Professional Documents
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ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO
THE HUMAN BODY
HEART AND
CIRCULATORY
SYSTEM
The Facts On File illustrated guide to the human body. Heart and
circulatory system / the Diagram Group.
p. cm. Note to the reader
Includes index. This book is not intended
ISBN 0-8160-5982-9 (hc : alk. paper) to serve as a medical
1. Cardiovascular system—Juvenile literature. 2. Heart—Juvenile textbook for either
literature. I. Title: Illustrated guide to the human body Heart and
circulatory system. II. Title: Heart and circulatory system. III. Diagram
physicians or patients.
Group. The information and
QP103.F33 2005 advice it contains should
612.1—dc22 not be used or relied upon
2004022927 without consulting the
Set ISBN: 0-8160-5979-9
advice of a qualified
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EB Diagram 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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Contents
This book is a concise, illustrated guide to the There are six sections within the book. The
anatomy, physiology, well-being, and first section looks at the organization and
disorders of the human heart and circulatory structure of the blood circulatory system. The
systems. It has been written and illustrated following three sections survey each major
specially for students and laypeople interested component of the system, from the heart to
in medicine, health, fitness, and first aid. The types of blood cells. Section 5 looks at the
subject is dealt with in clear steps, so that the lymphatic system, which functions in parallel
reader can steadily acquire a good overall with the blood system. The last section deals
understanding. Explanatory texts, diagrams, with how blood cells provide a defense against
illustrations, captions, and fact boxes are infection. Within each section, discussion and
combined to help readers grasp important illustration of the structure and function of
information at a glance. A glossary of the anatomical parts are followed by
scientific and jargon words defines medical principles of healthcare, fitness, and exercise.
terms in everyday language. A list of Web sites These are followed by a survey of the main
provides links to other relevant sources of disorders and diseases affecting the region.
information, and the index enables quick Information is presented as double-page topics
access to articles. arranged in subsections.
© DIAGRAM
thrombocytes (platelets).
There are four main blood How blood circulates around the body
groups: A, B, AB and O. The pulmonary circulation pumps blood to and from
Blood types have to be the lungs. The systemic circulation pumps blood to
carefully matched for blood and from all other parts of the body.
transfusions or for
transplant surgery.
Bone marrow This is a red or
yellow tissue contained
within bone cavities. Red Head and arms
●
marrow produces red blood
cells. Yellow marrow is mostly Superior
vena cava
fat tissue.
Spleen A large organ below
Lungs
the diaphragm, the spleen
●
stores and releases red blood
cells, eliminates damaged red
●
blood cells, and makes cells
that produce antibodies.
Lymphatic system This
drainage system is related to
the blood system. Blind-
ended tubes run parallel to
●
arteries and veins and carry
colorless fluids (lymph) from
Heart Liver
body tissues to the blood.
Some lymphatic vessels ●
Blood facts
• In a tiny drop of blood, there
are five million red cells, Legs
●
Circulation facts
• On average, blood takes
about one minute to
complete a full circuit
around the body.
• The aorta is the largest
artery and the vena cava is
the largest vein.
• The average body contains Arteries: white
9 pints (5 l ) of blood. Veins: color
SECTION 1: BLOOD SYSTEM 9
oxygenation. The
Common carotid Facial artery
reoxygenated blood returns ●
●
●
Left atrium
●
● Popliteal artery
Right ● ●
atrium
●
Right
ventricle
Anterior
tibial artery
●
Deoxygenated blood
Posterior
© DIAGRAM
●
Oxygenated blood tibial artery
10 Cardiovascular key words
promote clotting.
12 Heart
Heart blood vessels External view of the heart from the front
The largest arteries of the
heart are the aorta, which
carries oxygenated blood Aortic arch
●
away from the heart, and
the pulmonary arteries,
which carry oxygen-poor Superior Pulmonary trunk
●
Circulation
Circulation is referred to as either pulmonary
or systemic.
Lungs
Blood gives ●
Pulmonary circuit
●
● ●
Systemic circuit Right side
●
Left side
of heart
of heart
Iliac artery
Femoral artery ●
Arteries of brain:
side view
Frontopolar artery
●
Anterior cerebral
artery ●
●
Opthalmic artery
●
Basilar artery ●
Vertebral artery
SECTION 1: BLOOD SYSTEM 15
●
and compress the thin
Cephalic vein
walls of the vein. In the ●
●
as they move away from
the capillaries and toward Renal vein
the heart.
Iliac vein
●
Femoral vein
●
Straight sinus
●
Sigmoid sinus
●
Confluence of
the sinuses
© DIAGRAM
16 Arteries
Artery facts
• Blood is pumped into Cells of adventitia
the aorta at a speed of
almost a mile an hour Fiber covering
●
(30 to 40 cm/sec).
• The walls of large
arteries have their own
blood vessels called the
vasa vasorum (vessels of
the vessels).
SECTION 1: BLOOD SYSTEM 17
heart beat and smooth out the blood flow. Internal elastic
Unlike veins, arteries do not need valves lamina
●
capillaries by as much as ● ●
400 percent.
© DIAGRAM
18 Capillaries
Endothelium
●
● ●
Cleft
●
● Lumen
Capillary bed
SECTION 1: BLOOD SYSTEM 19
Lymph
capillary
Capillary facts ●
especially abundant in
the legs, where blood has
to overcome the
downward pull of gravity External elastic membrane
to return to the heart. ●
Vasa vasorum
(blood vessels of artery)
●
Vein facts
Tunica adventitia (outer layer)
●
• Most veins carry
deoxygenated blood but
●
the four pulmonary veins
carry oxygenated blood. Cells of adventitia
• The largest veins, the
venae cavae, are named
Fiber covering
●
after the Latin “cava,”
meaning cavern, because
of their great size.
• Like arteries, veins have
their own blood vessels,
small vasa vasorum.
SECTION 1: BLOOD SYSTEM 21
by inflammation and ●
●
The pulse
Your pulse is the measure of your
heartbeat—its speed, strength, and
regularity. The best place to feel the
pulse is at the wrist. You should learn to
take your pulse there in order to assess
your fitness and also as a check against
exercising too strenuously. This method Taking your pulse
of taking your pulse is described to the The illustration above shows the place
right. The pulse test shown below is an on the wrist where the pulse is most
excellent way of checking a fitness easily felt. Place the first three fingers of
program. If you do the test every two your right hand on the inside of your left
weeks, and plot the results on a graph, wrist, and count the number of beats for
you will be able to see how your fitness 30 seconds. Multiply by two for the rate
is improving. per minute.
a b c
Pulse test (below)
Age
1 Step up with one foot onto a bench or ●
● 95 ●
low chair about 16 inches (41 cm) high. 65 115
2 Bring the other foot up onto the top of
105
the bench. 55 130
3 Step down again with one foot. 115
4 Bring the other foot down to the floor. 45 150
Repeat 24 times a minute for two 125
35 165
minutes.
5 Sit down for two minutes, then take 135
25 175
your pulse and record the result.
