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◊ 4.1 Introduction
◊ 4.2 Basic Definitions
◊ 4 3 Frequency
4.3 F M
Modulation
d l i
◊ 4.4 Phase-locked Loopp
2
Chapter 4.1
Introduction
4
4.1 Introduction
◊ However, this improvement in performance is achieved at the
expense of increased transmission bandwidth
bandwidth.
5
Chapter 4.2
Basic Definitions
⎡θi ( t + Δt ) − θi ( t ) ⎤ 1 dθi ( t )
fi ( t ) = lim f Δt ( t ) = lim ⎢ ⎥ =
Δt →0 Δt → 0
⎣ 2πΔt ⎦ 2π dt
7
4.2 Basic Definitions
◊ For an unmodulated carrier, the angle θi(t) is given by
θi ( t ) = 2π f c t + φc
◊ There are an infinite number of ways in which the angle θi(t) may
be varied in some manner with the message (baseband) signal.
signal
◊ We shall
W h ll consider
id onlyl two
t commonly l usedd methods,
th d phase
h
modulation and frequency modulation.
8
4.2 Basic Definitions
◊ Phase modulation (PM) is that form of angle modulation in which
the instantaneous angle θi(t) is varied linearly with the message
signal as shown by
θi ( t ) = 2π f ct + k p m ( t ) ((4.4))
The term 2πfct represents the angle of the unmodulated carrier; kp
represents
p the pphase sensitivityy of the modulator, expressed
p in
radians per volt on the assumption that m(t) is a voltage waveform.
For convenience, we have assumed in Eq. (4.4) that the angle of the
unmodulated carrier is zero at t=0. The phase-modulated signal s(t)
i thus
is h described
d ib d in
i the h time
i domain
d i by b
(4.5)
s ( t ) = Ac cos ⎡⎣ 2π f c t + k p m ( t ) ⎤⎦
9
4.2 Basic Definitions
◊ Frequency modulation (FM) is that form of angle modulation in
which the instantaneous frequency fi(t) is varied linearly with the
message signal m(t), as shown by
fi ( t ) = f c + k f m ( t ) (4.6)
fc : The frequency of the unmodulated carrier
kf : The frequency sensitivity of the modulator (Hertz per volt)
Integrating Eq. (4.6) with respect to time and multiplying the result
by 2π, we get t
θi ( t ) = 2π f ct + 2π k f ∫ m (τ )dτ
0 (4.7)
where, for convenience, we have assumed that the angle of the
unmodulated carrier wave is zero at t=0. The frequency-modulated
signal is therefore described in the time domain by
s ( t ) = Ac cos 2π f c t + 2π k f ∫ m (τ ) dτ ⎤
⎡ (4 8)
(4.8)
t
⎢⎣ 0 ⎥⎦
10
4.2 Basic Definitions
a) Carrier wave
c) Amplitude-modulated signal
d) Phase-modulated signal
e)) Frequency-modulated
F d l t d signal
i l
11
Properties of Angle-
Angle-Modulated Waves
12
Properties of Angle-
Angle-Modulated Waves
s ( t ) = Ac cos ⎡⎣ 2π f c t + k p ( m1 ( t ) + m2 ( t ) ) ⎦⎤
m ( t ) = m1 ( t ) + m2 ( t )
s1 ( t ) = Ac cos ⎡⎣ 2π f c t + k p m1 ( t ) ⎤⎦
s ( t ) ≠ s1 ( t ) + s2 ( t )
s2 ( t ) = Ac cos ⎡⎣ 2π f c t + k p m2 ( t ) ⎤⎦
◊ Frequency modulation
d l i offers
ff superiori noise
i performance
f
compare to amplitude modulation,
13
Properties of Angle-
Angle-Modulated Waves
◊ Property 3: Irregularity of Zero-Crossings
◊ Zero-crossingg are defined as the instants of time at which a
waveform changes its amplitude from positive to negative
value or the other way around.
◊ The zero-crossings of a PM or FM wave no longer have a
perfect regularity in their spacing across the time-scale.
◊ The irregularity of zero-crossings in angle-modulated waves is
attributed to the nonlinear character of the modulation process.
