ARTICLE IN PRESS

International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612

Automatic monitoring of rotary-percussive drilling for ground

characterization—illustrated by a case example in Hong Kong
Z.Q. Yue*, C.F. Lee, K.T. Law, L.G. Tham
Department of Civil Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, China
Accepted 23 December 2003

Abstract

In mountainous regions comprising weathered soils and rocks, it is important to delineate the spatial distributions of geomaterials
with different weathering and decomposition grades in depth. This paper presents a methodology to cost-effectively and accurately
identify the subsurface zones of volcanic weathering. The methodology consists of in situ digital monitoring and a number of
associated data analysis methods. The in situ digital technique is the drilling process monitor. It can automatically, objectively and
continuously measure and record parameters associated with the full drilling process of a rotary-percussion drilling machine when it
is being used to drill a production hole (such as probe holes and soil nail holes) in the ground. The data analysis methods are used to
identify relevant factual data from the full drilling process data for zoning. The calculations are simple and straightforward tasks.
Factual data presented in the paper illustrate that the proposed methodology can be a simple and cost-effective tool to record and
utilize by-products of current normal drilling practice for ground investigation, geotechnical design and verifications, drilling
construction management, as well as drilling quality control. The proposed methodology offers great potential in furthering the
geotechnical knowledge and engineering practice in Hong Kong and many other mountainous regions comprising weathered soils
and rocks. There is also significant potential for other applications in civil and mining engineering through estimation of the
mechanical properties of rock from the monitored drilling data.
r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Rotary-percussive drilling; Automatic drilling process monitoring; DPM; Weathering profiles; Volcanic rock; Soil nailing; Ground
investigation; Penetration rate

1. Introduction monitoring (or instrumented drilling) techniques have

Drilling a hole in the ground with a machine is one of
the most common, necessary and important operations
in geotechnical engineering and in the construction and
mining industries. It has long been accepted that, besides
its primary purpose, drilling itself can also be considered
as a measurement and in situ technique for ground
characterization. Over the last three decades, a number
of researchers and engineers have carried out investiga-
tions on how to record and use drilling parameters such
as penetration rate for ground investigation. Attempts
to establish general correlations between the drilling
parameters and soil and rock properties, however, have
been found to be unsatisfactory. Drilling process
*Corresponding author. Tel.: +852-2859-1967; fax: +852-2559-
5337.
E-mail address: yueqzq@hkucc.hku.hk (Z.Q. Yue).
not become a routine and standard tool in ground
investigation around the world. Consequently, a large
amount of useful and valuable factual information on
ground conditions, as by-products of current normal
drilling practice, have not been recorded and utilized.
Over the last few years, we have launched and
completed a research and development project on
drilling process monitoring for ground investigation.
Our strategy for developing the wide utilization of
drilling process monitoring for ground investigation is
to establish reliable techniques and simple analysis
methods for characterizing specific types of geomaterials
on a regional basis. In this paper, we illustrate the
procedure by a case example focusing on zoning
weathered volcanic profiles from automatically mon-
itored data from the pneumatic rotary-percussive drilling
process. We present a methodology for cost-effec-
tively and accurately zoning the subsurface weathered