0 100 200
Pulse
Blood disorders
Agranulocytosis A condition in which hereditary diseases transmitted by
blood lacks granulocytes, the white blood unaffected mothers (carriers) almost always
cells that protect the body against bacterial to sons.
infections. It is a result of a defect in bone Infectious mononucleosis (glandular fever)
marrow. A contagious disease caused by a virus that
Anemia A condition in which the blood has affects white blood cells.
an abnormally low ability to carry oxygen. Leukemia (cancer of the blood) An increase
There are many different types, including in the number of white blood cells that
aplastic anemia (the destruction of red bone interferes with normal body processes. There
marrow resulting in the production of fewer are different types of leukemia, named
blood cells); hemolytic anemia (blood cells according to which of the many white blood
are damaged through bacterial infection, for cell types are affected. Lymphocytic
example); hemorrhagic anemia (blood is lost leukemia, for example, affects lymphocytes.
through a wound, for example); iron- Leukopenia A decrease in the number of
deficiency anemia (resulting, for example, white blood cells.
from an inadequate intake of iron-rich food Multiple myeloma A tumor of the bone
or an inability to absorb iron efficiently); marrow that adversely affects production of
pernicious anemia (lack of vitamin B12 new red and white blood cells.
causes red blood cells to swell, reducing their Polycythemia An abnormal increase in the
oxygen-carrying capacity); and sickle-cell number of red blood cells, which causes the
anemia (red blood cells become crescent blood to flow sluggishly. There are two
shaped and rupture easily). types: non-specific and that caused by too
Erythroblastosis fetalis A rare blood disease little oxygen in the blood. The latter is
of the newborn that can result in the usually associated with a respiratory disorder
destruction of red blood cells. It is caused by often caused by smoking.
the mixing of bloods of different Rhesus Rhesus disease A condition in which red
(Rh) groups. blood cells are destroyed as a result of the
Erythroedema A condition, also known as mixing of bloods of incompatible groups.
acrodynia or pink disease, that causes a mild The Rhesus factor is a substance present in
fever, restlessness, weakness, and redness of red blood cells of most people (Rhesus
the face, fingers, and toes. It is usually positive, or Rh+). People who lack the factor
caused by a poisoning of the blood by are Rhesus negative, Rh-.
minerals used in medicines such as laxatives. Septicemia Blood poisoning caused by
It is mostly restricted to children and is bacteria or the toxins they produce. In some
now rare. cases, it can be fatal.
Hemophilias Several different bleeding Thrombocytopenia A deficiency in blood
disorders caused by lack of the factors platelets (which help the clotting process)
necessary for blood clotting. They are resulting in bleeding from small vessels.
SECTION 1: BLOOD SYSTEM 27
Palpitations Sensation of a heartbeat that around the neck, chest, and waist. Recovery
is rapid or irregular in some way. takes no more than a minute or two.
28 Introduction
The heart is the core of the cardiovascular system. This Heart facts
double pump beats automatically, night and day, to • The average adult human
keep blood circulating around the body. A heart “beat” heart is five inches long and
is a sudden tightening of the muscle in the walls of the three inches wide (12 cm by
heart. This squeezes blood out of the heart chambers 9 cm). It measures two and
and into the blood vessels. A specialized type of heart a half inches (6.3 cm) from
muscle called myocardium gives the heart its special front to back.
pumping ability. • An adult’s heart weighs
about 10.5 ounces (300 g).
Front view
Coronary
arteries Superior
vena cava
●
●
●
●
Pulmonary valve
Aortic valve at at beginning of
beginning of aorta pulmonary artery
SECTION 2: HEART 29
●
© DIAGRAM
●
forward when the heart Fifth rib
ventricles contract and Sternum
(breastbone) Sixth rib
strikes the wall of the
thorax. This can be felt
from the outside of the
chest as a heartbeat.
Position for
stethoscope
Pericardium
and the thoracic ● ●
vertebrae behind. By
●
pressing rhythmically on ●
Right atrium
the lower part of the Left atrium
●
●
located partly in ●
Heart’s pumping power half as thick as those of the left ventricle. The
The middle layer of the heart’s wall is a thick atrial walls have much less muscle than the
layer of heart, or cardiac, muscle, known as ventricle walls and so are quite thin. The left
myocardium (“myo” means muscle). The atrial wall is, however, thicker than the right
myocardium consists of three spiral layers of atrial wall. Rings of cardiac muscle around the
cardiac muscle attached to a framework of tricuspid and mitral inlet valves lock them
dense fibrous tissue that forms the “skeleton” tightly shut when the ventricles pump blood
of the heart. The spiral is the best arrangement to the body and lungs.
for squeezing blood out of the heart’s Cardiac muscle contains bundles of actin
chambers. The thickest heart muscle is in the and myosin filaments and contracts in the
wall of the left ventricle, which pumps blood same way as other body muscles. But it differs
all the way to the fingers and toes and back from other muscles in the way that nerve
again. The right ventricle only has to pump signals travel through the fibers and stimulate
blood to the lungs, so its walls are less than the muscle to contract.
Intercalated disc
Intercalated disc
●
Muscle cell
nucleus Muscle cell nucleus
●
●
Muscle fiber
●
Connective tissue
Connective tissue
●
SECTION 2: HEART 33
drain deoxygenated ● ●
internal organs.
● Pulmonary
Muscle facts Aortic valve valve
●
• The fibrous skeleton of
●
the heart, together with
the valves inside the
Right
heart, make up about
atrium
half of the heart’s weight.
• The wall of the left
●
ventricle is up to half an
inch (1.3 cm) thick in
some places.
© DIAGRAM
Right ventricle
34 Controlling heart rate
Left atrium
● Bundle of His
●
Sinoatrial node (atrioventricular bundle)
Atrioventricular
(AV) node
●
Left ventricle
● ●
Right atrium
●
Left branch
●
Right ventricle
Right branch
●
This synchronization forces the ●
Left atrium
●
Right atrium
●
Left ventricle
●
Right ventricle
●
Interventricular
septum
SECTION 2: HEART 37
Parietal
Heart chamber layer
●
●
Myocardium (heart
muscle)
●
Heart facts
Myocardium
● • “Atrium” means “entrance hall,” while
Epicardium “ventricle” means “little belly.”
●
●
pericardium
●
38 Flow of blood through the heart
Superior
vena cava
Right
Aorta
pulmonary
artery ●
●
pulmonary
vein Left
●
pulmonary
vein
●
Inferior
vena cava
Superior
vena cava
●
●
Right atrium
Left atrium
Left ventricle
ventricle flows
through the aorta
to the rest of the
body.
Aorta
Pulmonary
artery
Right ventricle ●
●
© DIAGRAM
Left ventricle
40 Heart valves
Structure of valves
The four heart valves are in two pairs: atrioventricular Valve facts
(AV) valves between atria and ventricles, and semilunar • As the heart valves slap
(“half-moon”) valves between ventricles and main shut to prevent the
arteries. The valves are made of tough, rubbery flaps, backflow of blood, they
called cusps, which grow out of the heart wall. Joined make a “lub-dub” sound.
to the free ends of the AV valves are a number of cords The “lub” is the AV
called chordae tendineae (heart strings) attaching them valves closing, while the
to muscles in the wall of the ventricle. The heart strings “dub” is the sound of
keep the AV flaps pointing in the direction of the blood the semilunar valves
flow, stopping them being turned “inside out” and shutting.
forced through into the atria. The semilunar valves do
not have heart strings. Blood flowing the wrong way
makes the cusps balloon out so that their edges seal
tight.
Atrioventricular valves
Tricuspid valve
The tricuspid valve
consists of three cusps, Closed Open
while the bicuspid, or Papillary
mitral, valve has only two ● muscle
●
cusps. They both stop
blood flowing back from Chordae
ventricles to atria. tendineae
Semilunar valves
Semilunar valve
The aortic semilunar
Open –
valve and pulmonary Closed—
no blood blood flows
semilunar valve are through
flows
located at the base of the
two large arteries leaving
the heart (the aorta and Aortic valve Semilunar valve cut and
pulmonary artery). Each opened out
is crescent-shaped and Right coronary
consists of three cusps. artery
●
●
●
Left coronary
artery
Cusp
SECTION 2: HEART 41
Left atrium
Right atrium
●
Papillary muscles
●
Tricuspid valve ●
●
●
●
●
Chordae tendineae
●
Right ventricle
Papillary muscles
Left ventricle
Aortic valve
(semilunar)
●
Pulmonary valve
(semilunar)
●
© DIAGRAM
42 The cardiac cycle
Semilunar valves
The semilunar valves prevent the backflow of
blood into the ventricles.
