COMPONENTS TECHNOLOGY INSIGHTS

Ceramics Facing Competition with

other Materials
Higher stiffness and hardness as well as better corrosion and abrasion
resistance of ceramics are valuable advantages in its use as engineering
material. Its excellent high-temperature resistance offers additional
value for various applications. But still technical challenges for ceramic
materials have to be solved.

Introduction
Compared to the huge markets of metal
or plastic components technical ceram-
ics are a niche product. Accordingly, they
are rarely considered in the curriculum of
mechanical engineers. As a consequence,
the use of ceramics may simply fail in
the design of new products, because the
engineers involved are not familiar with
it. However, as indicated in Fig. 1, many
material properties of ceramics are clearly
superior to plastics and metals. Especially
the higher stiffness and hardness as well
as better corrosion and abrasion resistance
of ceramics are valuable advantages in its
use as engineering material. In addition,
its excellent high-temperature resistance
is crucial for many refractory applications.
The small coefficient of thermal expansion
of many ceramics is helpful in its use with Fig. 1
thermal loads or in precision mechanics. Comparison of ceramic, metallic and plastic material properties: upward arrow indicates
Compared to most metals, ceramics have larger, downward arrow smaller magnitude; width of arrow indicates order of effect;
colour of arrow indicates assessment: green means in general beneficial, orange means
a smaller density, making them superior in in general detrimental (according to [1])
lightweight design. Thermal and electrical
conductivity of ceramics can be selected
in a very wide range – depending on their ceramics. Compared to high-volume pro- to avoid any risk by using traditional ma-
composition and microstructure. Together duction of iron based metals and plastics, terial solutions – which is a serious barrier
with other properties, not mentioned in ceramic manufacturing is rather expen- for new ceramic applications.
Fig. 1, like electrical permittivity, dielectric sive resulting in higher prices of ceramic The complexity of material selection can
strength, piezoelectric coefficients, trans- products. Unlike most plastics and metals, be reduced using systematic methods.
parency, refractive index or biocompat- ceramics are inherently brittle. Brittle- Dissemination of these methods is help-
ibility ceramic properties can be exactly ness can lead to a risk of failure, which
matched to the requirements of a specific is not acceptable according to present-day
application. manufacturing standards. So the decision Friedrich Raether
Fraunhofer Institute for
Yet, in competition with plastics and metals in favour of ceramics is not easy in the Silicate Research
one has also to address disadvantages of design of new products. It becomes even Center for High Temperature Materials
more complex, because it depends on the and Design HTL
95448 Bayreuth
interplay of many factors beyond material Germany
Keywords
material selection, component reliability, properties as illustrated in Fig. 2. Due to
carbon foot print this difficulty, there is a strong motivation www.htl.fraunhofer.de