1365-1609/$ - see front matter r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ijrmms.2003.12.151
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574 Z.Q. Yue et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612
volcanic profiles. The methodology includes a new
in situ drilling process monitoring device and associated
data analysis methods. Case study data are presented to
demonstrate the proposed technique and the methods
for zoning volcanic weathering profiles. The results of
our present studies have shown that the new in situ
device and the associated data analysis methods can
provide engineers and geologists with a simple and
reliable tool for furthering geotechnical practice and
knowledge in mountainous regions comprising weath-
ered volcanic soils and rocks. We anticipate that it will
be easily possible to extend the technique to other
geotechnical areas, such as site investigation boreholes
for civil engineering and obtaining the in situ mechanical
properties of the ore and country rock for mining
engineering.
2. Background
2.1. Pneumatic rotary-percussive drilling
Pneumatic rotary-percussive drilling is a technique
that has been widely used for production drilling of
holes in ground in civil and mining industries around the
world [1–5]. Using pneumatic pressure, such technique
applies percussive force, thrust force and rotational
torque to a drill bit via a down-the-hole hammer. The
drill bit is fixed to the bottom of the down-the-hole
hammer. The hammer generates percussive force to the
Fig. 1. Distribution of Mesozoic volcanic rocks and site of DPM application in Hong Kong, China (after GEO, 1994 with minor modifications).
bit to impact and shatter the ground and the rotational
torque rotates it to tear and cut the fragments whilst the
thrust force keeps it in contact with the ground during
bit advancement. In the meantime, the drill cuttings and
detritus in the form of fine particles and dust are
brought from the hole to the ground surface via the air
flushing medium. This drilling technique has a major
advantage in that it can rapidly and economically
produce holes in soils and rocks for various construction
and mining purposes. No undisturbed sample or core
can be obtained from the rotary-percussive technique.
In Hong Kong, the pneumatic rotary-percussion
drilling technique has been extensively used to drill
holes for slope stabilization in many construction
projects [2,6–8]. Thousands of holes have been and will
be drilled and used for the installation of soil nails,
raking drains, rock bolts and ground anchors in a large
number of man-made and natural slopes and retaining
walls. A substantial number of the slopes comprise
mainly weathered volcanic rocks of Jurassic or Cre-
taceous age [9,10].
2.2. Weathered volcanic rocks
As shown in Fig. 1, Mesozoic volcanic rocks account
for approximately 50% of Hong Kong’s land surface
area and form most of its mountainous terrains [10,11].
Tuffs are the most common volcanic rock type.
Furthermore, Hong Kong is situated in the subtropical
zone and experiences a hot and humid climate with
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seasonal heavy rainfalls. Such a seasonal environment
promotes chemical weathering of the rocks and has
resulted in a weathered mantle of varying thickness and
decomposition that covers fresh volcanic rocks. Such
chemically decomposed volcanics generally have much
less shear strength than those associated with the parent
fresh solid volcanics. The higher the decomposition, the
lower the weathered volcanic strengths. The mantle
weathering profiles usually consist of residual soils (RS),
completely, highly, moderately and slightly decomposed
volcanics [9,12]. The RS and completely decomposed
volcanics (CDV) are the weakest weathered volcanics.
From an engineering point of view, the RS and CDV are
in situ weathered soils since they can be broken by hand
into their constituent grains. Steep slopes comprising RS
and CDV are, therefore, prone to instability and failure.
During prolonged and heavy rainfalls, landslides have
frequently occurred in steep slopes comprising weath-
ered volcanics.
To ensure effective engineering in Hong Kong, it is an
essential task to construct geological models that can
adequately represent the actual volcanic weathering
profile of a specific project site. Particularly, the
moderately or slightly decomposed volcanics (MDV or
SDV) have been used as a sound bedrock for soil nail
anchorage, for a pile foundation base and for permanent
groundwater tables in Hong Kong geotechnical design
and practice [6]. The volcanic weathering profiles can
have extremely high spatial variations over a short
distance, because of large temporal fluctuations in the
weather and groundwater flow, high spatial changes in
the rock lithologies and structures, as well as hilly
terrains [12]. A thorough understanding of volcanic
weathering profiles in the ground is always essential [13].
2.3. Issues in current practice
It is conventional practice to carry out ground
investigations to obtain clear and reliable pictures and
understanding of ground conditions from both the
geotechnical and geological points of view. Such
conventional ground investigation generally uses site
geological inspections and subsurface drillhole explora-
tion techniques. The subsurface exploration holes are
usually drilled with hydraulic rotary core drilling
techniques [1–2]. The rotary core drilling has the
important advantage over full hole percussive drilling
of providing a core sample in a core-barrel while the
hole is being advanced. Although it is recommended and
used for most situations in ground investigation, rotary
core drilling is time-consuming and costly. Therefore,
only a limited number of rotary core drilling can be
carried out in most ground investigations. Conse-
quently, such limited factual data could lead to
inaccurate ground geological models. For example, an
inferred volcanic bedrock depth profile may not
575
represent the actual weathering profile of a volcanic
slope site. Such differences may be considered as
unforeseen ground geological conditions during the
construction stage, which could cause severe contractual
claims or safety consequences. It is therefore essential to
carry out verification and validation of design geological
models during construction. Sometimes, it is also
necessary to apply the observational method [14],
statistical methods [15,16] and the integrated approach
[17] to geotechnical investigation and construction
projects.
It is well recognized that an operator can feel the
drillability and hardness of subsurface materials and
their variations with the advancement in drill bit depth
when using a pneumatic rotary-percussive drilling rig to
drill a hole in weathered volcanics. Such drilling
experience and hole depths for construction are, how-
ever, usually recorded by the operator manually. These
manual records can be subjective and inaccurate. Their
use for zoning volcanic weathering profiles in construc-
tion and/or verification of design geological models is
limited and needs great care and experience [7].
2.4. Review of instrumented drilling
In the oil, gas and mining industries, the recording
and analyzing of drilling parameters have long been
practiced. The main purpose has been to monitor the
proper working condition of drilling tools and drilling
directions and to provide feedback to improve and
optimize drilling performance [3,18–22]. These existing
technologies in drilling parameter recording (or instru-
mented drilling or measurement while drilling) do seem
to provide some assistance in tackling the problem of
zoning soil and rock strata during construction with
reduced cost. Therefore, the concept of drilling para-
meter recording was introduced into civil and mining
industries for ground investigation in the 1970s [19,23].
Some relevant studies in ground characterization are
reviewed in the ensuing text.
Horner and Sherrell [24] carried out an investigation
using the manually recorded penetration rate of an air-
flush rotary percussion drill for ground investigation in
rocks. The time used for drill bit advancement 0.3 m
deep was used to estimate the penetration rate for
determining characteristics of a rock stratum. They
found that such a technique could be used as a form of
crude but continuous dynamic penetration test, with the
additional advantage that a borehole was formed for
subsequent use.
Soletanche–Bachy in France developed a digital
recorder Enpasol in the 1970s for measuring eight
drilling parameters of typically continuous non-coring
rotary rigs [23]. The drilling parameters include penetra-
tion rate, rotation speed, thrust and torque as well as
others at a given penetration depth interval during
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drilling. The system was used for soil/rock identification
at dredging sites [25], soil improvement projects [26,27],
and subsurface investigations in London [28,29].
Peck and Vynne [19] reviewed some drill monitoring
systems used in Canadian mining industries. Their
original system was termed a drilling efficiency indicator
(DEI). It was subsequently improved and renamed as
Stratalogger II and Stratalogger Plus. These systems
were used to monitor blasthole drills and to identify soft
coal seams from surrounding hard waste rocks.
Fortunati and Pellegrino [30] introduced a so-called
Papero system, developed in 1985 by Rodio S.p.A. in
Italy, for drilling parameter recording in ground
investigation. The system was applied to continuous
non-coring rigs for soil grouting treatment checking
and rock geotechnical characterization for fast con-
struction [30,31]. A similar system was also used by
Garassino and Schinelli [32] for monitoring of a number
of tricone drillholes to detect cavities in a power plant
project in Italy. They adopted an optimized drilling rig