14
Properties of Angle-
Angle-Modulated Waves
15
Properties of Angle-
Angle-Modulated Waves
◊ The improvement
Th i t in
i noise
i performance
f is
i achieved
hi d att the
th
expense of a corresponding increase in the transmission
bandwidth requirement of angle modulation.
modulation
16
Properties of Angle-
Angle-Modulated Waves
17
Example 4.1 Zero-
Zero-Crossings
◊ Consider a modulating wave m(t) that increases linearly with time t,
starting at tt=00, as shown by
⎧at , t≥0
m (t ) = ⎨
⎩ 0, t<0
1
fc = Hz
4
a = 1 volt/s
18
Example 4.1 Zero-
Zero-Crossings
Fig 44.2
Fig. 2 Starting at time t = 0,
0 the figure displays (a) linearly increasing message signal m(t),
m(t)
(b)phase-modulated wave, and (c) frequency-modulated wave.
19
Example 4.1 Zero-
Zero-Crossings
◊ Phase Modulation:
◊ Phase sensitivity factor kp=π/2
Phase-sensitivity π/2 radians/volt.
radians/volt Applying Eq Eq. (4(4.5) 5)
to the given m(t) yields the PM wave s ( t ) = A cos ⎡⎣ 2π f t + k m ( t ) ⎦⎤ ( 4.5 )
c c p
⎧⎪ Ac cos ( 2π f c t + k p at ) , t≥0
s (t ) = ⎨
⎪⎩ Ac cos ( 2π f c t ) , t<0
which is plotted in Figure 4.2b for Ac=11 volt.
◊ Let tn denote the instant of time at which the PM wave
experiences
p a zero crossing;
g; this occurs whenever the angle
g of
the PM wave is an odd multiple of π/2:
⎛ k pa ⎞ π
2π f c tn + k p atn = π ⎜ 2 f c + ⎟nt = + nπ , n = 00,1,
1 22,…
⎝ π ⎠ 2
1
+n 1
tn = 2 tn = + n, n = 0,1,
0 1 22,…
kp 2
2 fc + a
π
20
Example 4.1 Zero-
Zero-Crossings
◊ Frequency Modulation:
◊ Frequency sensitivity factor,
Frequency-sensitivity factor kf =11 Hz/volt.
Hz/volt Applying Eq Eq. (4.8)
(4 8)
yields the FM wave s ( t ) = A cos ⎡ 2π f t + 2π k ∫ m (τ ) dτ ⎤ ( 4.8 )
t
c ⎢⎣ c f 0 ⎦⎥
⎧⎪ Ac cos ( 2π f c t + π k f at 2 ) , t≥0
s (t ) = ⎨
⎪⎩ Ac cos ( 2π f c t ) , t<0
tn =
1
4
( )
−1 + 9 + 16n , n = 0,1, 2,…
21
Example 4.1 Zero-
Zero-Crossings
◊ Comparing the zero-crossing results derived for PM and FM waves,
we may make the following observations once the linear modulating
wave begins to act on the sinusoidal carrier wave:
1. For PM,, regularity
g y of the zero-crossings
g is maintained;; the
instantaneous frequency changes from the unmodulated value of
fc=1/4 Hz to the new constant value of f c + k p ( a / 2π ) = 0.5Hz
22
4.2 Basic Definitions
◊ Comparing Eq. (4.5 ) with (4.8) reveals that an FM signal may be
t
regarded
g as a PM signal
g in which the modulating g wave is ∫0 m (τ ) dτ
in place of m(t).
s ( t ) = Ac cos ⎡⎣ 2π f c t + k p m ( t ) ⎦⎤ (4.5)
s ( t ) = Ac cos 2π f c t + 2π k f ∫ m (τ ) dτ ⎤ (4.8)
⎡ t
⎢⎣ 0 ⎦⎥
◊ The FM signal can be generated by first integrating m(t) and then
using the result as the input to a phase modulator, as in Figure 4.3a.
◊ Conversely, a PM signal can be generated by first differentiating
m(t) and then using the result as the input to a frequency modulator,
as in Figure 4.3b.
4 3b
◊ We may thus deduce all the properties of PM signals from those of
FM signals and vice versa
versa. Henceforth
Henceforth, we concentrate our
attention on FM signals.
23
4.2 Basic Definitions
Figure 4.3 Illustrating the relationship between frequency modulation and phase modulation.