CERAMICAPPLICATIONS 4 (2016) [1] 57

 TECHNOLOGY INSIGHTS COMPONENTS

data bases available – many of them free ter strength? This requires a simple cal-
of charge on the internet. Yet, the major- culation. The weight M of the rod is given
ity of databases is restricted to a specific by:
material class: either metals or polymers
or ceramics. Comparing material data(1) (1) M = A A LL ρρ. . (1)
from different databases is difficult be-
cause listed properties differ by type and (1) To = A L fracture,
M avoid ρ. the tensile stresses σ
To avoid
To avoid fracture,
fracture,the
thetensile
tensilestresses σ within
stresses σ within
thethe
rodrod
haveh
measuring conditions. Examples for gen- (1) within
strength:
strength: M = the A Lrodρhave . to be smaller than the
eral cross-material databases are listed To avoid fracture,
tensile strength:the tensile stresses σ within the rod have to be s
in reference [2–4]. MATWEB [2] is a very strength:
F
large database containing 110 000 dataavoid
To (2) σ fracture,
= F < σ T the . tensile stresses σ within the rod h
(2)
strength: σ = F A < σ . (2)
records which is close to the estimated (2) σ = A< σ T . T
A
number of 130 000 materials commercial-
Combining
ly available [5]. However, it containsCombining
only Combining
both equations
both
F equations equations
gives:
gives:
the trade names and data sheets of the
Combining
(2) σ = both
both < σequations
. gives:gives:
ρ
(3) M>>F AF L MI; MI ρ= ρ.
T
=
(3) M > F L MI; MI σ T =σ T .
material producers making cross-material (3) M L MI; MI . (3)
MI σ
searches difficult. Reference [3] points to
Combining
Since
Since FFSince andLboth
and L areset, equations
set, the ratiogives: between
T density
ρ and tensileρ andstt
an ambitious Japanese database on inor- F are
and L are theset,
ratiotheMI ratiobetween
MI between density
density ρ and tensile strength σρ
Fig. 2 minimized
Since
ganic materials containing 82 000 crystal minimized F and totoL obtain
obtainare set, minimum
minimum the ratio
weight. weight.
MI This This
between
ratio
has to
ratio
is is
density
the the ρma
material a
ind
Criteria for material selection engineering
structures, 15 000 phase diagramsminimized (3)
engineering M >
task.F
task.
to obtain If L If MI;
instead
instead
to minimum
of MI
of
weight =
weight M T
weight. M
cost . cost
has to has
be
weight.This ratio is the
to be
minimized, min
is: is: σ T
and be minimized obtain minimum
index for forthe theexample
index
55 000 material property records.engineering
Yet, This ratio
example
task. is Ifabove
the
above
instead
material of weight
index related M to cost has to be
ρρp p
ful to support decision-making and to Since
polymers are listed in a separate database
index F and
the
(4) MI =σ ,
(4)forMI = L
specific
the are
example
, set,
engineering the
above ratio
task. is: MI
If between
instead of density ρ an
promote the use of new materials. Some and the material property records areminimized
not weight toMσρ obtain
T
Tpcost hasminimum
to be weight.
minimized, the This ratio is the
systematic methods for material selec- complete. engineering MI =task. ,Ifmaterial
(4) corresponding instead index
of for
weight the ex-
M cost has to be
with p = material σ price
T per kilogram. Using material indeces a ratio
tion are outlined in this paper. Some ex- Another approach is realized with theindex
CES
with
various ample
pfor
=material above
the example
material is:
price per
candidates above is:possible.
kilogram.
becomes Using material
If two independent indece
amples of successful substitutions of other selector database of Granta [4]. It con-various choice,ρcandidate
material material pcandidates materialsbecomes can bepossible.
plotted with If twoone materindep
materials by ceramics are given. General tains only 3500 material data records with (4)p =MI
asofy-axis.
material = a trade-off
material
choice,
Then ,price surface
candidate permaterials
kilogram.
can be can Using
(4)
be
constructed material
plotted showing with in
on
the
obstacles impeding a wider use of cer- metals, polymers and ceramics but thesevarious
the surface.material
This
σisT candidates
demonstrated becomes
in Fig. 3 for possible.
the light If
and two