4 The ventricles contract until pressure ●
●
exceeds that of blood in the aorta and
pulmonary artery.
5 The semilunar valves are forced open and
blood flows out of the heart.
6 The ventricles relax and blood begins to AV valve (open)
flow backward toward the heart. The cusps of
the semilunar valves are filled with blood and AV valve (open)
they close. Blood is prevented from flowing
back into the ventricles.
SECTION 2: HEART 43
AV valve ● ●
(closed) AV valve
● (closed)
●
●
●
Left ventricle
● ●
Semilunar
valves closed
© DIAGRAM
44 Stress, diet, and exercise
Just as the condition of the body and problems from smoking, poor circulation from
circulation can affect the heart, so the lack of exercise, and so on. The stressed
condition of the mind is reflected in the state person usually has a busy schedule and
of the heart. Stress is one of the major therefore frequently skips meals, has a few
contributing factors to heart disease, partly drinks instead of eating, or eats snacks or
because it alters the body’s systems (such as takeout foods to stave off hunger pangs. These
the blood cholesterol level) in such a way that eating habits affect the body adversely.
the heart can be damaged, and partly because Conscious removal of both the causes and
those who live under stress are apt to develop effects of stress recondition the heart and alter
conditions that strain the heart, such as high the outlook so that heart disease is far less
blood pressure from overwork, respiratory likely to occur.
7
2 Skin; pallor may occur as blood is
●
diverted away from the skin to the
5
muscles.
3 Lungs; the rate of breathing speeds up ●
Standing
Walking
Running
© DIAGRAM
Recovery
after exercise
48 Heart disorders 1
Heart attacks
The term “heart attack” is usually used to Heart attacks occur more often in men than
describe a sudden blockage in a heart artery. A women and mostly in people over 40.
more accurate term is “myocardial infarction”
(MI). If a heart artery is blocked for more than Artery blockage
a few minutes, the muscle cells (myocardium) The most common reason for heart arteries to
may become permanently damaged. If the become blocked is due to a buildup of layers
amount of muscle damage is small, there will of fatty material (cholesterol) inside the
be enough good muscle left for the heart to arteries. The walls of these damaged arteries
work again once the heart attack is over. Heart may crack and a blood clot may form on top
attacks can start at any time of the day or of the crack. This can suddenly block off the
night, when a person is resting or being artery completely. Occasionally, the blockage
active. Sometimes, a heart attack can be is caused by a spasm of the muscle walls of
brought on by unusually energetic activity or the coronary arteries. It can also be due to a
by massive stress. People with a family history very fast heart rate, when the heart muscle
of heart attacks may be more likely to have a demands more oxygen than the blood supply
heart attack themselves. People with diabetes can provide. Heart attacks cause severe pain
are also more likely to have heart problems and other symptoms such as sweating, nausea,
although the reason for this is not clear. or shortness of breath.
(congenital heart
●
disease), the long-term
effect of rheumatic fever,
and aging of the heart. A Normal
disease of heart muscle Slim cusps blood flow
called cardiomyopathy
can also cause thickening Narrowed
of the muscle around the valve
valve, and lead to
valvular heart disease. ●
●
Smoking
Medical research has proved that smoking constitutes a grave
health risk, with more and more diseases proving to be
associated with, or aggravated by, smoking. Women who
smoke while pregnant can cause damage to their babies. If a
smoker continues to smoke after a heart attack, this doubles
their risk of having another heart attack within one year. The
risk of having a heart attack starts to reduce as soon as a
person gives up smoking, and is half as likely to happen
within one year of stopping smoking. Advice on giving up
smoking can be obtained from doctors, nurses, and
pharmacists, as well as “stop-smoking” help groups.
Effects of smoking 2
●
Heart disorders
Angina pectoris Pain or discomfort in the supplying the oxygen demands of the
chest, which is caused by inadequate oxygen tissues. Results in congestion of blood and
supply to the heart, sometimes as a result of lack of nutrition to tissues.
narrowed coronary arteries. Angina often Mitral valve prolapse Improper closure of
happens during exercise or stress. the mitral valve (the valve between the left
Arrhythmia Abnormal heart rate or rhythm atrium and ventricle). Also called floppy
caused by a disruption of the heart’s valve syndrome.
conduction system, which generates and Myocardial infarction Commonly called
transmits electrical impulses in the heart. It heart attack, a condition in which
can be caused by coronary artery disease, obstruction of blood flowing to the heart
stress, exertion, or some drugs. muscle results in tissue death. It is most
Bradycardia A slow heart rate—below 60 often caused by atherosclerosis of the
beats a minute. coronary arteries.
Cardiomegaly Enlargement of the heart. Palpitations Rapid or irregular heartbeat
There are a number of causes. caused by drugs, emotions, or heart
Congenital heart defects Heart defects in disorders.
newborn babies including: ventricular septal Pericarditis Inflammation of the bag
defect (the wall between two ventricles does (pericardium) that encloses the heart. Too
not form properly), coarctation of the aorta much fluid may be produced in the
(the aorta is narrowed), pulmonary stenosis pericardial space, so that the heart is
(the pulmonary semilunar valve is compressed and unable to fill properly. The
narrowed), and tetralogy of Fallot (multiple two layers of the pericardium become stuck
defects). together, restricting the heart’s movement.
Cor pulmonale Disease of the heart caused Pulmonary atresia A complete blockage
by disease of the blood vessels to the lungs between the heart and the main pulmonary
or disease of the lungs themselves. artery.
Endocarditis Inflammation of the Stokes-Adams syndrome A sudden attack
endocardium (inner heart lining) often of unconsciousness accompanying heart
resulting from infection by bacteria. block.
Epicarditis Inflammation of the epicardium Tachycardia A fast heart rate—above 100
(outer lining of the heart). beats a minute.
Fibrillation Rapid, irregular contractions of Tricuspid atresia The heart has no tricuspid
the heart. valve; the right ventricle is usually small.
Heart block Electrical impulses in the heart There is a reduced flow of blood to the
are blocked at points in the conduction lungs.
system. Valvular stenosis Narrowing of a heart
© DIAGRAM
Heart failure The heart pumps less blood valve, which causes the heart to work harder
than the body needs and so is not capable of to push blood around the body.
52 Introduction
The circulation of blood means the way that blood flows in Circulation facts
a circular pathway around the body. From the left ventricle • The combined surface of the
of the heart, blood flows through blood vessels to all parts of capillaries is 6,000 square
the body, and back to the right atrium of the heart. To yards (557.4 m2)—an area
complete the circuit and reach the left ventricle again, the larger than a soccer field.
blood has to flow to the lungs and back again, entering the • The great arteries that
heart through the left atrium. emerge from the heart are
often called “trunks.”
Arteries
Arteries front view
Blood leaves the heart
through the aorta, which Brachiocephalic trunk
branches into the carotid Common carotid artery (innominate artery)
artery to the neck, and
the brachial arteries to the Subclavian artery ●
Ulnar artery
Renal artery
●
surface arteries
of the wrist
and hand Common
●
iliac artery
●
Femoral artery
●
Main arteries
Veins
All over the body, blood low in oxygen drains into veins
that eventually link up with the venae cavae. These large
veins return blood from the body to the heart. Pulmonary
veins carry high-oxygen blood from the lungs to the heart.