pressures and kept them as constant as possible during
drilling.
Schunnesson [33–36] and Schunnesson and Holme
[37] carried out a series of investigations for rock
characterization using instrumented drilling of percus-
sive drills. In particular, Schunnesson [34] used drilling
performance parameters to predict rock quality desig-
nation (RQD) values in a tunneling project in the north
of Sweden.
Suzuki et al. [38] in Japan developed a soil survey
system vehicle for seismic cone penetration test in
combination with a rotary percussion drill without
coring. A measurement-while-drilling logging device was
equipped in the vehicle for measuring the soil resistance
to the high-speed rotary percussion drill [39].
Despite the obvious advantages in such drilling
parameter recording and some successful cases for
ground characterization, however, the relevant techni-
ques and methods have not become a common or
standard ground investigation tool in the civil and
mining industries [29,36]. Drilling parameter recording
(or instrumented drilling) is still a comparatively new
concept in terms of regular implementation in geotech-
nical engineering [29]. Attempts to have general
correlations between soil and rock properties and
electronic drilling parameter data have been unsatisfac-
tory. Furthermore, existing drilling parameter recording
techniques have seldom been used for zoning weathered
volcanic profiles.
A major obstacle appears to be the difficulties
associated with the analysis and interpretation of
recorded electronic data. The electronic raw data
recorded using existing devices generally have significant
random variations with drillhole depth. In particular,
such random variations can also be observed in the
penetration rate of drilling that was recorded with the
existing technologies. Since the penetration rate is the
single most important parameter reflecting ground
material characteristics, its high random variations with
depth cause the recorded data not to be able to exactly
reflect actual material variations in the drilled ground.
In order to satisfactorily correlate the penetration rate
with soil and rock properties, attempts were made to
standardize and maintain all other drilling parameters,
as far as possible, constant [29,32]. Such standardization
approaches have limited applications since it is difficult
and unrealistic to demand constant drilling parameters
in production drillings associated with different drilling
rigs and operators. Schunnesson [36] suggested a data
analysis method for separating rock dependent variation
from other influences on the recorded drilling parameter
data. It was based on a step-wise normalization of raw
data, where hole length dependent variation initially was
removed, followed by a normalization of the thrust
dependent variation, and finally, by removing the
influence of penetration rate on torque pressure. It is
evident that this method of data analysis is sophisti-
cated. Besides, it seems that the effect of percussive
impacts was not considered explicitly.
2.5. Objectives and outline
It is, therefore, necessary to further develop in situ
devices and associated data analysis methods for
automatically monitoring the routine drilling process
of pneumatic rotary-percussive drilling machines and
for accurately and effectively zoning soil and rock
profiles in weathered volcanics. It is against the above
background that the present research and development
project has been motivated and launched. We have
developed an innovative in situ device, namely, the
drilling process monitor (DPM) for automatic recording
[40–43]. For cost-effectiveness, this DPM can be easily
and non-destructively mounted onto any existing dril-
ling machine. It can automatically, objectively and
continuously measure and record drilling parameters
in real time at any given time intervals (say, 0.5 or 1 s). It
can record the full drilling process and operations that
are experienced by a drilling machine when drilling a
hole in the ground. We have found that the electronic
data from the DPM can be used to zone and to
characterize the structural geometries of weathered rock
and soil profiles in depth without difficulty.
In this paper, our demonstration example is focused
on how to accurately and effectively zone subsurface
volcanic weathering profiles via automatic monitoring
of the pneumatic rotary-percussive drilling process. We
will firstly describe the new in situ device for monitoring
and recording the full drilling process associated with
ordinary pneumatic rotary-percussion drilling machines.
We will then present data analysis methods for effective
and accurate zoning and characterizing weathered
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volcanic soil and rock geometrical profiles from the
recorded electronic data in real time series. The methods
are presented by examining actual data from the
monitoring of the drilling process for soil nailing in
cut slopes comprising weathered volcanic soils and rocks
in Hong Kong.
3. Techniques for drilling process monitoring
3.1. Pneumatic rotary-percussive drilling machines
Fig. 2 is a site photograph showing a typical
pneumatic rotary-percussive drilling machine that is
commonly used for drilling production holes in weath-
ered volcanics in Hong Kong. It has a drilling
equipment system, a crawler carrier system and a
compressor. The compressor is not shown in the
photograph in Fig. 2. The drilling equipment system is
mounted on the crawler carrier system for transporta-
tion and positioning. The compressor supplies com-
pressed air via a main pneumatic hose to the drilling
equipment system. The compressed air is the fluid that is
used as the source of energy for drilling. As also shown
in Fig. 3, the drilling equipment system consists of the
Fig. 2. Pneumatic rotary-percussive drilling machine with down-the-hole hammer (model DC45A-2) for production soil nail holes in weathered
volcanic rock.
577
following main parts:
* a manual control panel;
* a swivel drill chuck (fixed with a pneumatic rotation
motor and a shank adaptor);
* a pneumatic thrust motor;
* a steel gauge loop chain;
* a straight steel frame with two sliding channels and a
centralizing clamp at the front end; and
* a number of steel cylindrical open tubes of 1, 2 or 3 m
long and with couplers for extension,
* a down-the-hole hammer of 1 or 3 m long and with a
drill bit at the bottom end.
An operator uses the manual control panel to
separate the compressed airflow in a main pneumatic
hose from the compressor into five smaller size
pneumatic hoses and to operate the drilling equipment
system. One of the five hoses is connected with the
swivel drill chuck to direct the airflow into the down-
the-hole hammer for percussion through the extension
steel tubes. The swivel drill chuck is connected with the
hammer or an extension tube via the shank adaptor. The
airflow drives the piston of down-the-hole hammer
repetitively. Such repetitive piston blows generate shock
waves and impacts that are directly transmitted to the
drill bit at the bottom end. The exhausted airflow of the
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578 Z.Q. Yue et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612
Fig. 3. Installation details of the DPM on a pneumatic rotary-percussive drilling machine with down-the-hole hammer.
down-the-hole hammer escapes the hammer through
holes in the drill bit. Such exhausted airflow flushes drill
cuttings beneath the drill bit and carries them up to
ground surface through the open space between the
coupled extension tubes-hammer system and the drill-
hole walls. The operator controls the supply of the
airflow for the hammer percussions.
Two other hoses are connected with the pneumatic
rotation motor. The rotation motor is associated with
the swivel drill chuck. At any time, airflow from one of
the two hoses could be directed into the rotation motor
for either forward or reverse rotations. Such direction is
controlled by the operator. The airflow powers the
rotation motor to rotate the shank adaptor clockwise or
anti-clockwise. The shank adaptor transfers the forward
or reverse rotation onto the connected extension tubes
and down-the-hole hammer with drill bit system. The
extension steel tubes are connected together tightly with
the down-the-hole hammer and the shank adaptor via
couplers.
The last two hoses are connected with the pneumatic
thrust motor. At any time, airflow from one of the two
hoses could be directed into the thrust motor. Such
direction is also controlled by the operator. The airflow
powers the thrust motor to apply downward or upward
thrust load onto the loop chain via a gear system. The
thrust motor is fixed onto the bottom of the straight
steel frame. The thrust motor has a gear system to power
the bottom straight portion of the steel loop chain and
to pull it forward or backward. The loop chain is
mounted onto the steel frame between the two sliding
channels.
Besides the gear system associated with the thrust
motor, there are other three gears to direct the loop
chain motion. At each end of the two sliding channels,
there is a circular gear that is fixed between the two
channels for redirecting the chain motion. These two
fixed gears at the two ends cause the loop chain to have
two straight portions. One is the bottom straight portion
running beneath the straight steel frame, the other is the
upper straight portion running above the straight steel
frame. The upper straight portion of the loop chain is
attached to the swivel drill chuck via the fourth gear
system. The steel chain pulls the chuck together with the
rotation motor sliding on the two sliding channels,
either downward or upward, above the straight steel
frame. The chuck then pushes downward or pulls
upward the down-the-hole hammer. The shank adaptor
transfers the thrust loads to the hammer with or without
extension tubes. The loop chain and gear systems