cheap inc
as y-axis. Then a trade-off surface can be constructed show
amics as engineering material are given records enable a systematic materialmaterial
se-
best with
choice p
–
choice,=
if amaterial
low price
candidate priceis per
very
the surface. This is demonstrated in Fig. 3 for the light and kilogram.
important
materials Using
can– andbe a unidirectiona
plotted with
polymer ifmaterial
p =materialweight is price
more relevant. All other materials are located
and an outlook regarding global trends is lection. With 60 properties per material,
with
as
best y-axis.
choice – ifindices
Then aalow a price
trade-offrational ranking
perissurface
kilogram. between
very important
Fig. 3 compared to the trade-off surface. Ceramics are inferior by a
canUsing – material
be constructed
and a unidir ins
provided. numerical as well as categorical data,various
thethis
polymer various
surface. material material
This candidates
isis on candidates
demonstrated becomes becomes
in
AllFig. possible.
3 for If- being
the two
light in
Note, thatifa weight
constraint moremaximum relevant. service other
temperature materials areab
database is rather complete. An advantage
material
Fig.
best
changes possible.
3 compared
choicethe – ifIfato
choice,
competition. two
lowtheindependent
candidate trade-off
price
Now materials
is very
ceramics indices
surface. are
can
important
become be
the plotted
Ceramics best– and are with
choice ainfe
un
–
Material selection of the CES selector database is the as con-
Note,y-axis.
trade-off
polymer required
that aweight
ifThen
surface for
constraint atrade-off
ina Fig. ismaterial
3.on
moreMany choice,
maximum
surface
examples
relevant. candidate
service
can be
of material
All temperature
other indices are-sb
constructed
materials
Before a systematic decision for a specific sistency checking of data excluding rough covering materials
also can
thermal be and plotted with
electrical one
materialmaterialuse [5]. Additional
changes
the surface. the competition.
This is Now
demonstrated
Fig. 3 compared to the trade-off surface. Ceramics ceramics in Fig. become3 for the
the best areex
light c
material can be started, a careful analysis mistakes. However, as with other data the nextindex
trade-off section. as x- in
surface andFig. the 3.otherMany as y-axis.
examples Then of material indi
best
Note, choice
that a –constraint
if a low price on maximum is very important service temperatur – and a un
of the customer requirements is neces- bases the quality of the data is not covering
suf- a trade-off
also thermal surface andcan be constructed
electrical material usematerials
[5].the Addit
polymer
changes Ceramic if
the weight
competition.
success is more
stories relevant.
Now ceramics All other
become be
sary. Usually several material properties ficient to replace careful investigationsthe onnext showing
section. the best materials lined up at the
affect the performance for the planned Fig.
trade-off
material properties of selected candidates.
3 compared
surface
surface. Thisin to the trade-off
Fig. 3. Many
is demonstrated surface.
examples
in Fig. 3 for Ceramics
of material i are
Usually
Note,
covering thatceramics
a are
constraint superior on to metals
maximum and materialiftemperatur
plastics
service additional
[5]. Ad
use. They can interact in a complex man- Also few high temperature data are avail- thealso
Ceramic thermal
lightsuccess
and cheap and electrical
connecting
stories rod. Steel use
construction
changes the properties,
competition. are to be fulfilled – e.g. thermal, electrical
ner. E.g., if a light-weight construction is the
able. On the other hand, the CES selector nextis section.
first example the heat
best choicefor
sinks if aNow
– micro- loworpriceceramics
power is very become the be
electronics are discuss
required, material stiffness and density enables material selection via materialtrade-off
in-
by the electronics
Usually surface
important
ceramicsisare – in
and Fig.a
dissipated
superior3. Many
unidirectional
to heat
to metals examples
carbon
and theand of to
heatplastics
has material
beiftransf
addi
are strongly correlated in reducing weight. dices, which is a powerful tool to reduce