Brachial vein
●
Circulatory system
Ulnar vein
●
Femoral vein
●
Popliteal vein
●
Main veins
Aorta
The aorta is the main artery in the body, arteries); the aortic arch (which branches
carrying blood from the heart to the into arteries for the head, neck, and
other major arteries. It is in front of the arms); the thoracic, or descending,
spine but behind the esophagus. There aorta; and the abdominal aorta. Within
are four main sections: the ascending the abdomen, arteries branch off the
aorta (which branches into the coronary aorta to organs such as the kidneys.
Carotid arteries
Aortic arch ● ●
Thoracic
(descending) Chest or thorax
●
aorta
●
Position of aorta
and venae cavae
in the body Celiac trunk
Diaphragm (to digestive
●
system)
●
Renal artery
●
Kidney
● Testicular or
ovarian artery
●
Abdominal aorta
●
Venae cavae
The venae cavae are the largest veins in inferior vena cava, which is below the
the body. All the veins from the upper heart. Both venae cavae empty their
part of the body eventually drain into blood into the right atrium of the heart.
the superior vena cava, which is above The inferior vena cava is larger than the
the heart. The venous blood from the superior vena cava, and is the largest
lower part of the body drains into the blood vessel in the body.
Azygos vein
● Accessory hemiazygos vein
●
Intercostal veins
(between the ribs)
●
Hemiazygos vein
●
Diaphragm
Abdominal aorta
●
Vein facts
Common iliac vein • The inferior vena cava is
●
approximately 1.38 inches
(3.5 cm) in diameter.
• The longest vein is the
great saphenous vein in
the leg.
© DIAGRAM
58 Head, face, and neck
●
Medial temporal artery
●
Vertebral artery
●
Subclavian artery
●
Ascending aorta
●
Internal thoracic artery
●
SECTION 3: CIRCULATION 59
Superior
sagittal sinus
●
Transverse sinus
●
●
Sigmoid sinus
Anterior facial vein
●
Vertebral vein
●
Brachiocephalic vein
Internal jugular vein
●
Circulation facts
●
• The neck is a vulnerable
area because of the large
Subclavian vein blood vessels, airways,
●
●
of the heart to the lungs. Pulmonary
●
Right trunk
Gases are exchanged in the ●
atrium
pulmonary capillaries and ●
Blood supply
to the intestines Front view of abdomen
This diagram shows the Transverse colon
●
blood supply to the Ascending colon
intestines, which are Left colic
coiled inside the artery
abdomen. The small Right colic artery
●
Small intestine
●
Sigmoid colon
●
●
Superior rectal artery
SECTION 3: CIRCULATION 61
●
Splenic vein
Right branch
●
Portal vein ●
Pancreatic veins
●
Pancreaticoduodenal veins
●
●
● ●
Renal veins
●
Renal veins
Paraumbilical vein ●
●
Right gastroepiploic vein
measuring blood
Aortic arch
pressure. The pulse of ●
Axillary artery
blood in the radial artery ●
Pectoralis
can be felt on the back of ●
minor
the wrist, and at the base
of the thumb.
Subscapular artery
●
Brachial artery
●
Humerus
●
Radial artery
Common interosseous artery
●
●
● ● ●
Digital arteries
SECTION 3: CIRCULATION 63
Superficial
dorsal veins
●
Dorsal venous ●
network
Basilic vein
●
Cephalic vein
●
© DIAGRAM
64 Leg and foot
Femoral artery
●
Femoral artery
●
Popliteal artery
● Popliteal artery
●
Anterior recurrent
tibial artery Anterior tibial artery
●
●
Peroneal artery
●
Plantar arch
●
●
SECTION 3: CIRCULATION 65
Perforating veins
●
Perforating veins
●
© DIAGRAM
66 Blood pressure
Circulation facts
• About 10 percent of people are born with
faulty valves that may cause varicose veins
if they stand for long periods so that the
calf muscles cannot pump blood “uphill.”
• The insides of the eyelids are usually pale
if a person is anemic.
© DIAGRAM
70 Introduction
Blood is the fluid that is pumped around the body in Blood facts
the circulatory system. Most adults have about 10 pints • Blood really is thicker than
(4.7 l) of blood, which makes up about seven to nine water and flows four or five
times more slowly.
percent of their total body weight. The main functions
• In a drop of blood, there are
of blood are the transportation of substances, the
about five million red blood
regulation of temperature, water content, and pH (acid-
cells, 7,500 white blood cells
base balance), and the protection of the body against and 300,000 platelets.
harmful “invaders” and disease.
Blood components
The liquid part of blood is a clear, Relative size and shape of the
yellowish, watery fluid called main components of blood
plasma. This contains dissolved
Red blood cell Lymphocyte
sugars, salts, wastes, body proteins,
hormones, and other chemicals. Thrombocytes Neutrophil
Suspended in the plasma are red (platelets)
blood cells, white blood cells and
platelets, which together make up
the “formed elements” of blood. The
red color of blood in the arteries is ● ●
2 4
5
Kidney
Liver
Spleen
1
6
© DIAGRAM
7
72 Blood cells
Components Functions
Blood is a special type of connective Transport
tissue in which formed elements (red • Carries oxygen and nutrients to cells.
and white blood cells) are suspended in • Transports waste gases (e.g. carbon
plasma (a nonliving fluid). Relative dioxide) from cells to the lungs to be
percentages of blood components are: expelled.
plasma (55%), white blood cells and • Transports wastes from cells to the
platelets (1%), red blood cells (44%). kidneys to be eliminated.
• Carries hormones from the endocrine
Formed elements glands to where they are needed.
Erythrocytes (red blood cells).
Leukocytes (white blood cells). Regulation
Thrombocytes (platelets). • Regulates body temperature by
White blood cells include neutrophils, dissipating heat from active areas
eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes, (such as muscles).
and monocytes. • Helps regulate the water content
of cells.
Plasma • Contains buffers that keep pH levels
This is the liquid portion of the blood. In in tissues normal.
addition to the formed elements, it
contains: Protection
• water; • Clotting helps prevent hemorrhage
• salts; when blood vessels are damaged.
• proteins (for example, albumin, • Certain white blood cells help protect
globulin, fibrinogen); against harmful microorganisms by
• nutrients; engulfing them.
• waste products; and • Antibodies in plasma help protect
• hormones. against disease.
Plasma
●
White cells
and platelets
●
Thrombocytes
(platelets)
SECTION 4: BLOOD 73
Key to diagram
1
1–7 Formation of
red blood cells.
Hemocytoblasts
2 20
(1) differentiate
into erythroblasts
(4), which make
hemoglobin. The
8 3 12 18 21 24
erythroblast loses
its nucleus and
becomes an
immature red
blood cell called a
13
reticulocyte (6).
4
This enters the
bloodstream, 9
loses its cell 14
22
organelles and
matures into an
erythrocyte (7).
10 5 15
8–11 Platelets
formed by
fragmentation.
12–17 Formation
of granulocytes.
6 16
18–19 Formation
of monocytes.
20–23 Formation 19
of lymphocytes.
11 25
24–25 Immature 7 17 23
and mature
Thrombocytes Erythrocyte Granulocyte Monocyte Lymphocyte Plasma
plasma cells. (platelets) cell
SECTION 4: BLOOD 75
Lymphocyte development
B-lymphocytes
Lymphocytes are small white
Those lymphocytes that are to become
blood cells with few granules in
B-cells (white blood cells that produce
their cytoplasm, and a large,
antibodies) probably remain in the bone
round nucleus that takes up
marrow. Here, the cells duplicate and learn
most of the cell. All
how to recognize one specific antigen
lymphocytes originate in the
(substance that provokes an immune
bone marrow. During fetal
response). The mature B-cells then travel
development, only one type of
to the lymphatic system and blood system.
immature lymphocyte is
When B-cells are activated, they enlarge
produced by the bone marrow.
and become plasma cells.