(a) Scheme for generating an FM wave by using a phase modulator, (b) scheme for
generating a PM wave by using a frequency modulator
modulator.
θi ( t ) fi ( t )
Unmodulated 2π f c t fc
signal
2π f c t + k p m ( t ) k p dm ( t )
PM signal fc +
2π dt
t
FM signal 2π f c t + 2π k f ∫ m (τ )dτ fc + k f m ( t )
0
24
Chapter 4.3
Frequency Modulation
m ( t ) = Am cos ( 2π f m t ) (4 10)
(4.10)
26
4.3 Frequency Modulation
◊ The instantaneous frequency of the resulting FM signal is
f i ( t ) = f c + k f Am cos ( 2π f mt ) = f c + Δf cos ( 2π f m t ) (4.11)
Δf = k f Am (4.12)
◊ The quantity Δf is called the frequency deviation, representing the
maximum departure of the instantaneous frequency of the FM signal form
the carrier frequency
q y fc.
◊ A fundamental characteristic of an FM signal is that the frequency
deviation Δf is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal and is
independent of the modulating frequency.
frequency
◊ Using Eq. (4.11), the angle θi(t) of the FM signal is obtained as
t Δf
θi ( t ) = 2π ∫ fi ( t ) dt
d = 2π f c t + i ( 2π f mt )
sin
0 fm
◊ The ratio of the frequency deviation Δf to the modulation
frequency fm is commonly called the modulation index of the FM
signal.
27
4.3 Frequency Modulation
Δf
◊ The modulation index is denoted by β: β=
fm
θi ( t ) = 2π f c t + β sin ( 2π f mt )
◊ The parameter β represents the phase deviation of the FM signal, i.e.
the maximum departure of the angle θi(t) from the angle 2πfct of the
unmodulated carrier. β is measured in radians.
◊ The FM signal itself is given by
s ( t ) = Ac cos ⎡⎣ 2π f c t + β sin ( 2π f mt ) ⎤⎦
(4.16)
Depending on the value of the modulation index β, we may
distinguish two cases of frequency modulation:
◊ Narrow-band
N b d FM
FM, for
f which
hi h β is
i small
ll comparedd to one radian.
di
◊ Wide-band FM, for which β is large compared to one radian.
28
4.3 Frequency Modulation
◊ Narrow-band frequency modulation
◊ Consider EqEq. (4.16),
(4 16) which defines an FM signals resulting
form the use of sinusoidal modulating signal. Expanding this
relation,, we get
g
s ( t ) = Ac cos ( 2π f c t ) cos ⎡⎣ β sin ( 2π f mt ) ⎦⎤ − Ac sin ( 2π f c t ) sin ⎣⎡ β sin ( 2π f m t ) ⎦⎤ ( 4.17 )
◊ Assuming
A i that
th t the
th modulation
d l ti index
i d β isi small
ll comparedd to
t
one radian, we may use the following two approximations:
s (t )
1
{
Ac cos ( 2π f c t ) + β Ac cos ⎡⎣ 2π ( f c + f m ) t ⎤⎦ − cos ⎡⎣ 2π ( f c − f m ) t ⎤⎦
2
} ( 4.19 )
1
sin α sin β = ⎡cos (α − β ) − cos (α + β ) ⎤⎦
29 2⎣
4.3 Frequency Modulation
30
4.3 Frequency Modulation
cn = Ac J n ( β ) ∵ J n( )
β =
1 π
∫−π exp ⎡⎣ j ( β sin
i x − nx ) ⎦⎤ dx
d (4 28)
(4.28)
2π
nth order Bessel function of the first kind.
⎡ ∞ ⎤
s ( t ) = Ac ⋅ Re ⎢ ∑ J n ( β ) exp ⎣⎡ j 2π ( f c + nf m ) t ⎦⎤ ⎥ (4 31)
(4.31)
⎣ n=−∞ ⎦
34
4.3 Frequency Modulation
◊ Taking the Fourier transforms of both sides of Eq. (4.31)
Ac ∞
S( f )= ∑
2 n=−∞
J n ( β ) ⎡⎣δ ( f − f c − nf m ) + δ ( f + f c + nf m ) ⎤⎦ ((4.32))
◊ In Figure 4.6 we have plotted the Bessel function Jn(β) versus the
modulation
d l ti index
i d β for f different
diff t positive
iti integer
i t values
l off n.
