE CONDENSATION runs abnormally against the normal trend in that
it occurs as a result of pressure drops.
You know, Great Guys, there is always a reason behind trends in reservoir engineering; in
fact, there are reasons even for ‘misbehaviour’. So what is the reason behind this
retrograde condensation? (which we have seen as abnormal and a misbehaviour). The
reason is presented in a section below (fate of fluid: in the reservoir). Ironically, the
‘misbehaviour’ is explained by phase behaviour.
Now that it appeared we have basic understanding of the seemingly abnormal process
known as retrograde condensation, we therefore present the regular discussion for
retrograde gases as follows:
e. Composition:
Compared to black oils and volatile oils, retrograde gases oils contain much less of
the C7+ components, and much more of the intermediate components. Actually for
retrograde gases, the C7+ component is always less than12.5 %. You should be able
to tell the implication of this composition on the size (wideness) of the two-phase
envelope for Volatile Oils. Right?
f. Features of the P-T Diagram:
Cricondentherm
Figure 6.4: P-T diagram of Retrograde Gases
43
 Narrow two-phase envelope. Because retrograde gases contain just little

proportion of heavy components, the two-phase envelope is rather narrow.
Again, recall that the more the C7+ percentage in a fluid type, the wider its
two-phase envelope on the P-T diagram; and vice-versa.
 The critical point is located lower (compared to black oils and volatile
oils) down the slope of the two-phase envelope, hence, critical
temperature is lower, compared to the case in black oils and volatile
oils. The lower critical temperature is attributable to presence of fewer
amounts of the heavy components (C7+) which is less than 12.5%. The less
the percentage of the heavy components present in a mixture, the less the
contribution of those heavy components to the overall mixture critical
temperature.
 Reservoir temperature is greater than the critical temperature but
lower than the cricondentherm. Because the critical temperature is very
low for retrograde gases, the reservoir temperature (indicated as the x-axis
coordinate of point 1 in figure 6.4) is higher than the critical temperature.
Hence this fluid type is categorized as gases; recall that if the reservoir initial
temperature Ti is greater than the critical temperature of the reservoir fluid,
Tc (i.e. Ti > Tc) then the reservoir is taken generally to be a gas reservoir.
Additionally, the reservoir temperature is lower than the cricondentherm
(see figure 6.4); this fact is what distinguishes a retrograde gas reservoir
fluid from the other gas reservoir fluid types (wet gas and dry gas) to be
discussed later.
 A dew-point system. Unlike the oil reservoirs (black oils and volatile oils),
retrograde gases do not exhibit bubble-point pressure, rather, they exhibit
dew-point pressure on their P-T diagrams. The reason for this is obvious. The
fluid is already entirely in a vapor/gas phase so that you are no longer
expecting a point at which the first bubble will appear (everything is already
‘bubble’), rather you are watching out for the time the first droplet of liquid
(dew) will appear. Right? Another way to see it is to visually inspect the P-T
diagram (figure 6.4) and observe that the vertical straight line originating at
the initial temperature (point 1) and progressing downward will intersect
the two-phase envelope somewhere on the dew-point line, hence that point
of intersection must of necessity be a dew-point pressure (not bubble-point,
friends).
 Liquid Quality Lines (LQL) not evenly spaced; rather, they are very
closely spaced towards the bubble-point line and widely spaced
towards the dew-point line.
44
g. The Fate of Fluid:

 In the Reservoir: Under this section, we shall examine the reason behind the
retrograde (abnormal) condensation, as discussed earlier. The vertical line in
figure 6.4 describes the fate of a retrograde gas in the reservoir as the pressure
of the reservoir is reducing (due to depletion) and the reservoir temperature
remains constant. Considering the initial reservoir temperature (and pressure)
as indicated by point 1 in the figure, it is clear that initially, the reservoir fluid is
entirely gaseous. As pressure drops (indicated by the downward movement of
the vertical straight line, a point (point 2 in figure 6.4) is reached when the
pressure reduction path (i.e. the vertical straight line) intersects with the two-
phase envelope. In the case of retrograde gas condensate, the pressure reduction
path intersects the two-phase envelope on the dew-point curve. The implication
of this is that if a retrograde gas undergoes pressure reduction, a point is
reached when the gas is ready to condense liquid out – that is the abnormality
there (a pressure reduction resulting ‘abnormally’ into condensation, instead of
vaporisation.) The simple reason behind the occurrence of retrograde
condensation is therefore the fact that the initial reservoir temperature is
higher than the critical temperature but lower than the cricondentherm
such that an isothermal pressure reduction path will intersect the two-
phase envelope, and that intersection point will be on the dew point curve
(not the bubble point curve as is the case with black oils and volatile oils)
causing the gas to be ready to condense liquid out upon any further
pressure drop. Think of it this way: if the reservoir initial temperature was not
higher (i.e. if it was lower) than the critical temperature, the fluid initially would
have been entirely liquid; the pressure reduction path would have intersect the
two-phase envelope on the bubble point line; and so vaporisation (which is the
normal thing expected for pressure reduction) would have happened. On the
other hand, if the reservoir initial temperature was higher than both the critical
temperature and the cricondentherm; the fluid initially would still have been gas
but the pressure reduction path would not have intersect with the two-phase
envelope at all, i.e. no condensation (neither normal nor retrograde) would have
occurred – incidentally, that is the case in wet gases and dry gases; to be
discussed later. Anyway, let’s return to retrograde gases. As the retrograde gas
reaches its dew point (point 2 in figure 6.4) it is ready to condense liquid out of
gas (i.e. it is a saturated gas). Therefore further pressure drop (i.e. further
downward movement down the vertical line) would yield a two-phase scenario
i.e. the gas would have partially change phase to liquid (condensates) so that
both gas and liquid will coexist together. More pressure drop should yield more
liquid percentage. Yes it does, but that’s just for a while; another ‘abnormality’
occurred somewhere down the line again!
45
The retrograde gas will not stop behaving ‘abnormally’. There is still another
twist to the turn of events in the phase behaviour (more of misbehaviour) of
retrograde gases. Granted that the first ‘abnormality’ that pressure drop resulted
into condensation have been explained and justified; one would have expected
that more pressure drop (down the vertical line) would yield more liquid.
However, that is not the case. The actual incidence that happened is that
somewhere along the pressure reduction path, the liquid that has been
‘abnormally’ condensed out began to be ‘normally’ re-vaporized again. It sounds
like the retrograde gas is repenting of its ‘misbehaviour’. Right? You expect the
guy to vaporize as pressure drops, but it stubbornly chose to condense instead.
You then try to accept the misbehaviour, you even try to justify it, and just then,
the guy turns round to re-vaporize again (which is the right thing it should have
done). Interestingly, as the retrograde gas is not tired of switching fate, we are
also not tired of finding reasons for its behaviour and ‘misbehaviour’. So, what
reason is attributed to the re-vaporisation? Or, how may the re-vaporization be
explained using the P-T diagram? Here we go. A visual inspection of the LQLs
(labelled in % Liquid) inside the two-phase envelope of figure 6.4 and the
pressure reduction path (vertical straight line) shows that the vertical line
intersects each LQL twice (this is the first and the only time it is happening).
Come with me as we look at the scenario together. The fluid starts from point 1
(single phase gas), reaches point 2 (saturated gas), and thereafter enters the
two-phase region. Inside the two-phase region, the fluid first intersects the LQL
labelled 5%, then it intersect the LQL 10% and thereafter LQL 15%. As pressure
drops further, the fluid then intersects the 15% LQL for the second time, and
approaches the 10% LQL again. If the vertical line should be extended beyond
point 3, it would eventually intersect LQL 10% again, and would even go ahead
to intersect the 5% LQL, and ultimately, it would reach 0% LQL which would
then mean all the condensed liquid had been re-vaporised again so that we now
have 0% liquid, and we are thus back at a single-phase gas again – we started
with a single-phase gas at point 1, you remember. If you follow this narration
well, you would realize that the fluid started by going from lower LQL (5%) to
higher LQL (15%) – this first trend signifies the retrograde condensation (it is
condensation that increases liquid percentage, LQL). And then the twist occurs
somewhere as the fluid then move from the high LQL (15%) to the lower LQL
(5%) - this second trend signifies the re-vaporisation of the previously
condensed liquid (it is vaporisation that reduces liquid percentage, LQL). In
summary therefore, the re-vaporisation is attributable to the fact that the
LQL lines inside the two-phase envelope of retrograde gas are skewed
(curved) in such a way that the pressure reduction path crosses each LQL
twice – firstly in an increasing order (causing retrograde condensation
46
process), and secondly in a decreasing order (causing re-vaporisation