A process of differentiation
then occurs that turns these
Lymph system Blood system
into either B-lymphocytes (or
B-cells) or T-lymphocytes (or B-cells
T-cells). See
pages 96–99.
Lymphocytes
Bone marrow
Lymphocytes
T-cells
Thymus
gland
T-lymphocytes
Those lymphocytes that are to become antigen. The mature T-cells then travel
T-cells (white blood cells that attack to the lymphatic system and blood
and kill other cells) travel to the system, where they circulate until
thymus gland (part of the lymphatic called into action. Both B- and T- cells
system). Here, the cells duplicate and help to protect the body from its own
© DIAGRAM
sternum (breastbone),
ribs, cranium (skull), and
vertebrae.
Tibia
●
Blood facts ●
Spleen
The spleen, located in the upper left surrounding small branches of the
abdomen, is the largest lymphoid gland splenic artery. As blood flows through
in the body. It is made up of small the pulp, old or damaged blood cells,
islands of white pulp scattered debris, and bacteria are filtered out. The
throughout red pulp. The white pulp spleen also stores iron from the old red
consists of masses of lymphocytes cells and serves as a reservoir for blood.
Position relative to
other organs
Spleen
Gall bladder
●
●
Aorta
●
Blood supply
●
●
Small intestine
●
Splenic vein
Hilus
●
Splenic artery
●
Splenic artery
●
Splenic vein
© DIAGRAM
78 Bleeding and blood clotting
Blood clotting
Blood clotting prevents excessive
blood loss from a wound. It involves 2 Thrombin interacts with fibrinogen (a
converting blood from a liquid into a soluble protein), also present in blood,
gel by means of a process called to make the insoluble protein fibrin.
coagulation. This complicated process Fibrin forms microscopic threads, which
is a series of chemical reactions that trap red and white blood cells and
involves more than 30 different platelets to form a clot that seals the
substances. There are three main opening of the wound.
stages in the clotting process. Firstly,
clotting factors are released by injured Red blood cell Fibrin
tissue cells and platelets. Secondly, White blood cell
chemical reactions form an insoluble
mesh of fibrin threads across the ●
Bleeding
3 A new clot is 99 percent water but it Clotting factors in the blood usually
soon contracts and dries out. The mesh seal a small cut quickly. It may help if
of fibrin threads and the dead blood you press a clean cloth pad (such as a
cells harden to form a scab. This folded handkerchief) against the
prevents further blood loss and helps to wound. If bleeding persists, add more
stop bacteria and other germs from layers of cloth, increasing the
infecting the wound. pressure and keeping the injured part
still. A clot should form within about
Clot
five minutes.
To stop heavy bleeding, press the
wound edges together with a clean
●
cloth or even your fingers (provided
they are clean and free from cuts and
abrasions), and raise the cut limb.
Prevent shock by lying the patient
down with his or her feet above head
level. If possible, clean a small wound
with antiseptic, and sterile gauze
swabs. Then cover it with clean gauze
kept in place by a bandage or adhesive
4 Beneath the scab, new cells form. tape, and seek medical aid.
Once the old, damaged cells have been
replaced, the scab drops off. If the scab
is removed before this process has been
completed, further bleeding may occur
and a new scab may form to seal and
protect the wound.
●
© DIAGRAM
Agglutinogen A Agglutinogen B
Blood typing
Putting blood into different groups is Blood group Agglutinogen Antibody
called blood typing. There are four blood
groups (types): A, B, AB, and O. They are Type A A anti-B
named according to the agglutinogens
on the red blood cells.
Type B B anti-A
This table shows that people with type
A blood have agglutinogen A and anti-B
Type AB A and B neither
antibody; people with type B blood have
agglutinogen B and anti-A antibody;
people with type AB blood have Type O neither both
agglutinogens A and B but neither anti-A
nor anti-B antibodies; and people with
type O blood have neither People with type O blood are called
agglutinogens A nor B but do have “universal donors” as their blood can be
anti-A and anti-B antibodies. given to people of any blood group.
The Rh factor
This was first studied in rhesus monkeys (hence the 1
name). It is similar to the ABO blood grouping system
in that it is based on the agglutinogens (substances
that promote blood clotting) present on the surface of
some red blood cells. People are Rh positive (Rh+) if
Rh+ blood
they have Rh agglutinogens. People without Rh
agglutinogens are termed Rh negative (Rh-). Fetus
Hemolytic disease
The process of red blood cell destruction in a fetus is Rh- blood
called hemolytic disease. It affects newborn babies
with Rh+ blood whose mothers have Rh- blood.
1 If Rh+ blood from a fetus mixes with a mother’s Rh-
blood (through a damaged blood vessel for instance), 2
the mother develops anti-Rh agglutinins (antibodies).
2 During another pregnancy with a Rh+ fetus, the anti- Rh- woman Rh+ baby
Rh agglutinins pass through the placenta, from the
© DIAGRAM
Hemophilia Chromosome
A person with hemophilia lacks
Normal Carrier
a protein needed to make blood
Parents male female
clot quickly, so a minor injury
may result in profuse bleeding ●
Inheriting hemophilia
A woman has two X Gametes
(sperm
chromosomes. If she has a
and ova)
single hemophilia gene
(genotype XHXh), she is a
H h H
carrier for hemophilia, but she
does not have the condition
herself. Her second X
chromosome bears a normal
gene (H, which codes for the
vital blood-clotting protein). A
man has one X and one Y
chromosome. If he has only
one hemophilia gene (genotype Offspring
XhY), this will be expressed and
H h H H h H
he will have the condition.
Carrier Normal Hemophiliac Normal
female female male male
XHXh XHXH XhY XHY
Blood facts
• There is no known permanent Hemophiliac females
cure for hemophilia. For a woman to suffer from hemophilia, she
• Sickle cell anemia affects one in needs to have two hemophilia genes (XhXh),
500 African Americans. one on each X chromosome. She would need to
• There are about 100 blood inherit the gene from both her parents. This is
antigen systems in addition to less likely than inheriting one gene from one
the ABO and Rh systems. parent, and is the reason why fewer women
suffer from hemophilia than men.
SECTION 4: BLOOD 83
Chemical defenses
Complement is a group of proteins that
circulates in the blood in an inactive Chain reaction
●
form. One of the proteins in the group is
activated if it contacts a foreign particle ●
Bacterium
or bacterium. The activated protein sets
off a chain reaction that activates the Chemicals
others in the group. During this stage, ●
Phagocyte cell
chemicals are released that attract ●
Sickle-cell anemia
Sickle-cell anemia is a serious hereditary Symptoms of this form of the disease
disease caused by an abnormal form of include chronic anemia (caused by
hemoglobin. It causes the red blood destruction of red cells), fatigue, bone
cells to become rigid, rough, and and kidney changes (such as decreased
crescent-shaped like a sickle, instead bone marrow activity), increased
of the normal disk. Sickle cells do not susceptibility to infection, stroke
carry or release oxygen as well as (especially in children), and even death.
normal red blood cells. They clog Geneticists believe that sickle-cell
capillaries and other small blood anemia is an adaptation to coping with
vessels, reducing blood supply to malaria, since sickle-cell anemia
some tissues, and causing swelling, provides resistance to malaria. When the
pain, and tissue destruction. red cells of a person with sickle-cell
A person who inherits only one anemia are invaded by the malarial
defective gene develops a form of the parasite, they stick to blood vessel walls,
disease called sickle-cell trait. Most become deoxygenated, take on the
people with sickle-cell trait have no sickle shape, and are then destroyed.
symptoms of the disease. On the other The malarial parasite is destroyed, along
hand, if two defective genes are with the sickle cells. People with sickle-
inherited, more of the defective cell anemia are usually black, and can
© DIAGRAM
hemoglobin is produced and the blood trace their hereditary origins to places
cells become severely distorted. where malaria is a problem.