function in such a manner that when the thrust motor
pulls the bottom chain forward, the upper chain would
pull the chuck backward at the same speed, and vice
versa.
Both the manual control panel and the straight steel
frame are fixed onto the crawler carrier system at
different locations. The drilling equipment system and
the crawler carried system are founded on the ground
surface via two independent crawler trains.
3.2. Full drilling process
Besides the drilling process for penetrating the ground
with the drill bit, we have observed other operational
processes that are required for carrying out the drilling
work. The full drilling process associated with pneu-
matic rotary-percussive drilling machines can be briefly
described as the following main steps in a time sequence.
Step 1: Preparation. The main work includes (a) move
the drilling machine to a suitable position for a specific
drillhole; (b) put the straight steel frame at the correct
declination angle to the horizontal as required in the
design; (c) open the main pneumatic hose connected
with the compressor for compressed airflow. In this
step, the drilling equipment system is idle and not in
operation.
Step 2: Initial drilling. The control panel is used to
install the down-the-hole hammer onto the swivel drill
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chuck via its shank adaptor. The hammer bottom end is
fixed with a drill bit. The control panel is used again
to move the drill bit touching the surface of the ground
to be drilled. The control panel is further used to
commence the drilling with the actions of percussion,
rotation and thrust. The drilling work will be stopped
once a majority of the hammer length is advanced into
the ground.
Step 3: Subsequent drill runs by adding extension tubes
(rods). After completion of the initial hammer advance-
ment, the swivel drill chuck will be disconnected with the
hammer at the shank adaptor. The chuck will be pulled
back for adding the first extension tube onto the shank
adaptor and the upper hammer end. Then the drilling
will be advanced again until the first extension tube is in
the ground. The first extension tube and hammer system
will be disconnected with the chuck at the shank
adaptor. The chuck will be pulled back for space to
add the second extension tube. Similarly, the second
extension tube will be connected with the shank adaptor
and the upper end of the first extension tube. Such
operations of drilling, disconnecting, adding and con-
necting and drilling will be repeated until the hammer
bit is advanced to the designed depth in the ground.
Step 4: Dismounting the drilling by retrieving extension
tubes and hammer. After the completion of Step 3, the
control panel is used again to pull back the last added
extension tube back to the ground surface. This last tube
is then disconnected with the shank adaptor and the
remaining extension tubes in the hole. The chuck is
pushed downward again to connect the shank adaptor
with the upper end of the remaining extension tubes.
Then the above operations of pulling back, disconnect-
ing, removing, push downward and connecting will be
carried out until the hammer rod is retrieved from the
drillhole. Then, the drilling machine is relocated to next
drillhole position. Steps 1–4 are repeated.
3.3. DPM for full drilling process monitoring
The actual advancement of the hammer bit into
deeper ground is only a part of the full drilling process,
although it is the most important process for ground
characterization. We have found that the full drilling
process can be represented by the following parameters
in real-time sequence.
* Position of the swivel drill chuck on the straight steel
frame;
* Rotation of the shank adaptor associated with the
swivel drill chuck;
* The pressures of the two compressed airflows for the
thrust motor;
* The pressures of the two compressed airflows for the
rotation motor; and
579
* The pressure of the compressed airflow for the
hammer percussion through the swivel drill chuck.
It is further noted that the above drilling parameters
have not been recorded in real-time sequence in most
existing devices for instrumented drilling. Existing
devices recorded the relevant drilling parameters only
corresponding to the drilling process for drill bit deeper
advancement at a pre-selected depth advancement
increment. For instance, the digital recorder Enpasol
recorded its measurements for each 5 mm penetration
depth interval [23,25–29]. The drill monitoring systems
in Peck and Vynne [19] measured drill variables at a
sampling rate of 50 mm penetration depth. The Papero
system recorded the values of its measurements at the
intervals of every 10 mm penetration [30–32]. Drilling
parameters were recorded at usually 25 mm penetration
depth intervals in Suzuki et al. [38] and Nishi et al. [39]
and at 100 mm hole advancement depths in Schunnes-
son [33–36] and Schunnesson and Holme [37]. Special
switch devices were needed in these existing systems to
stop recording immediately after one run is completed
or during other non-penetrating operations and to
resume recording immediately before the next penetra-
tion in those existing instrumented drilling devices. It
would be time-consuming and subject to random errors
if manual switch devices were to be used.
In this study, we have developed an innovative DPM
for automatically recording the full drilling process
associated with pneumatic rotary percussive drilling
machines in real-time sequence and in a digital manner.
In Fig. 3, arrangement for mounting the DPM onto an
existing drilling machine is illustrated. The DPM device
comprises of a transducer unit and a data processing
and logging unit. Fig. 4 shows the design flow sketch of
the in situ DPM device. The transducer unit includes
seven sensors to measure the following drilling process
parameters:
* a position sensor that measures the position of the
swivel drill chuck movement on the loop chain;
* a rotation sensor that measures the rotation speed of
the shank adaptor associated with the swivel drill
chuck; and
* five pressure sensors, each of which measures a
compressed airflow pressures in one of the five
pneumatic hoses that are the outputs from the
manual control panel.
The data processing and logging unit controls the
sampling of signals from the seven sensors. It collects the
seven signals simultaneously in the forms of voltage
output or electrical pulses at a pre-selected time-
sampling interval in real-time sequence. The time-
sampling interval can be 0.5 or 1 s. Data acquisition
cables are used to transmit the data from the sensors to
the data processing unit for store. After completion of
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Fig. 4. Design sketch for data flow of the DPM.
all the monitoring in 1 day, the electronic data and their
sampling time can be then downloaded into a personal
computer for further processing and analysis.
The transducer and data processing and logging units
are small in size and are portable. Mounting the sensors
on an existing drilling machine and removing the sensors
from the machine are an easy and simple task and can be
completed within a short time. The mounting and
removing work do not have any side effects for either
the drilling machines or the routine operations. All
sensors are heavy duty and robust and protected to
endure various site conditions including dust, water,
heat, light, and vibrations. A battery is used to supply
with small amount of power required for the device. The
sensors can be easily calibrated in a regular civil
engineering laboratory. As a result, the DPM is
versatile, simple and can be used on many existing
rotary-percussive drilling machines and other drilling
machines with minor modifications.
3.4. Typical DPM results
So far, the DPM has been used for monitoring and
recording a large number of the full drilling processes at
a number of ground investigation and construction sites
in Hong Kong. In this section, we present an example to
show typical original data that were recorded with the
DPM. The data are presented in Fig. 5. The data show a
typical full drilling process associated with the pneu-
matic rotary-percussive drilling machine in Fig. 2 in
forming a downwardly dipping drillhole in weathered
volcanics. The monitoring work with the DPM was
conducted when the drilling machine was used to drill a
production drillhole for soil nailing.
Fig. 5a shows the real-time history of the position of
the swivel drill chuck on the sliding channels with
respect to a fixed point on the straight steel frame. It is
evident that the chuck position on the two straight
sliding channels was moving with time forward and
backward within a travel distance of about 3.5 m.
Fig. 5b shows the real-time history of the pressure of
the compressed airflow in the pneumatic hose that was
transmitting into the down-the-hole hammer for the
percussions. Figs. 5c and d show the real-time histories
of the two pressures of the compressed airflows in the
two pneumatic hoses that were transmitting into the
thrust motor for downward and upward movements of
the swivel drill chuck, respectively. Figs. 5e and f show
the real-time histories of the two pressures of the
compressed airflows in the two pneumatic hoses that
were transmitting into the rotation motor for forward
and reverse rotation of the shank adaptor, respectively.
It is noted that Fig. 5 does not show the real-time
history of the rotation speed of the shank adaptor with
respect to the swivel drill chuck on the sliding channels.
The six drilling parameters in Fig. 5 were recorded
simultaneously. The sampling interval was 1 s. The
recorded real-time histories cover the drilling operation
from the beginning of the drilling to the completion of
retrieving of all the extension tubes and the hammer rod.
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Z.Q. Yue et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612 581