coveringCeramic
medium
construction fiber reinforced
also
to prevent thermal
success
properties, polymer
overheating and
stories
are to if weight
electrical
of bethefulfilledis more
material
electronics. use
Therefore
– e.g. thermal, [5].
electrAel
In addition, there are constraints, e.g. di- the number of dimensions in the decision
the
firstnext
mounted relevant.
examplesection.
on All
substrates other materials
separating are
e.g.
heat sinks for micro- or power electronics are located
chips from in the cooling liquid
mensional limitations from the construc- space. Usually the
be electrically upper
ceramics
by the electronics right
isolating
isaresection
- excluding
superior
dissipated of Fig.to 3 heat
metals
to compared
metalsfor this purpose. They r
and and the heatplastics has toif ba
tion, and optimization items, e.g. price re- Material indices combine material proper- conductivityto the λtrade-off
and lowsurface. thickness to maximize heat flow. On the ot
medium Ceramic
construction to success
prevent
duringproperties,
integrityCeramics assembly
stories
overheating
and are toofbe of the electronics.
fulfilled –require Therefor
e.g. therma
are infer ior use anthe heat sinks a minim
duction. This leads to a multidimensional ties with optimization targets of the con-
mounted
first example
substrates on substrates
dependingheat sinks
on forbymicro-
separating
materials strength
order
e.g. orchips
σ
of from
power
. The the
electronics
material coolin
index
decision space where each material is struction. Their use can be illustrated be magnitude.
in aelectrically Note, that
isolating - a constraint
excluding metals
B
on for this purpose
Usually
by the
requirements ceramics
electronicsis: are
is superior totometals
dissipated heat and andthe plastics
heat hasif a
represented by a point. In more than two simple example: consider a rod designed maximum service temperature – being
conductivity
construction
medium to λ
prevent and low
properties, thickness
are
overheating to be to
of maximize
fulfilled
the –
electronics. heat therma
e.g. flow.Ther O
dimensions often spider graphs are used for the transmission of tensile forces. The above 1000 1 assembly°C – completely changes
integrity
first example during heat
=competition. sinks and
for use
micro- of the
or heat
power sinks require
electronics
for this purpose and materials are repre- weight of the rod shall be minimized.mounted
The (5) the MIon substrates .
σ B λ 2 is dissipated Nowseparating
ceramics e.g. become chips from the co
substrates depending on materials strength σBthe. The materia
sented by polygons. In any case, a ranking tensile force F and the length of thebybe rodthe electronics
electrically
the best choice isolating – as -indicated
excluding toby heat
ametals
sec- and for heat
this has
purp
requirements is:
of materials – in order to make the best L are preset whereas its cross section medium A
conductivity ond λ andsurface
to trade-off
prevent overheating
low in Fig. 3.of
thickness tothe
Many electronics.
ex-
maximize heatTher flow
choice – becomes very difficult, because mounted
is variable. It is clear that a low material ampleson substrates
of material separating
indices
integrity during1assembly and use of the heat sinks requ are e.g.
given chips
in from the co
the trade-off between different axes is density ρ and a high tensile strength be σ the
electrically =
book
T (5) MIdepending
substrates of Ashby
isolating covering also
. on materials strength σB. The mat
- excluding thermal
metals for this purp
are favourable to fulfil the requirements. σ Band
λ
and electrical λ 2 low thickness
complex. conductivity
requirements is: material use [5]. Additional
to maximize heat flow
The second challenge is to obtain the re- But how to evaluate materials if oneintegrity
has examples will
during assembly and use be presented in the of next
the heat sinks requ
quired data. There are numerous material the better density and the other the bet- section.
substrates depending
1 on materials strength σB. The mat
(5) MI = is: 2 .
requirements σB λ
58 CERAMICAPPLICATIONS 4 (2016) [1]
1
(5) MI = .
σB λ2
 COMPONENTS TECHNOLOGY INSIGHTS
(1) M = A L ρ .