process). Before we leave this matter finally, there is need to consider
something of significant practical implications; this is presented below
Practical Field Development Strategy for a Retrograde-Gas Condensate

Reservoir
Recall that a retrograde gas reservoir would start off as a single-phase gas
reservoir; however as the reservoir pressure drops due to production, the
fluid reaches its due point and then condenses liquid out to become a two-
phase system. Unfortunately, the liquid condensed out is of rather low
saturations (percentage) that it cannot flow into the wellbore, to be produced
at the surface. Rather, the condensed liquid remains ‘lost’ in the reservoir as
it cannot be produced. More unfortunately, not only that the liquid is not
been produced, but the presence of the liquid in the pore spaces of the
reservoir rock is hindering the flow of gas as the liquid reduces the relative
permeability of gas. Hence it is a case of ‘would not go, and would not let
others go’. Thank God, retrograde gas cannot be smarter/wiser than
reservoir engineers (are you one of us?). Reservoir engineers have therefore
learnt to implement a special field development strategy aimed at preventing
the retrograde condensation. Practically, the strategy is to initiate a pressure
maintenance project (water- or gas-injection) early in the producing life of
the reservoir, before the pressure drops to the dew point at all. With the
pressure maintenance project in place, the reservoir pressure is maintained
above the dew point for a long time so that a significant amount of the
reservoir fluid could be produced without liquid being condensed out in the
reservoir. Eventually the reservoir pressure would still drop below the dew
point, but we would have ‘robbed’ the reservoir of its ‘juice’ before that
happened. If the pressure maintenance project is not implemented early,
pressure will drop below dew point; liquid will condensed out and will be
lost in the reservoir. Well, you may want to argue that the liquid will still be
re-vaporised back to gas if pressure is allowed to drop much further. Yes,
that is possible theoretically, but in practice, the reservoir pressure is not
likely to drop so low as to warrant the full re-vaporisation of all the
condensed liquid, so you still loose some liquids eventually. So the way to
tackle the menace is to prevent pressure from dropping below the dew point.
Ha! Enough said.
of the retrograde gas reservoir fluid type by the time the fluid has moved from
the reservoir bottom hole through the wellbore, the wellhead, the surface pipes
into the separator vessel. As the fluid withdrawn from the reservoir moves to the
47
surface, both pressure and temperature drops, hence liquid condenses out of gas
Even, if it had been ensured that the withdrawn fluid is gas- i.e. we had by reason
of pressure maintenance ensured the reservoir pressure did not drop below due
point so as to prevent liquid condensation. The pressure maintenance idea
discussed above is only to prevent condensation at reservoir; it will not prevent
condensation along/inside the wellbore, so liquids will still get to be produced at
the surface alongside gas – a two-phase production. This fact that the surface
production of a retrograde gas reservoir will still be two-phase (oil and gas) is
depicted by the fact that the point labelled ‘separator’ lies inside the two-phase
envelope. However, compared to black oils and volatile oils, the separator
condition for retrograde gas fluid type lies on a much lower LQL; the implication
of this is that the retrograde gas would produce more gas at the separator than
the black oils and volatile oils would produce. Yes, this feature also confirms the
fact that retrograde gas reservoirs have a higher GOR. Simple argument: the
lower the separator point, the lower the percent of liquid produced, and the
higher the percent of gas produced. Higher GOR. (G for gas!). In fact, the
retrograde gas condensate reservoir is essentially a gas reservoir, only that it
produces some condensed liquid alongside the gas.
h. Physical/field properties (indicators): A retrograde gas reservoir fluid will have
the following physical/field properties that may serve as indicators of its fluid type.
 Colour of the condensate: light coloured, brown, orange, green or water-
white.
 API Gravity: between 400 and 600 API
 Initial Producing GOR: Greater than 3300 SCF/STB.
6.3.4 Wet Gases