Fig. 5. (a–f) Complete real-time series of the chuck position and associated five compressed air pressures for a pneumatic percussive rotary drilling
machine in forming a soil nail hole in weathered volcanic rock.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
582 Z.Q. Yue et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612
The extraction of the extension tubes commenced when
the hole was drilled to have a depth equal to or slightly
greater than the design depth at 26 m. It is evident that
the variations of the six parameters with time during the
period of forming the hole in the ground are signifi-
cantly different to those during the period of retrieving
the tubes and hammer from the hole. It is also clear that
such monitored original electrical data can be consid-
ered as factual data in a real-time sequence. We will
examine such factual data to establish time variations of
the full drilling process associated with the pneumatic
rotary-percussive drilling machine.
4. Method for differentiating the DPM data
4.1. Individual operations associated with full drilling
process
As discussed in Section 2.2, it is evident that a number
of extension tubes of 1–3 m long have to be added or
retrieved, one by one, for forming a drillhole. Besides,
the down-the-hole hammer may be moved downward
and upward for flushing cuttings out of the hole by the
compressed airflow. Consequently, the pure drilling (or
penetrating) operation cannot be carried out continu-
ously in a real-time sequence.
The monitored full drilling process in a real-time
sequence such as that presented in Fig. 5 includes a
number of different individual operations. Each of the
different individual operations is distinctive and neces-
sary and controlled by the operator. The full drilling
process is a combination of a series of these individual
operations in a real-time sequence. From our studies, we
have found that there are seven distinctive and different
individual operations in a normal full drilling process.
The seven operations can be defined as follows:
* Penetrating: This operation refers to that the drill bit
penetrating into geomaterials or the drillhole depth is
being advanced.
* Pushing in: This operation refers to the downward
movement of the chuck due to the forward pulling of
the loop chain. The chuck is connected or discon-
nected with extension tubes and hammer bit. The
hammer bit is not drilling the material at the bottom
of the hole. In particular, the compressed airflow for
percussion is not being applied.
* Pulling back: This operation refers to the upward
movement of the chuck due to the backward pulling
of the loop chain. The chuck is connected or
disconnected with extension tubes and hammer bit.
The hammer bit is not drilling the material at the
bottom of the hole. In particular, the compressed
airflow for percussion is not being applied.
* Flushing: This operation refers to the downward or
upward movements of the chuck. The chuck is
connected with extension tubes and hammer bit.
The hammer bit is not drilling the material at the
bottom of the hole. The compressed airflow for
percussion is being applied.
* Tightening: This operation refers to that the shank
adaptor being connected with the upper end of either
a new extension tube (or hammer) outside the
drillhole or an existing extension tube (or hammer)
inside the drillhole. For a new extension tube, its
lower end is also being connected with the upper end
of an existing extension tube (or hammer) inside the
drillhole when its upper end is being connected with
the shank adaptor.
* Un-tightening: This operation refers to that the shank
adaptor is being disconnected with the upper end of
an existing extension tube (or hammer). The exten-
sion tube (or hammer) can be either inside or outside
a drillhole. For an extension tube being outside a
drillhole, its lower end is also being disconnected with
the upper end of the next existing extension tube (or
hammer) inside the drillhole when its upper end is
being disconnected with the shank adaptor.
* Stoppage: This operation refers to that the drilling
equipment system not working. Specifically, the
swivel drill chuck and the rotation and thrust motors
are idle and are not receiving any compressed airflows
from the control panel.
The first operation in the above corresponds to a pure
drilling process. The last six operations are operational
processes necessary for carrying out the pure drilling
process of penetrating the ground in depth.
4.2. Criteria for differentiating individual operations
from full DPM data
It therefore becomes an important task to identify and
differentiate the seven individual operations from the
DPM data showing the full drilling process in real time
sequence. In particular, it is important to make an
accurate assessment from the DPM data for the
penetrating operation in the time sequence. The data
of the penetrating operation in the time sequence are the
data that carry the information concerning the ground
characteristics. Furthermore, it would be a time-
consuming task to manually differentiate the seven
individual operations from the full DPM data although
it is possible, because size of the DPM data for one
drillhole is large. For a 2 h monitoring, the DPM data
could have 7200 or 14400 sets in time series for the
sampling intervals of 1 or 0.5 s, respectively.
In this study, we have found the criteria for accurate
and efficient identifying and differentiating the seven
individual operations from the full DPM data. The
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Z.Q. Yue et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612 583