∑
n =−∞
J n2 ( β ) = 1 (4.35)
36
4.3 Frequency Modulation
◊ Thus, using Eqs. (4.32) through (4.35) and the curves of Figure 4.6,
we may make the following observations:
1. The spectrum of an FM signal contains a carrier component (n=0)
and an infinite set of side frequencies
q located symmetrically
y y on
either side of the carrier at frequency separations of fm, 2fm, 3fm, ….
((An AM system
y gives
g rise to onlyy one pair
p of side frequencies.)
q )
2. For the special case of β small compared with unity, only the Bessel
coefficients J0(β) and J1(β) have significant values (see 4.34),
4 34) so that
the FM signal is effectively composed of a carrier and a single pair
of side frequencies at fc ± fm.
(This situation corresponds to the special case of narrowband FM
that was considered previously)
37
4.3 Frequency Modulation
3. The amplitude of the carrier component of an FM signal is dependent
on the modulation index β.β The physical explanation for this
property is that the envelope of an FM signal is constant, so that the
average power of such a signal developed across a 1–ohm resistor is
also constant, as shown by
(4.36)
1
P = Ac2 (Using (4.31) and (4.35))
2
38
EXAMPLE 4.3 Spectra of FM Signals
◊ Consider first the case when the frequency of the modulating signal
is fixed, but its amplitude
p is varied, p
producingg a corresponding
p g
variation in the frequency deviation Δf.
◊ Consider next the case when the amplitude of the modulating signal
is fixed; that is, the frequency deviation Δf is maintained constant,
andd the
h modulation
d l i frequency
f fm is
i varied.
i d
39
EXAMPLE 4.3 Spectra of FM Signals
FIGURE4.77 Discrete
FIGURE4 Di t amplitude
lit d spectra
t
of an FM signal, normalized with
respect to the carrier amplitude, for the
case of sinusoidal modulation of fixed
frequency and varying amplitude. Only
the spectra for positive frequencies are
shown
shown.
40
EXAMPLE 4.3 Spectra of FM Signals
42
Transmission Bandwidth of FM Signals
43
Chapter 4.4
4 4
Phase-
Phase-locked Loop
◊ The time-varying
Th ti i phase
h angle
l ψ1(t)
( ) characterizing
h t i i s(t)
( ) may bbe ddue
to modulation by a message signal m(t) as in Eq. (4.60), in which
case we wish to recover ψ1(t) in order to estimate m(t).
m(t)
48
4.4 Phase
Phase--Locked Loop
◊ To develop an understanding of the phase-locked loop, it is desirable
to have a model of the loop.
loop
49
Nonlinear Model of the PLL
◊ According to Figure 4.16, the incoming FM signal s(t) and the VCO
output r(t) are applied to the multiplier
multiplier, producing two components:
1. A high- frequency component, represented by the double- frequency
term
i ⎡⎣ 4π f c t + φ1 ( t ) + φ2 ( t ) ⎤⎦
km Ac Av sin
2. A low-
low frequency component, represented by the differencedifference-
frequency term
km Ac Av sin ⎡⎣φ1 ( t ) − φ2 ( t ) ⎤⎦
50
Nonlinear Model of the PLL
◊ Therefore, discarding the high-frequency component (i.e., the
double- frequency term)
double term), the input to the loop filter is reduced to
e ( t ) = km Ac Aυ sin ⎡⎣φe ( t ) ⎤⎦ (4.63)
where ψe(t) is the phase error defined by
φe ( t ) = φ1 ( t ) − φ2 ( t )
t
= φ1 ( t ) − 2π kυ ∫ υ (τ )dτ (4.64)
0
◊ The loop filter operates on the input e (t) to produce an output v(t)
defined by the convolution integral
∞
υ ( t ) = ∫ e (τ )h ( t − τ ) dτ (4 65)
(4.65)
−∞
where h(t) is the impulse response of the loop filter.