To avoid fracture, the tensile stresses σ within the rod have to be smaller than the tensile
strength:

F
(2) σ = < σT .
A

Combining both equations gives:

ρ
(3) M > F L MI; MI = .
σT
Since F and L are set, the ratio MI between density ρ and tensile strength σT has to be
minimized to obtain minimum weight. This ratio is the material index related to the specific
engineering task. If instead of weight M cost has to be minimized, the corresponding material
index for the example above is:
ρp
(4) MI = ,
σT
Fig. 3 Fig. 4
with p =Material
materialselection
pricefor aper
lightweight and cheap
kilogram. Usingconnecting
material rod indeces a rational
Material selection
rankingforbetween
substrates used in heat sinks using material
using material indices, blue and red line are trade-off surfaces for indices (material data from [4], explanations see text)
variousambient
material and candidates
high temperature becomes
applicationpossible.
respectivelyIf(material
two independent indices are required for a
materialdata from [4],candidate
choice, explanationsmaterials
see text) can be plotted with one material index as x- and the other
as y-axis. Then a trade-off surface can be constructed showing the best materials lined up at
the surface. This is demonstrated in Fig. 3 for the light and cheap connecting rod. Steel is the
Ceramic
best choice – ifsuccess
a low pricestories is very important –sequently, very thin and strong
and a unidirectional carbonceramic Ceramics can be produced with very
fiber reinforced
Usually ceramics are superior to metals
polymer if weight is more relevant. All other materials are located in the upper rightgood
substrates have been developed using transparency
section of for visible light. A
and plastics if additional demands, be- e.g. zirconia toughened
Fig. 3 compared to the trade-off surface. Ceramics are inferior by an order of magnitude. alumina (ZTA) ce- high refractive index and superior impact
sides construction properties, are to be ramics (Fig. 5). In addition, other – elec- strength increase their competitiveness
Note, that a constraint on maximum service temperature - being above 1000°C - completely
fulfilled – e.g. thermal, electrical or optical trical – requirements have to be met by compared to plastics and glasses which
changes the competition. Now ceramics become the best choice – as indicated by a second
properties. As first example heat sinks for the substrates. A detailed discussion are much cheaper on the other hand. Cer-
trade-off surface in Fig. 3. Many examples of material indices are given in the book of Ashby
micro- or power electronics are discussed. on microstructure design is presented amic lenses successfully replaced glass
covering also thermal and electrical material use [5]. Additional examples will be presented in
The power consumed by the electronics in [6]. lenses in consumer products, like cam-
the next section.
is dissipated to heat and the heat has to Due to the superior biocompatibility of eras in mobile phones, due to their higher
be transferred to a fluid cooling medium ceramics, another successful market is refractive index enabling smaller designs.
Ceramic success stories
to prevent overheating of the electron- medical application. Ceramics can be de- High strength and stiffness make ceramics
ics. Therefore electronic components are signed to easy biodegradability or long- an interesting material for ballistic protec-
Usuallymounted
ceramics onare superiorseparating
substrates to metalse.g. and plastics if additional
term stability. They can demands,
be used forbesides
bone
construction properties,
chips from areliquid.
the cooling to beThese
fulfilled
sub-– e.g. thermal, electrical
replacement, or optical
dental prostheses or properties.
im- As
first example
strates heat sinks
have to for micro-isolating
be electrically or power – electronics
plants. Besides arebiocompatibility,
discussed. The power consumed
mechan-
by the electronics is dissipated
excluding metals to heat They
for this purpose. and theical
heat has to be
properties andtransferred
reliability aretodecisive
a fluid cooling
mediumrequire
to prevent overheating
high thermal of theλ electronics.
conductivity and Therefore
for selecting ceramicselectronic components
in this area. In add- are
mounted lowonthickness
substrates separating
to maximize heate.g.
flow.chips
On from
ition,the cooling
dental liquid.
prostheses canThese
requiresubstrates
aes- have to
be electrically
the otherisolating - excluding
hand mechanical integritymetals
during forthetic
this properties
purpose.hardly
Theyattainable
require high thermal
by other
assembly
conductivity λ and
and use
lowofthickness
the heat sinks require
to maximize materials (Fig.On
heat flow. 6). Athecompetitor
other hand of ceram-
mechanical
integritya during
minimumassembly
thickness and
of the of the heat ics,
usesubstrates sinkse.g.require
with implants,
a minimum is titanium which of the
thickness
depending
substrates dependingon materials σB. The σBhas
strengthstrength
on materials a slightly
. The materialinferior
index biocompatibility
combining but these two
material
requirements is: index combining these two re- very good reliability and a favourable price.
quirements is: The price of ceramic implants is pushed
1 up by the expensive finishing processes
(5) MI = . (5) required to meet their small dimensional
σB λ2
tolerances. It was shown recently that
Fig. 4 shows this material index versus production cost of dental implants can be
specific electrical conductivity for several reduced significantly substituting finishing
materials. It can be seen that ceramic sub- by a very homogenous forming process
strates are clearly superior to polymers – and machining of green parts [7]. Due to
with aluminum nitride being the best – but the constant porosity sintering leads to a
also most expensive – choice. Using tape predictable shrinkage within 20 µm and
Fig. 5
casting, substrates can be manufactured ceramic implants can be used as sintered Thin ZTA substrate for heat sinks produced by
to a minimum thickness of 300 µm. Con- (Fig. 7). tape casting