criteria are based on the monitored data of the swivel
drill chuck position, the pressure of the compressed
airflow for percussion, the pressures of the compressed
airflows for forward or reverse rotations, the pressures
of the compressed airflows for downward and upward
movements. Table 1 lists the data sorting criteria. In
Table 1 the above six monitored parameters are named
as Chuck Position, Percussion Pressure, Forward
Rotation Pressure, Reverse Rotation Pressure, Down-
ward Thrust Pressure and Upward Thrust Pressure.
Based on these criteria, data sorting algorithms have
been developed for using person computers to carry out
the differentiation analysis and data processing auto-
matically. Using the computer program, we can obtain
seven sets of data in time sequence for the seven
individual operations.
4.3. Results of the differentiations
The computer program was used to execute the data
sorting for the seven individual operations. As a result,
we obtained one set of data in time sequence for each of
the seven individual operations from the original DPM
data for the full drilling process in Fig. 5. Each data set
contains the monitored six parameters at their corre-
sponding sampling time.
Fig. 6 shows the identified data set in real time
sequence for the penetrating operation (pure drilling
process) associated with the full drilling process in Fig. 5.
Since the upward thrust pressures and the reverse
rotation pressure are always equal to or close to zero
during this penetration operation, their values are not
shown in Fig. 6. As a result, Fig. 6 shows the non-zero
data sets of chuck position, percussion pressure, down-
ward thrust pressure and forward rotation pressure in
real time. From Fig. 6, we can observe that the
downward movements of the chuck position in real
time have nine disconnected segments. Each segment
corresponds to the drilling of one extension tube of
about 3 m long. There are a number of gaps in each
segment of the chuck movement in real time. In other
words, the penetrating operation for each extension tube
was not continuously carried out. At the chuck down-
ward movement, the percussion, downward thrust and
forward rotation pressures are kept at high levels,
although they have some random variations with time.
Similar plots can be made for each of the other six data
sets representing the six non-penetrating operations.
The distribution of the differentiated seven operations
in real time sequence is presented in Fig. 7 for the full
drilling process in Fig. 5. A detailed summary of the
actual time spent on each of the seven operations for
each of the nine extension tubes is further given in
Table 2. In summary, the total time for completing the
drilling of the hole of 26.1 m long in Fig. 2 was 1 h and
48 min and 29 s. The subtotal time for completing the
drilling of the nine tubes was 1 h and 33 min and 15 s.
The subtotal time for completing the retrieving of the