84 Introduction
Lymph vessels
Lymph vessels are blind-
ended and run parallel to
veins and arteries. They
are thin-walled and, like Right lymphatic duct
Bronchomediastinal
veins, the larger vessels trunk
● ●
have valves that prevent
backflow. The valves give Axillary lymph nodes
●
these vessels a beaded Thoracic duct
●
Lymphatic system
Cells of the body are bathed in flows through increasingly larger lymph
interstitial, or tissue, fluid. Much of this venules and veins. Finally, the fluid
fluid enters blood capillaries but the enters the right lymphatic duct or
remainder enters the lymphatic system thoracic duct, which empty their
before it returns to the blood. It first contents into the subclavian veins
enters the lymphatic capillaries. Then it of the blood circulatory system.
●
Right internal jugular vein
●
Right bronchomediastinal
Points where lymph drains ●
trunk
into brachiocephalic veins
● ●
●
Right subclavian vein
● ●
Brachiocephalic veins
Superior vena cava
●
Thoracic duct
Lymph vessels
●
Lymph nodes
●
Cisterna chyli
●
Lymph drainage
The right lymphatic duct drains lymph in the abdominal region of the thoracic
from the top right quadrant of the body. duct. At major limb joints are clusters of
The thoracic duct drains lymph from the lymph nodes (see page 88). Nodes vary
whole of the rest of the body. The in size from as small as a pinhead to
cisterna chyli is a storage area for lymph over 2⁄5 inch (10 mm) in diameter.
Cervical
lymph nodes
● ●
Axillary Submandibular
lymph nodes Axillary lymph nodes
●
Superficial lymph
cubital lymph nodes
●
nodes ● Parasternal
● ●
Superficial lymph nodes
inguinal
lymph nodes
●
Rear view
of leg
Superficial ●
popliteal Pectoral axillary
lymph nodes lymph nodes
© DIAGRAM
88 Lymph nodes
Lymph nodes
Lymphatic vessel
●
Lymph node
●
Nodule
Flow of lymph
●
Lymphoid tissue
●
Valve
●
Lymphatic vessel
●
Structure Functions
• Lymph nodes (or glands) are small • Lymph nodes filter lymph. Infectious
organs that lie along lymph vessels agents, damaged or cancerous cells,
throughout the body. Clusters of them and other debris are trapped in the
are also found in the groin, armpits, fibrous tissue.
and neck. • Lymphocytes and macrophages in the
• Each node consists of a fibrous outer nodes cleanse lymph by destroying
bag containing lymphoid tissue. This is bacteria, viruses, and other harmful
a dense mass of connective tissue that substances.
houses lymphocytes (white blood cells) • When the nodes are busy fighting
and macrophages (“engulfing” white infection, large numbers of bacteria or
blood cells). viruses are trapped in them. This can
• Lymphoid tissue is grouped into cause the nodes to become swollen
nodules. and painful.
• Lymph enters and leaves the node
through lymphatic vessels.
• Valves prevent the backflow of lymph.
SECTION 5: LYMPHATIC SYSTEM 89
Spleen
• The spleen resembles a lymph node in
structure, but it is much larger.
• It is made of two types of tissue: red
pulp and white pulp.
• Red pulp is lymphoid tissue largely Splenic
comprising blood, lymphocytes (white artery
blood cells), and macrophages
(“engulfing” white blood cells). ●
lymphocyte called a
T-lymphocyte (or T-cell)
—is carried out before
Thymus
adulthood.
© DIAGRAM
90 Lymph disorders
Lymph disorders
Tonsils
• Tonsils are paired masses of View of extended tongue
lymphoid tissue.
• There are three pairs of Pharyngeal tonsils
tonsils. The pharyngeal tonsils
are at the top of the pharynx Uvula
●
at the rear of the nasal cavity.
The palatine tonsils lie under Palatine ●
Palatine
tonsils tonsils
the lining of the throat behind ● ●
Pharynx
A section through the Side view of pharynx
nose and throat region
of the head shows how Nasal cavity
the tonsils are at the
crossroads of the air Pharyngeal
●
tonsil
passageways. In this way, ●
The immune and defense systems protect and defend Fever facts
the body against pathogens (disease-causing organisms • A general inflammatory
such as bacteria and viruses) and other harmful response causes fever—a
substances, and are also involved in the response to raised body temperature.
• The purpose of a fever is to
transplanted tissues and organs. They can be divided
speed up the chemical
into two complementary systems: the nonspecific
reactions of the defense
(not aimed at particular harmful substances) and the
system and thereby destroy
specific (aimed at particular harmful substances). invading pathogens.
The lymphatic system is also involved in immunity.
Types of immunity
Skin
Skin covers most of the body’s outer First line of defense
surface. It is made up of closely packed Mucous
cells that contain keratin (tough, fibrous membranes
protein) in the outer layer. This makes
it difficult for pathogens to cross
unbroken skin. Mucus
●
Mucous membranes
Mucous membranes are the linings of ●
Cilia
many of the body’s cavities, tubes, and Goblet cells
●
organs. They contain goblet cells that
secrete mucus (thick, slimy fluid). In
some parts of the body (the respiratory
Tears, from eyes
tract, for example), the mucous
membrane is covered with tiny, hairlike
Saliva
projections called cilia. The sticky mucus ●
Inflammation
The function of the inflammatory ●
Cut
response is to prevent the spread of
Cells
harmful substances and to promote ●
tissue repair. ●
Chemicals
If the skin or mucous membrane (lining
that secretes a thick, slimy fluid) is
breached, broken, or cut, then
pathogens can enter the body. and swelling. The swelling makes access
Chemicals are released by the damaged easier for the cells and chemicals that
cells that trigger the inflammatory fight the invaders. These are attracted by
response. Blood vessels in the area other chemicals released in the area. If
widen. This causes the typical redness the cells and chemicals carry out their
and heat of inflamed areas. More fluid tasks successfully, then the tissue is
than usual leaks from the blood vessels repaired. If not, then the inflammatory
into the surrounding tissue, causing pain response continues.
Humoral immunity
Specific defense mechanisms provide Antibody system
the body’s third line of defense against A humoral response involves the
pathogens. This is more specialized than production of antibodies (proteins that
the previous first and second lines attack specific antigens) by B-
because: lymphocytes (or B-cells), a type of white
• it is specific—it recognizes and blood cell. B-cells are assisted by helper
provides particular defenses for T-cells (another type of white blood cell).
specific antigens (substances that Humoral immunity is mainly used
provoke an immune response); against toxins, viruses outside body
• the immunity provided is systemic cells, and bacteria.
(not limited to the site of initial The primary response happens on the
infection); and first contact with an antigen.
• it uses “memory” to recognize 1 The antigens on a bacterium are
previously encountered antigens, so recognized by B-cells and helper T-cells
that an even stronger attack can be that have the right receptors for it.
launched against them. 2 The helper T-cells then secrete
The response to particular antigens is substances that trigger the B-cells to
either humoral or cellular. duplicate themselves. These copies are
called plasma cells and memory B-cells.
3 Plasma cells produce antibodies that
inactivate the antigens.