Having come this far with the first three of the five fluid types, it becomes easy to discuss
the fourth fluid type. You perhaps have been convinced by now that the location of the
initial reservoir temperature and pressure (points 1 in those figures, from which the
pressure reduction path (vertical line) takes its origin) as well as the location of the
‘separator’ point on the same figure are the main features with which a fluid is classified
as any of the five fluid types. In order to put the whole picture into perspective let’s do a
fast review of the five fluid types. Understand this review, and you will be home and dry!
For black oil, the initial point (point 1 in figure 6.2) is located to the far left of the
critical point, and so the pressure reduction path intersect the bubble point line
somewhere down the slope (low bubble point, low shrinkage), and of course the
separator condition lies inside the two-phase envelope on a relatively high LQL (low
GOR).
48
For volatile oil, the initial point (point 1 in figure 6.3) is located still to the left of the
critical point, but nearer (near-critical) than the case in black oil, and so the pressure
reduction path intersect the bubble point line somewhere up the slope (high bubble
point), and of course, the separator condition lies inside the two-phase envelope on a
relatively lower LQL (higher GOR) than the case in black oils.
For retrograde gas condensates, the initial point (point 1 in figure 6.4) is located now
to the right of the critical point but still to the left of the cricondentherm, and so the
pressure reduction path intersect the dew point line (no more bubble point line),
and of course, the separator condition lies inside the two-phase envelope on a much
lower LQL (much higher GOR) than the case in black oils and volatile oils. With the
trends noticed in the three fluids already reviewed, let us now see the trends in the
other two, in order to have a complete view of the five fluid types.
For wet gases, (as you will see in figure 6.5 below), the initial point (point 1 in figure
6.5) is located now to the far right of the critical point and also to the right of the
cricondentherm, and so the pressure reduction path have no chance at all to
intersect the two-phase envelope (since the origin of the path is already beyond the
cricondentherm – the cricondentherm is the right boundary of the two-phase
envelope). However, due to the temperature reduction as the fluid travels up the
wellbore to the surface, the separator condition still ‘manage’ to lie inside the two-
phase envelope but of course, it lies on a very low LQL (very high GOR).
Finally, there comes the last fluid type: dry gases. You can imagine what the trend is
here. For dry gases, (as you will see in figure 6.6 below), the initial point (point 1 in
figure 6.6) is located now to the very far right of the critical point and of course to the
right of the cricondentherm, and so the pressure reduction path (vertical line) have
no chance at all to intersect the two-phase envelope (since the origin of the path is
already beyond the cricondentherm. Further still, for dry gases, things happened so
far to the right that even the separator condition have no chance to enter the two
phase envelope!!! The implication of this would be discussed under the dry gases
section.
With this one-stop review in mind, we now return to the Wet Gases Fluid Types. Here we
go, Great Guys.
a. Composition:
Wet gases essentially contain the lighter hydrocarbon molecules. This simply
implies that there is only a small variety of heavy hydrocarbon components present
in wet gases. You should know the implication of this on the two-phase envelope of
wet gases. Do you?
49
Figure 6.5: P-T diagram of Wet Gases
 Narrow two-phase envelope. Because wet gases contains essentially lighter

hydrocarbons, and contains no C7+ component, it is expected that there will
be only a small variety of components (maximum of 6); hence, the two-phase
envelope is rather narrow. Again, recall that the two-phase envelope
becomes narrower as the number of components present in the mixture
decreases.
 The critical point is located lower (compared to all previously discussed
fluid types) down the slope of the two-phase envelope, hence, critical
temperature is also lower. The lower critical temperature is attributable to
absence of the heavy components (C7+). The presence of heavy components
in a mixture tends to increase the overall mixture critical temperature
because the heavy components possess high critical temperatures.
 Reservoir temperature is greater than both the critical temperature
and the cricondentherm. Because the critical temperature is very low for
wet gases; and because the two-phase envelope is narrow (i.e. it features
only within a narrow range of temperatures) so that the maximum
50
temperature of the envelope (the cricondentherm) is also low, then the