Table 1
Differentiation criteria for sorting DPM data into seven individual operations

Individual Differentiation criteria for sorting DPM data into seven individual operations
operation
Chuck position at Percussion Forward rotation Reverse rotation Downward thrust Upward thrust
time ti ; Cp ðti Þ pressure at time pressure at time pressure at time pressure at time pressure at time
ti ; PP ðti Þ ti ; RF ðti Þ ti ; RR ðti Þ ti ; TD ðti Þ ti ; TU ðti Þ

Penetrating CP ðtiþ1 ÞXCP ðti Þ PP ðti Þb0 RF ðti Þ  RR ðti Þb0 TD ðti Þ  TU ðti ÞX0
Pushing in CP ðtiþ1 ÞXCP ðti Þ & PP ðti ÞD0 Variable Small TD ðti Þ  TU ðti ÞX0
CP ðtiþ1 ÞoCP ðtimax Þ
Pulling back CP ðtiþ1 ÞoCP ðti Þ PP ðti ÞD0 Variable Small TD ðti Þ  TU ðti Þp0
Tightening CP ðtiþ1 Þ slightly PP ðti ÞD0 Large (very small Small TD ðti Þ  TU ðti Þ is slightly greater than
greater than CP ðti Þ to large to very zero
(after a stoppage small)
or a forward and
before a stoppage
or penetrating)
Un-tightening CP ðtiþ1 Þ slightly PP ðti ÞD0 RF ðti Þ  RR ðti Þ50 (very small to large to TU ðti Þ  TD ðti Þ is slightly greater than
less than or equal very small) zero
to CP ðti Þ (after a
stoppage or a
upward)
Stoppage CP ðtiþ1 Þ  CP ðti Þ ¼ PP ðti Þ ¼ 0 RF ðti Þ ¼ RR ðti Þ ¼ 0 TD ðti Þ ¼ TU ðti Þ ¼ 0
0
Flushing CP ðti ÞoCP ðtimax Þ & PP ðti Þb0 Variable Small TD ðti Þ  TU ðti Þ very large than zero for
CP ðtiþ1 ÞoCP ðtimax Þ CP ðtiþ1 ÞXCP ðti Þ or TD ðti Þ  TU ðti Þ very
less than zero for CP ðtiþ1 ÞoCP ðti Þ