Primary response
1 ●
Antigen 2 3
Bacterium
●
Triggering
substances
Antibodies
● ●
Receptor ●
●
B-cell
● Memory
Receptors B-cells
● ●
●
●
B-cell
●
T-cell ●
Plasma cells
T-cell ●
●
SECTION 6: IMMUNITY & DEFENSE 97
Complement fixation
Antibodies have sites to which Binding site
●
the proteins of the complement
group can bind. Once the
antibody has bound to its Antibody
●
●
Target cell
target cell, it changes shape,
revealing its complement-
binding site. The attached ●
Antigen
complement will then kill
the target cell. Complement group
Neutralization ●
Tissue cells
Antibodies can bind to certain
sites on viruses, or toxic
chemicals secreted by bacteria,
to stop them from binding with Antigen
●
Agglutination Antibody
●
By grouping together to bind to
Foreign cell
more than one antigen, ●
by phagocytes.
Antigen
●
© DIAGRAM
98 Cellular immunity
Cellular immunity
A cellular response uses T-lymphocytes in that it can directly attack and kill
(or T-cells) to attack antigens (substances infected body cells as well as foreign
that provoke an immune response). The cells. Cellular immune responses are
T-cell is a type of white blood cell that directed, in particular, against viruses,
only reacts to specific antigens. It differs cancerous body cells, and parasites.
from other cells of the immune system
T-cells at work
1 First, the antigens on an abnormal Macrophage Secreted
substances
body cell, or displayed in parts (called
antigen presentation) by a macrophage, 1 2 3
must be recognized by T-cells that are ●
sensitized to them.
2 The macrophage and T-cell secrete ● ●
substances that activate the T-cell.
●
3 The activated T-cell then duplicates
itself. These copies come in four
subgroups: killer T-cells, helper T-cells,
suppressor T-cells, and memory T-cells. Antigens T-cell T-cell copies
Killer T-cells
The killer T-cells are non-specific in their 5 It can also release substances that:
action. They directly attack the infected • activate other white blood cells in the
body cells or foreign cells. area to become “killer” cells;
4 Once a killer T-cell has bound to an • attract macrophages to the area; and
antigen, it releases toxic substances • stimulate macrophages into greater
that kill the cell. phagocytic activity.
4 5 Macrophage
●
Toxic substances Antigen
●
Killer T-cell
● Killer T-cell
●
Toxic
substances
SECTION 6: IMMUNITY & DEFENSE 99
Helper T-cells
6 Antigen
The helper T-cells are vital to the whole immune
●
response. They act as “directors” of the process.
6 On recognition of the antigen, helper T-cells secrete
substances that:
T-cell • stimulate the activation of both T-cells and B-cells
●
(white blood cells that produce antibodies); and also
• attract other types of white blood cells to the area.
B-cell
●
Suppressor T-cells
7 Inhibiting T-cell
substances
Some T-cells also have a regulatory effect on the
● immune response, but of a reverse nature.
7 After the threat has been eliminated, suppressor
T-cells release substances that inhibit the activities of
● T-cells and B-cells. This brings the immune response
to a halt and helps prevent autoimmune
(“self”-inflicted) disorders.
Suppressor
T-cell B-cell
●
Memory T-cells
8 Antigen
Some T-cells come into 9
● play on any subsequent
contact with the same
Memory T-cell
antigen. This secondary
●
response may be years
after the first meeting.
Antigen
8 If the same antigen is
●
found in the body again,
then the memory T-cells
will recognize it. T-cell copies
9 They can quickly initiate
Antigens the immune response by Antibodies
• Common antigens are producing the necessary • Antibody molecules
viruses, bacteria, pollen, T-cell duplicates: killer outnumber the cells of
dust, fungal spores, and T-cells, helper T-cells, the immune system by
household chemicals. suppressor T-cells, and about 100 million to one.
© DIAGRAM
Protein shell
SECTION 6: IMMUNITY & DEFENSE 101
White Pathogen
●
blood cell HIV
● ●
Adipose tissue Connective valve (mitral valve or bicuspid Bowel See Large intestine.
tissue containing numerous fat valve) has two cusps. Brain The body’s chief control
cells. Auditory Relating to hearing. center, consisting of billions of
Adrenal glands (or Axillary Relating to the interconnected nerve cells.
Suprarenal glands) Endocrine armpit. Brainstem A stalklike part of
glands located on each kidney. Backbone See Vertebral the brain, between the
The cortex and medulla column. cerebrum and spinal cord. It
produce a range of hormones. Basal ganglia Paired contains the midbrain, pons,
Afferent Directed toward a structures deep in the and medulla oblongata.
central organ or part of the forebrain: they help coordinate Breast A female breast
body. and control willed muscle consists mainly of a mammary
Alimentary canal (or movements. (milk-secreting) gland
Gastrointestinal tract or Gut) Basophil A type of white embedded in fatty tissue.
The digestive tract: a tube blood cell that is readily Breastbone See Sternum.
starting at the mouth and stained by basic dyes. Bronchiole A small
ending at the anus. Biceps A muscle with two subdivision of a bronchus,
Anus The lower end of the heads: biceps brachii in the ending in tiny air sacs called
rectum, forming the outlet of upper arm and biceps femoris alveoli.
the alimentary canal. in the thigh. Bronchus The main tubes
Aorta The largest artery, Bile ducts Tiny tubes that branching from the lower end
arising from the left ventricle of carry bile (a liver secretion) of the trachea and forming the
the heart. from the liver to the duodenum. main airways to and from the
Appendix (or Vermiform Bladder A sac, especially the lungs (plural: bronchi).
appendix) A short, wormlike muscular bag inside the pelvis Capillary The tiniest type of
tube opening into the cecum where urine collects before blood vessel, connecting an
but closed at the other end. It being expelled from the body. arteriole and a venule.
contains lymphoid tissue, Blood A sticky red fluid Cardiac Relating to the heart.
which is involved in immunity. consisting of colorless plasma, Cardiovascular Relating to
Arteriole A small artery red blood cells (Erythrocytes), the heart and blood circulatory
supplying blood from a main white blood cells (Leukocytes), system.
artery to a capillary. and platelets (thrombocytes). Cartilage Gristle: dense, white
Artery A blood vessel Blood pressure The pressure connective tissue cushioning
transporting blood from the of blood against blood-vessel bones.
heart to elsewhere in the body. walls, especially artery walls. Cecum The first part of the
Atrioventricular valve (or AV Bone The hard, dense large intestine, forming a blind
valve) A valve between a connective tissue that forms pouch.
ventricle and an atrium. The the skeleton’s components. Cell The basic unit of the body,
right atrioventricular valve (or Bone marrow Soft red and usually comprising an outer
tricuspid valve) has three yellow substances that fill membrane, cytoplasm, a
cusps. The left atrioventricular cavities in bone. nucleus, and organelles.
103
Central nervous system Colon The part of the large Digestion The chemical and
(CNS) The brain and spinal intestine between the cecum mechanical breakdown of
cord. and rectum. foods into substances that can
Cerebellum The largest part Connective tissue Tissue that be absorbed by the body.
of the hindbrain. It helps supports, binds, or separates DNA See Deoxyribonucleic
coordinate muscular more specialized body tissues acid.
movements. or acts as packing. Duodenum The upper part of
Cerebral cortex The Corium See Dermis. the small intestine, where most
cerebrum’s thin outer layer of Cornea The transparent chemical digestion takes place.
gray matter. circular area at the front of the Ejaculation The discharging
Cerebral hemisphere Either eye, which acts as a lens. of semen from the penis.
of the two halves of the Coronary arteries Supply the Endocardium The membrane
cerebrum. heart muscle. that lines the heart and the
Cerebrospinal fluid A clear Corpuscles A term often used heart valves.
fluid filling the brain’s ventricles for red and white blood cells. Endothelium The cell layer
and surrounding the brain and Cortex The outer layer of the that lines the inside of the
spinal cord to protect them brain. heart, blood vessels, and lymph
from injury. Cranial nerves Twelve pairs vessels.