51
Nonlinear Model of the PLL
◊ Using Eqs. (4.62) to (4.64) to relate ψe(t) and ψ1(t), we obtain the
following nonlinear integro
integro-differential
differential equation as descriptor of the
dynamic behavior of the phase-locked loop:
dφe ( t ) dφ1 ( t ) ∞
= − 2π K 0 ∫ sin ⎡⎣φe (τ ) ⎤⎦ h ( t − τ )dτ (4.66)
dt dt −∞
where K0 is a loop
loop-gain
gain parameter defined by
K 0 = km kυ Ac Aυ (4.67)
◊ Equation (4.66)
(4 66) suggest the model shown in Figure 4.17
4 17 for a phase
phase-
locked loop.
◊ IIn thi
this model
d l we have
h also
l included
i l d d the
th relationship
l ti hi between
b t v(t)
(t)
and e(t) as represented by Eqs. (4.63) and (4.65).
52
Derivatin of Eq. 4.66
φe ( t ) = φ1 ( t ) − φ2 ( t )
t
= φ1 ( t ) − 2π kυ ∫ υ (τ )dτ
0 ( ∞
υ ( t ) = ∫ e (τ )h ( t − τ ) dτ , e ( t ) = km Ac Aυ sin ⎡⎣φe ( t ) ⎤⎦
−∞ )
t ∞
=φ1 ( t ) − 2π kυ ∫ ∫ km Ac Aυ sin ⎡⎣φe ( k ) ⎤⎦h (τ − k ) dkdτ
0 −∞
t ∞
= φ1 ( t ) − 2π K 0 ∫ ∫ sin ⎡⎣φe ( k ) ⎤⎦h (τ − k ) dkdτ ( K 0 =kυ km Ac Aυ )
0 −∞
∞ t
=φ1 ( t ) − 2π K 0 ∫ sin ⎡⎣φe ( k ) ⎤⎦ ∫ h (τ − k )dτ dk
−∞ 0
t
∂φ1 ( t ) ∞ ∂ ∫ h (τ − k )dτ
= − 2π K 0 ∫ sin ⎡⎣φe ( k ) ⎤⎦ 0 dk
∂t −∞ ∂t
∂φ ( t ) ∞
= 1 − 2π K 0 ∫ sin ⎡⎣φe ( k ) ⎤⎦ h ( t − k )dk
∂t −∞
53
Nonlinear Model of the PLL
◊ We see that the model resembles the block diagram of Figure 4.17.
The multiplier at the input of the phase-locked loop is replaced by a
subtracter and a sinusoidal nonlinearity, and the VCO by an
integrator.
◊ The sinusoidal nonlinearity in the model of Figure 4.17 greatly
increases the difficulty of analyzing the behavior of the phase-locked
loop It would be helpful to linearize this model to simplify the
loop.
analysis.
54
Linear Model of the PLL
◊ When the phase error ψe(t) is zero, the phase-locked loop is said to
be in phase
phase-lock
lock. When ψe(t) is at all times small compared with
one radian, we may use the approximation
sin ⎡⎣φe ( t ) ⎤⎦ φe ( t ) ((4.68))
which is accurate to within 4 percent for ψe(t) less than 0.5 radians.
◊ We may represent the phase
phase-locked
locked loop by the linearized model
shown in Figure 4.18a.
◊ Suppose that for all values of f inside the baseband we make the
magnitude of L( f ) very large compared with unity. Then from
Eq. 4.70 we find that Φe( f ) approaches zero. That is, the phase of
the VCO becomes asymptotically equal to the phase of the
incoming signal. Under this condition, phase-lock is established,
and the objective
j of the phase-locked
p loop
p is thereby
y satisfied.
V(f )=
( jf kυ ) L ( f )
Φ1 ( f )
1+ L( f ) (4.74)
◊ F | L( f ) | >> 11:
For jf
V(f) Φ1 ( f )
kυ (4.75)
Time-Domain: 1 dφ1 ( t )
υ (t ) (4.76)
2π kυ dt
◊ Thus, provided that the magnitude of the open-loop transfer
function L( f ) is very large for all frequencies of interest, the
phase locked loop may be modeled as a differentiator with its
phase-locked
output scaled by the factor 1/2πkv, as in Figure 4.18b.
58
Linear Model of the PLL
Figure 4.18 Models of the phase-locked loop. (b) Simplified model when the loop gain is
very large compared to unity.