reservoir temperature (indicated as the x-axis coordinate of point 1 in figure
6.5) is higher than both the critical temperature and the cricondentherm.
Kindly notice the difference between the locations of the reservoir
temperatures for retrograde gases and for wet gases. For retrograde gas the
reservoir temperature comes in between the critical temperature and the
cricondentherm; whereas, for wet gases, the reservoir temperature comes in
beyond (greater than) both the critical temperature and the cricondentherm.
 A dew-point system. Expectedly, wet gases (being a sort of gas reservoirs)
do not exhibit bubble-point pressure; rather, they exhibit dew-point pressure
on their P-T diagrams. However, you (yes, you in particular) should take
note that wet gases do not experience the dew point pressure at reservoir
(that is why the vertical line never intersect the two-phase envelope); rather
they experience the dew-point pressure somewhere along their ‘journey’ in
the wellbore to the surface (that is why the separator condition lies in the
two-phase envelope implying that liquid has been condensed out (only
happens if dew point has been experienced), and coexisting with gas.
 Liquid Quality Lines (LQL) not evenly spaced; rather, they are very
closely spaced towards the bubble-point line and widely spaced
towards the dew-point line.

 In the Reservoir: The vertical line in figure 6.5 describes the fate of a wet gas
depletion) and the reservoir temperature remains constant. Because the
reservoir temperature is so high, the isothermal pressure reduction path
described by the straight line never intersect the two-phase envelope; the
implication of this is that the reservoir fluid remains a single-phase gas all
through the reservoir’s production life.
d. In the Separator: The point labelled ‘Separator’ in figure 6.5 describes the fate of
the wet gas reservoir fluid by the time the fluid has moved from the reservoir
bottom hole through the wellbore, the wellhead, the surface pipes into the separator
vessel. Although the fluid always exist as gas at reservoir, due to the temperature
reduction as the fluid travels up the wellbore to the surface, the separator
condition still ‘manage’ to lie inside the two-phase envelope but of course, it
lies on a very low LQL (very high GOR). The implication is that the fluid is
produced at the surface as liquid and gas streams. Also, compared to the three
previously discussed fluid types, the separator condition for wet gases lies on a very
low LQL; the implication of this is that wet gases would produce more gas at the
51
separator than the other three previously discussed fluid types; implying that wet
gas reservoirs oil has a higher GOR.
e. Physical/field properties (indicators): A wet gas reservoir fluid will have the
 Colour: Water-white (i.e. the colour of the condensed liquid)
 API Gravity: could be as high as 70 API0
 Initial Producing GOR: Greater than 50,000.
6.3.5 Dry Gases

What shall I say more! The discussion for dry gas is actually ‘dry’. Largely, all the trends
highlighted for wet gases are applicable to dry gases; only that dry gases exhibit some of
those trends to a larger extent. Hence, we shall not repeat the discussion here; we shall
simply highlight the differences with a view to pointing out the distinctiveness of dry gases.
The red-coloured texts below highlight such distinctiveness.
Dry gas is essentially composed of methane. For dry gases, (see figure 6.6 below), the
initial point (point 1 in figure 6.6) is located now to the very far right of the critical point
and of course to the right of the cricondentherm, and so the pressure reduction path
(vertical line) have no chance at all to intersect the two-phase envelope (since the origin of
the path is already beyond the cricondentherm. Further still, for dry gases, things
happened so far to the right that even the separator condition have no chance to
enter the two phase envelope!!! The implication of these is that dry gas reservoir fluid
exists as a single-phase gas all through the reservoir’s production life; and also the fluid
remains as gas even at separator condition, i.e. only gas is produced. The fluid
unrepentantly remains as gas!!! If only gas is produced, we might as well not bother to ask
what the GOR value will be.
However, a common misconception must be cleared here. The term dry gas only refers to
the fact that the gas does not contain any hydrocarbon components that might condense
out even at separator conditions; however, the gas may contain water vapor (not
hydrocarbons) that may be separated or condensed at surface. Headline News -
REVEALED: DRY GAS IS NOT DRY AFTERALL!!!
52
Figure 6.6: P-T diagram of Dry Gases
6.4 ESSENCE OF CLASSIFICATION BASED ON PHASE BEHAVIOUR