CERAMICAPPLICATIONS 4 (2016) [1] 59

 TECHNOLOGY INSIGHTS
Fig. 6
Glass ceramics with adaptable translucency and colour
for aesthetic dental restorations
tion (Fig. 8). It is used in layered compos-
ites together with transparent polymers for
bullet proof windowpanes. Manufacturing
transparent ceramics requires very pure
raw materials and expensive hot isostatic
pressing processes. A decrease of produc-
tion cost opens up many new applica-
tions. E.g. superior abrasion and corrosion
resistance as well as high temperature
stability of transparent ceramics allows its
use as inspection glasses in harsh envir-
onments (Fig. 9).
Fig. 8
Inverse strength versus inverse Young’s modulus
of transparent ceramics, glasses and polymers
(material data from [4])
60
Fig. 7
Dental implant of zirconia produced within dimensional
tolerances of ±20 µm without finishing
(Source: BCE Special Ceramics GmbH)
There are numerous further successful
applications of technical ceramics. All of
them are based on specific material prop-
erties not attainable with metals or poly-
mers. But a more comprehensive descrip-
tion is far beyond the scope of the present
article. Instead some challenges are ad-
dressed in the next chapter.
Technical challenges and future trends
From the viewpoint of construction en-
gineers ceramics are not as reliable as
COMPONENTS
plastics or metals. This is a barrier for a
wider use of ceramic components, which
cannot be underestimated. It creates a
driving force for circumventing use of cer-
amics by searching for other solutions,
e.g. by changing the construction or by
combining different materials. The cus-
tomers view provides a strong reason to
improve reliability of ceramic components.
Much progress has been obtained in this
field during the last two decades. So many
construction engineers meanwhile ac-
cept the necessity of using special design
rules compatible to ceramic properties.
Automation level in ceramic production
has been significantly increased leading
to better reproducibility of critical process
steps. Also process monitoring and qual-
ity control have been drastically improved.
Note that special ceramic products have
Fig. 9
Inspection glasses of transparent spinel ceram-
ics for high temperature application
(Source: CeramTec-ETEC GmbH)
CERAMICAPPLICATIONS 4 (2016) [1]
COMPONENTS
Fig. 10
CO2 footprint and price of ceramics, metals and plastics (material data from [4])
been a driver for improving quality. E.g.
with ceramic hip joints very high implanta-
tion cost led to an extraordinary high level
of production control and with transparent
ceramics, the visibility of each failure en-
forced special care but also provided add-
itional options in failure detection.
However, the reliability of most ceramics is
still inferior compared to competing mater-
ials. Reliability is measured by the Weibull
modulus, which is in the range of 5 to 25 for
technical ceramics. This means that large
safety margins are necessary in ceramic
designs. Moreover, fracture toughness of
ceramics is typically lower by an order of
magnitude compared to metals – leading
to catastrophic failure if critical stresses
exceed strength. Fracture toughness can
be improved using special composites, e.g.
ceramic matrix composites [8]. With these
composites different mechanisms like
crack deflection or fiber pullout increase
fracture energy allowing for their use in
security relevant areas. Yet, the improve-
References
[1] http://www.keramverband.de/brevier_dt/
brevier.htm
[2] http://www.matweb.com
[3] http://www.crystdb.nims.go.jp
[4] www.grantadesign.com
[5] Ashby, M.F.: Material selection in me-
chanical design. New York 2009
[6] Müller, T.M.; Raether, F.: 3D modelling
of ceramic composites and simulation of
CERAMICAPPLICATIONS 4 (2016) [1]
ment of the Weibull modulus is of general
importance for new applications of all cer-
amics. It was shown recently that sintering
can lead to increasing inhomogeneity of
initially homogenous green compacts [9].
Better understanding and control of the
thermodynamic driving forces responsible
for this phenomenon are required. Inher-
ently homogeneous sintering methods are
to be implemented in ceramic production.
Moreover, to cope with increasing use of
finite element methods in construction,
specification of ceramic products has to be
completed with regard to computer simu-
lations and the uncertainty of property data
should be reduced.
In addition, the production costs of ceram-
ics have to be further decreased to im-
prove their competitive position (Fig. 10).
More simple components should be identi-
fied which can be produced large scale by
cheap processes. This requires further de-
velopment of joining methods to construct
complex systems from standardized semi-
their electrical, thermal and elastic prop-
erties. Comp. Mater. Science 81 (2014)
205–211
[7] Raether, F. (ed.): Energieeffizienz bei der
Keramikherstellung. Frankfurt 2013
[8] Raether, F.: Ceramic Matrix Composites
– an Alternative for Challenging Con-
struction Tasks. Ceramic Applications 1
(2013) 45–49
TECHNOLOGY INSIGHTS
finished components. On the other hand,
the global trend towards customized prod-
ucts and small series should be considered
by establishing cheaper forming methods.
Additive manufacturing methods are opti-
mally suited to production on demand sav-
ing the high cost for moulding tools. Yet,
they have to mature considerably to allow
general use in small series production of
ceramics [10]. Finally, more near net shape
processing is required to save finishing
cost as shown in the previous example on
dental implants (compare Fig. 7).
Another global trend requires overall re-
duction of CO2 emissions. At first sight
one would assume that ceramics have
disadvantages with respect to sustain-
ability compared to other materials due
to their high sintering temperatures. How-
ever, Fig. 10 shows that ceramics are in
a middle region with regard to CO2 foot-
print during production. It is important not
to lose ground in the competition of dif-
ferent materials in terms of sustainability
[7]. Due to the high public commitment,
sustainability will become an important
criterion for material selection in the
future. Considering the long life span of
production furnaces, present-day deci-
sions affect carbon footprint of sintered
ceramics during the next three decades.
The reduction of CO2 emissions can have a
positive impact on ceramic market share,
since ceramics have a unique position in
their use in high temperature processes.
Apart from some refractory metals, which
need special atmospheres, there are no
other materials with maximum service
temperatures clearly above 1000 °C. In
the effort to improve energy efficiency of
high temperature processes, invest in high
temperature materials will increase – giv-
ing new chances for high-performance
ceramics with tailored material properties.
[9] Raether, F.: Parameters for inherently
homogeneous sintering processes. Adv.
Engin. Mater. 17 (2015) 1374–1382
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tive Manufacturing of Ceramics: Stereo-
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