◊ Therefore, substituting Eq. (4.60) in (4.76), we find that the resulting
output signal of the phase-locked loop is approximately
kf
υ (t ) m (t ) (4.77)
kυ
◊ E
Equation
i (4.77)
(4 77) states that
h when
h the h loop
l operates in
i its
i phase-
h
locked mode, the output v(t) of the phase-locked loop is
approximately the same,
same except for the scale factor kf / kv, as the
original message signal m(t).
59
Linear Model of the PLL
◊ A significant feature of the phase-locked loop acting as a
demodulator is that the bandwidth of the incoming FM signal can be
much wider than that of the loop filter characterized by H( f ). The
transfer function H( f ) can and should be restricted to the baseband.
60
Linear Model of the PLL
◊ The order of the phase-locked loop is determined by the order of
denominator polynomial of the closed
closed-loop
loop transfer function,
function which
defines the output transform V( f ) in terms of the input transform
Φ1( f ), as shown in Eq. (4.74).
◊ The hold-in
Th h ld i frequency
f range refers
f to t the
th range off frequencies
f i for
f
which the loop remains phase-locked to the input signal.
61
Supplementary Material:
Analysis of PLL Using Laplace
Transform
◊ Assuming
A i that
th t the
th input
i t to
t the
th PLL isi the
th sinusoid
i id xc(t)=
(t)
Accos(2πfct+φ) and the output of the VCO is e0(t)= -Avsin(2πfct+φ),
where φ represents the estimate of φ, the product of two signals is:
(
ed ( t ) = xc ( t ) e0 ( t ) = − Ac cos ( 2π f c t + φ ) Av sin 2π f c t + φ )
( ) (
= 12 Ac Av sin φ − φ − 12 Ac Av sin 4π f c t + φ + φ )
63
The Phase
Phase--Locked Loop
p
◊ The loop filter is a low-pass filter that responds only to the low-
frequency component 0.5AcAvsin(φ - φ ) and removes the
component at 2fc.
◊ The
h output off the
h loop
l filter
fil provides
id the h controll voltage
l ev(t)
()
for the VCO.
◊ Th VCO iis a sinusoidal
The i id l signal
i l generator t with
ith an instantaneous
i t t
phase given by
t
2π f c t + φ ( t ) = 2π f c t + K v ∫ ev (τ )dτ
−∞
◊ By
y neglecting
g g the double-frequency
q y term resulting
g from the
multiplication of the input signal with the output of the VCO, the
phase detector output is:
ed (ψ ) = K d sinψ
where ψ = φ − φ is the phase error and Kd is a proportionality
constant.
◊ In normal operation, when the loop is tracking the phase of the
i
incoming
i carrier,
i the
th phase
h error φ − φ is
i small.
ll As
A a result,
lt
( )
sin φ − φ ≈ φ − φ
65
The Phase
Phase--Locked Loop
p
66
The Phase
Phase--Locked Loop
p
67
The Phase
Phase--Locked Loop
p
◊ The VCO control-voltage/input-phase transfer function:
Ev ( s ) sH ( s ) K d sF ( s )
Hv (s) = = =
Φ (s) Kv s + Kv Kd F ( s )
◊ It is
i convenient
i to write i the h closed-loop
l dl transfer
f function
f i in i
terms of the open-loop transfer function, which is defined as:
Kv Kd F ( s ) Gop ( s )
Gop ( s ) ⇒ H (s) =
s 1 + Gop ( s )
◊ K=KvKd is the open-loop
p p dc ggain.
◊ By appropriate choice of F(s), any order closed-loop transfer
function can be obtained.
◊ For second-order passive loops, the transfer function is:
1+τ 2s 1+τ 2s
F (s) = ⇒ H (s) =
1 − τ 1s 1 + (τ 2 + 1 K ) s + (τ 1 K ) s 2
68
The Phase
Phase--Locked Loop
p
◊ Second-order
Second order phase
phase-locked-loop
locked loop filters
69
The Phase
Phase--Locked Loop
p
◊ Transfer functions and parameters for first- and second-order
phase-locked
h l k d loops
l
70
The Phase
Phase--Locked Loop
p
H (s) =
( 2ζω n − ω 2
n K ) s + ω 2
n
s 2 + 2ζω n s + ω n2
71
The Phase
Phase--Locked Loop
p
◊ The frequency response of a second-order loop (with τ1»1)
73