Why do we worry about the five fluid types? Should we not be contented with the broad
classifications as oil reservoirs or gas reservoirs? Why do we need to know that an oil
reservoir contain volatile oil and not black oil? Now the answer to the question is thus:
It is very important to so classify reservoirs as one of these five specific fluid types because
the knowledge of the type of fluid in a reservoir is required in the performance of many of
the responsibilities of the reservoir engineering team. Some of such responsibilities are
here highlighted.
 Prediction of hydrocarbon reserves:

 Decision on production strategies to be adopted
 Sampling of reservoir fluids
 Design of surface facilities
 Timing of pressure maintenance project or EOR projects.
53
PART 6
RESERVOIR FLUID SAMPLING METHODS
Outline:
 Introduction.
 The ‘Representative’ Sample
 Timing of Sampling
 Well Conditioning before Sampling
 Sampling Methods
 Sub-surface (bottom-hole) Sampling
 Wellhead Sampling
 Surface (separator) Sampling
 Assessing Samples for ‘Representativity’
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The immediate previous chapter focuses on the classification of reservoir hydrocarbon
fluids into five fluid types. The classification was essentially based on the P-T diagram
(phase behaviour) of reservoir fluids. It was mentioned that every reservoir fluid possesses
a unique P-T diagram with which it can then be classified into any of those five fluid types;
and that the P-T diagram of a reservoir fluid can be taken to mean the fingerprint of the
reservoir fluid. Now the question arises: how is the P-T diagram for a reservoir generated?
The P-T diagram (phase diagrams in general) is generated through laboratory analyses
(PVT analyses) that are performed on samples of fluids taken from the reservoir for which
the P-T diagram is to be generated. In addition to generating the phase diagrams, the
same laboratory analyses are employed in determining values of basic PVT fluid
properties (Bo, Bg and Rs) as well as determining the compositions of the reservoir fluid.
Detailed discussions on the laboratory tests and analyses are presented in the next chapter.
54
This chapter focuses on the methods, procedures, equipments and practical considerations
involved in collecting reservoir fluid samples upon which the laboratory analyses may then
be performed. It becomes necessary to consider these because the accuracy and usability of
the results of laboratory analysis depends largely on the collection of representative
samples of reservoir fluids. Excuse me, sir, what do you mean by representative samples?
7.2 THE REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE

A representative sample is that small quantity of reservoir fluid that represents the
entire vast quantity of the fluid in the reservoir. You think of it this way. Not every
person residing in a province can go to the legislative chamber to express his/her need.
Therefore, a Senator is elected to represent the entire vast population of persons living in
the province. In the same vein, not every litre of fluid present in a reservoir can go to the
laboratory to have its properties/behaviour measured; therefore a sample quantity is
collected to represent the entire vast volume (millions of barrels) of the fluid, in the
laboratory. A good senator is that whose ideologies and leanings as expressed in the
legislative chamber always align with the needs and yearnings of persons in his
constituency – you say he represents his people well. A good sample therefore is that fluid
quantity ‘whose’ properties and phase behaviour (misbehaviour, if retrograde gas) align
well with the properties and behaviour of the vast volume of fluid in the reservoir – you say
it represents the reservoir fluid very well – hence it is a representative sample.
Now, think of a senator representing a constituency made up of various ethnic groups. He

sure will have tough time representing them well; for each ethnic group may accuse him of
being biased against the group. However, you can imagine the ease with which another
senator representing a constituency made up of a single-ethnic group will do his job; for
he will have no dissenting voice in that single ethnic group. In the same vein, if the entire
reservoir fluid exists in single-phase as at the time the sample is taken, then it would
just be alright to consider the sample as a good representative of the entire quantity
of fluid in the reservoir. On the other hand, if the reservoir fluid already exists in
two-phase (oil, gas) before the sample is taken, then the oil ‘ethnic group’ may accuse
the sample of being biased against oil and in favour of gas; and vice-versa. On a more
serious note, the ‘bias’ in favour of gas would happen because gas is known to be more
mobile than oil, therefore the ratio of gas to liquid flow into the sample bottle will be
in favour of gas and will not be representative of the ratio of gas to liquid in the
reservoir. However, this does not mean that samples cannot be taken from reservoir
existing as two-phase; it only mean that samples are better taken when the reservoir
fluid still exist as a single-phase fluid.
55
7.3 TIMING OF SAMPLING (with ‘representativity’ in mind)