Cerebrum The upper, major of nerves linking the underside Enzymes Biological catalysts:
part of the brain, comprising of the brain with parts of the proteins that speed up
cerebral hemispheres and head, neck, and thorax. chemical reactions without
diencephalon. Cranium The part of the skull undergoing change
Cervix A neck, especially the that contains the brain. themselves.
neck of the uterus (womb) Cutaneous Relating to the Epidermis (or Cuticle) The
where it opens into the vagina. skin. skin’s outer layer.
Clavicle Either of the two Cuticle See Epidermis. Epiglottis A cartilage flap
collarbones. Deoxyribonucleic acid behind the tongue that is
Clitoris An erectile, pea-sized (DNA) A nucleic acid in the closed during swallowing to
organ above the opening of the cell’s chromosomes containing stop food from entering the
vagina; it is highly sensitive and the cell’s coded genetic larynx.
is involved in female sexual instructions. Epiphysis See Pineal gland.
response. Dermis (or Corium) The layer Epithelium The cell layer
CNS See Central nervous of skin below the epidermis, covering the body, and lining
system. containing nerves, blood the alimentary canal and
Coccyx Four fused vertebrae vessels, glands, and hair respiratory and urinary tracts.
forming the “tail” of the follicles. Erythrocytes Red blood cells.
backbone. Diaphragm A muscular sheet Esophagus (or Gullet) The
Collagen A fibrous protein used in breathing. It separates muscular tube through which
© DIAGRAM
that is a major constituent of the thorax (chest) and food travels between the
connective tissue. abdomen (belly). pharynx and the stomach.
104 Glossary of the human body
Fallopian tubes (or Uterine Gullet See Esophagus. Karyotype The chromosome
tubes or Oviducts) The tubes Gut See Alimentary canal. complement of a person or
through which ova (eggs) travel Heart The hollow, muscular, species: the genome.
from the ovaries to the uterus. fist-sized organ that pumps Kidney A bean-shaped organ
Femur The thigh bone: the blood around the body. that filters wastes from blood
long bone between the hip and Hemoglobin The iron-rich, to form urine.
the knee. oxygen-transporting pigment in Lactation Milk production by
Follicle A small secreting red blood cells that gives them the mammary glands.
cavity or sac. Ova (egg cells) their color. Large intestine (or Bowel)
develop in follicles in the Hepatic Relating to the liver. The lower part of the
female ovaries. Hepatic portal vein See alimentary canal, comprising
Forebrain The front part of the Portal vein. the cecum, colon, and rectum.
brain comprising diencephalon Hindbrain Brain structures Larynx The cartilaginous
and telencephalon. below the midbrain, comprising voice box.
Gallbladder A pear-shaped the pons, medulla oblongata, Leukocytes White blood
bag where bile is stored, below and cerebellum. cells. They attack invading
the liver. Hormones Chemical microorganisms and help to
Gametes Sex cells: sperm in substances released into the combat injuries.
males; ova in females. blood by endocrine glands to Ligament Fibrous tissue that
Gastric Of the stomach. influence organs or tissues in connects bones.
Gastrointestinal tract See other parts of the body. Liver The largest organ in the
Alimentary canal. Hypophysis See Pituitary body, it is involved in various
Genes Basic biological gland. metabolic processes.
hereditary units, consisting of Hypothalamus A part of the Lungs The two organs of
DNA, located on brain with endocrine functions. respiration, filling most of the
chromosomes. Ileum The last part of the chest cavity inside the rib
Genitalia Sex organs. small intestine. cage and above the
Gland A structure that Immune system The body’s diaphragm.
synthesizes and secretes defense system against Lymph A transparent fluid that
a fluid. infective organisms or other leaks from blood vessels into
Gonads Primary reproductive foreign bodies. It includes the tissue spaces.
organs: the ovaries and testes. lymphatic system. Lymph gland See Lymph
Granulocytes White blood Involuntary muscle Muscle node.
cells with cytoplasm that that is not under conscious Lymph node (or Lymph
contains granules: basophils, control. See also Smooth gland) One of the “knots” in
eosinophils, and monocytes. muscle. the lymphatic system, which
Gray matter The darker tissue Jejunum The middle part of contain lymphocytes and
of the brain and spinal cord the small intestine. macrophages that filter the
mainly consisting of neurons’ Joint The junction between lymph passing through
cell bodies and dendrites. bones. the nodes.
105
Mucous membranes The different types of tissue that passageways, such as the
mucus-secreting linings of the performs a particular task. alimentary canal.
106 Glossary of the human body
Phagocytes Types of Rectum The last part of the Skin The body’s waterproof
leukocytes that engulf and colon, where feces collects covering; its largest organ,
destroy microorganisms and before leaving the body. comprising two main layers:
foreign bodies. Reflex action The body’s the epidermis and dermis.
Pharynx The throat. automatic response to a Small intestine The
Pineal gland (or Epiphysis) stimulus, such as blinking. alimentary canal between the
An endocrine gland in the brain Renal Relating to the kidney. stomach and large intestine,
that secretes melatonin. Respiration 1) Breathing; comprising the duodenum,
Pituitary gland (or 2) Taking in oxygen and giving jejunum, and ileum. Most
Hypophysis) A three-lobed, out carbon dioxide; 3) Deriving digestion occurs here.
pea-sized gland below the energy from food with or Smooth muscle (or
hypothalamus. It produces without using oxygen. Unstriated muscle or
growth hormone, hormones Respiratory system In Involuntary muscle) Muscle
that act on other endocrine humans, the mouth, nose, without striped fibers that
glands, oxytocin, and ADH. pharynx, larynx, trachea, automatically operates internal
It is often called the body’s bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, organs such as the stomach,
“master gland.” and lungs. bladder, and blood vessels.
Plasma The fluid part of Ribonucleic acid (RNA) A Sphincter A ring-shaped
blood. nucleic acid concerned with muscle that contracts to close
Pleura The membrane that protein synthesis. an orifice.
covers the lungs (visceral Ribs Twelve pairs of bones Spinal cord The cable of
pleura) and lines the chest wall that protect the chest cavity nerve tissue running down
(parietal pleura). and assist breathing by moving inside the vertebral column
Plexus A network of nerves (or up and out during inspiration (spine) and linking the brain
blood or lymph vessels). and down and in during with nerves supplying most of
Portal vein (or Hepatic portal expiration. the body.
vein) Drains blood from Salivary glands The lingual, Spine See Vertebral
digestive organs to the liver. parotid, sublingual, and column.
Prostate gland A gland submandibular glands that Sternum The breastbone.
situated below the bladder in produce saliva. Subcutaneous tissue The
males. It produces a sperm- Serum Blood plasma that sheet of connective tissue
activating fluid that forms nearly does not contain clotting below the dermis.
a third of the semen’s volume. factors but does contain Suprarenal glands See
Pudendum See Vulva. antibodies. Adrenal glands.
Pulmonary Relating to the Sinus A cavity, such as the Suture An immovable fibrous
lungs. channels draining venous blood joint between the skull bones.
Receptor A structure, such as from the brain. Taste buds Tiny sensory
a sensory nerve ending, Skeleton The bony framework organs of the tongue and
specialized to detect that protects and supports the palate, distinguishing salty,
environmental stimuli. body’s soft tissues. sweet, sour, and bitter tastes.
107
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