Knowing that the best sample is taken when the reservoir fluid is still in its single-phase
existence; what will be your suggestion as to the time the sample should be taken. I am sure
that you will be smart enough to suggest that samples should be taken as early in the
life of the reservoir as possible. If you are challenged or opposed on the need to take
samples early, I think you will be confident enough to justify the need for early sampling
thus:
If a reservoir containing single-phase liquid is being produced, the reservoir

pressure will be dropping and will eventually drop to reach the bubble point
after which the reservoir fluid would then exist as two-phase (oil and gas). If
samples are not taken early then, we might lose the single-phase existence
and enter into two-phase which is not so desirable. Something like – a stitch in
time saves nine.
I think with those six lines of yours, you would have convinced (and not confused)
everyone on the need to take the sample NOW. Every opposition must bow!!!
7.4 WELL CONDITIONING BEFORE SAMPLING (with ‘representativity’ in

mind)
Still in a bid to ensure that representative samples are collected, some practical measures
are observed before sampling is done; these measures are collectively known as ‘Well
Conditioning’. The well may be conditioned using different ways depending on the
sampling methods. However, the most common well conditioning measure involves
flowing the well at a reduced rate. Again, the need to flow the well at a reduced rate is
informed by the desire to obtain a single-phase regime sample in order ensure the sample
is representative. How then does the reduced rate help in ensuring the reservoir fluid exist
as single-phase? Simple. Follow this analysis to answer this question with nothing imposed
on you.
Withdrawal of fluid out of the reservoir into the wellbore is only made possible due
to the difference in pressure that existed between the bulk reservoir and the
wellbore bottomhole. The pressure in the bulk reservoir is typically taken to be the
average reservoir pressure, Pr, while the pressure at the wellbore bottomhole is
known as Pwf. The difference in pressure (Pr – Pwf) is referred to as Pressure
Drawdown. Expectedly, the greater the value of this Pressure Drawdown, the
56
greater the rate of fluid withdrawal Q; and vice-versa. Therefore, reducing the
flowrate would result to reduction in the pressure drawdown. Mathematics
sense would tell you that reducing the pressure drawdown (Pr – Pwf) would in
turn result to increase in the wellbore bottomhole pressure Pwf. Recall that if
Pwf is so low, then gas may likely evolve out of oil (i.e. two-phase is likely to
happen) around the wellbore through which sample will be taken. Hence, to
increase Pwf is to prevent two-phase scenario around the wellbore, during
sampling. Therefore, we seek to increase Pwf in order to prevent the liberation of
gas out of oil around the wellbore. It is therefore the need to increase Pwf that led to
the decision to reduced flowrate before sample is taken. Common Sense?
Mathematically, this discussion is presented below:
𝑄 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 (𝑃𝑟 − 𝑃𝑤𝑓 )
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑒, 𝑃𝑤𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 (𝑃𝑟 − 𝑃𝑤𝑓 )
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑃𝑤𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑄
𝑇𝑜 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑤𝑜 − 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑜, 𝑃𝑤𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑑,
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑃𝑤𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑄, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑄 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
Take note however that for a saturated reservoir, the idea of flowing at reduced rate would
not be able to prevent two-phase scenario since the average reservoir pressure is already
at bubble point, and Pwf must necessarily be lower for flow into the wellbore to occur at
all; i.e. even the smallest pressure drawdown will still force Pwf to go below bubble point
leading to two-phase scenario. And yet, zero drawdown means zero flowrate implying no
sample collected ... ha ha ha!!!
57
7.5 SAMPLING METHODS
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PART 7
PVT LABORATORY PROCEDURES AND ANALYSIS
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PET 326: RESERVOIR PHASE BEHAVIOUR

• Introduction: The Concept and Significance of Phase Behaviour Study in Petroleum

• The Properties of Petroleum Fluids, William. D. McCain, Jr.

• Petroleum Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties, Abhijit Y. Dandekar.

• Hydrocarbon Phase Behaviour, Tarek Ahmed

• Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics, Smith, Van Ness and Abbott.

• The Holy Bible.

THE CONCEPTS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF PHASE

– The Concept of Phase Behaviour

1.1 THE CONCEPT OF PHASE BEHAVIOUR

1.1.1 The Complexity of Reservoir Fluids

1.2 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE KNOWLEDGE OF PHASE BEHAVIOUR

 The knowledge is also required in the design of surface processing facilities

1.3 THE SYSTEMATIC APPROACH TO STUDYING PHASE BEHAVIOUR

Figure 1.1: Systematic approach to understanding phase behaviour.

A REVIEW OF THERMODYNAMIC CONCEPTS

1.2 PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM

composition, e.t.c.; whereas, extensive properties depend on the quantity of matter

1.3 STATE OF A SYSTEM

1.4 STATE FUNCTION/STATE VARIABLES

DESCRIBING THE STATE OF A SYSTEM: THE

F = the degree of freedom; C = Number of components present, and P = number of phases in

Single Component Systems

Solution: Using the phase rule (equation 4.1); F=C–P+2

Here C = 1 (one component, P = 1 (one phase). Hence F = 1 – 1 + 2 = 2

Solution: Using the phase rule (equation 4.1); F=C–P+2

Here C = 1 (one component, P = 2 (two phase). Hence F = 1 – 2 + 2 = 1

Solution: Using the phase rule (equation 4.1); F=C–P+2

Here C = 1 (one component, P = 3 (three phases). Hence F = 1 – 3 + 2 = 0

Solution: Using the phase rule (equation 4.1); F=C–P+2

Here C = 2 (two component, P = 1 (one phase). Hence F = 2 – 1 + 2 = 3

Solution: Using the phase rule (equation 4.1); F=C–P+2

Here C = 2 (two component, P = 2 (two phase). Hence F = 2 – 2 + 2 = 2

OBEY THE PHASE RULE ALWAYS!!!

PHASE BEHAVIOUR OF VARIOUS SYSTEMS

 Phase Behaviour of Pure Substances (one-component systems)

Again, it is important to highlight the relevance of phase behaviour in petroleum

 Calculating Fluid-in-Place: Since the P, T condition at surface differs from the P, T

 Designing Surface Facilities: The knowledge is also required in the design of

5.1 PHASE BEHAVIOUR OF PURE SUBSTANCES (SINGLE-COMPONENT)

5.1.1 Pressure-Volume Diagram for a Single-Component System.

The narration that follows refers to figure 5.1 below

1. The pressure is increased by compression; as expected, the volume reduces; hence

The experiment described above, and performed at a fixed temperature T1 generated

Figure 5.1: PV Diagram for Pure Substances.

The following features of the PV diagram are here highlighted:

1. The isotherm corresponding to the higher temperature lies at a higher pressure

THE CRITICAL POINT

5.1.1 Pressure-Temperature Diagram for a Single-Component System.

Figure 5.2: PT Diagram for Pure Substances.

THE CRITICAL POINT (AGAIN?)

5.2 PHASE BEHAVIOUR OF TWO-COMPONENTS (BINARY) MIXTURES

5.2.1 Pressure-Volume Diagram for a Binary Mixture

Figure 5.3: PV Diagram for a Binary Mixture (one Isotherm).

process (that resulted into the two-phase situation) is accompanied by an increase in

binary (or multi-component) systems, the compositions of the phases will be

Figure 5.4: P-V Diagram for a Binary Mixture.

5.2.2 Pressure-Temperature Diagram for a Binary Mixture

Figure 5.5: P-T Diagram for a Binary Mixture.

Now let’s examine some pertinent features of the diagram.

1. Bubble Point Curve and Dew Point Curve:

2. Liquid Quality Lines

3. The Critical Point (Again, and Again)