Notes: Cp ðtimax Þ=an immediate previous maximum position at the time ti max during penetrating for one extension tube.
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584 Z.Q. Yue et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612

Fig. 6. (a–d) Real-time series of the chuck position and associated compressed air pressures for the penetrating process of a pneumatic percussive
rotary drilling machine in forming a soil nail hole in weathered volcanic rock.

Fig. 7. Time-series distribution of seven drilling operations from DPM full drilling process data.
 Z.Q. Yue et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612
Table 2
Summary of the seven individual operations from the DPM data of full drilling process for a soil nail hole

Tube number Starting Ending Sub-total Flushing Penetrating Untightening Pulling back Pushing In Tightening Stoppage Note for
time time duration (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) (s) operations
(h:min:s) (h:min:s) (s)

First 9:49:29 9:52:45 32 12 37.5% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 3 9.4% 4 12.5% 0 0.0% 13 40.6% Preparation
9:52:46 9:52:45 156 4 2.6% 97 62.2% 0 0.0% 28 17.9% 27 17.3% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% Drilling for first tube

ARTICLE IN PRESS
Second 9:52:46 9:56:22 208 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 3 1.4% 19 9.1% 22 10.6% 7 3.4% 157 75.5% Adding for second tube
9:56:23 10:00:02 211 19 9.0% 118 55.9% 0 0.0% 33 15.6% 41 19.4% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% Drilling for second tube
Third 10:00:03 10:01:27 80 5 6.3% 0 0.0% 8 10.0% 15 18.8% 16 20.0% 6 7.5% 30 37.5% Adding for third tube
10:01:28 10:06:44 304 83 27.3% 140 46.1% 0 0.0% 41 13.5% 40 13.2% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% Drilling for third tube
Fourth 10:06:45 10:07:47 60 9 15.0% 0 0.0% 5 8.3% 19 31.7% 17 28.3% 4 6.7% 6 10.0% Adding for fourth tube
10:07:48 10:14:49 405 96 23.7% 156 38.5% 0 0.0% 73 18.0% 80 19.8% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% Drilling for fourth tube
Fifth 10:14:50 10:16:29 96 21 21.9% 0 0.0% 6 6.3% 19 19.8% 27 28.1% 1 1.0% 22 22.9% Adding for fifth tube
10:16:30 10:37:04 1182 255 21.6% 277 23.4% 0 0.0% 258 21.8% 392 33.2% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% Drilling for fifth tube
Sixth 10:37:05 10:40:39 205 26 12.7% 0 0.0% 4 2.0% 43 21.0% 91 44.4% 8 3.9% 33 16.1% Adding for sixth tube
10:40:40 10:51:35 628 72 11.5% 382 60.8% 0 0.0% 82 13.1% 92 14.6% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% Drilling for sixth tube
Seventh 10:51:36 10:53:13 93 25 26.9% 0 0.0% 2 2.2% 14 15.1% 8 8.6% 8 8.6% 36 38.7% Adding for seventh tube
10:53:14 11:04:55 672 116 17.3% 328 48.8% 0 0.0% 102 15.2% 126 18.8% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% Drilling for seventh tube
Eighth 11:04:56 11:07:28 147 39 26.5% 0 0.0% 5 3.4% 35 23.8% 48 32.7% 6 4.1% 14 9.5% Adding for eight tube
11:07:29 11:13:42 358 62 17.3% 239 66.8% 0 0.0% 24 6.7% 33 9.2% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% Drilling for eight tube
Ninth 11:13:43 11:15:01 76 7 9.2% 0 0.0% 3 3.9% 32 42.1% 25 32.9% 3 3.9% 6 7.9% Adding for ninth tube
11:15:02 11:27:27 714 90 12.6% 398 55.7% 0 0.0% 101 14.1% 125 17.5% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% Drilling for ninth tube
Sub-total 9:49:29 11:27:27 5627 941 16.7% 2135 37.9% 36 0.6% 941 16.7% 1214 21.6% 43 0.8% 317 5.6%
Retrieval 11:27:28 11:43:22 914 26 2.8% 0 0.0% 168 18.4% 167 18.3% 124 13.6% 65 7.1% 364 39.8% Retrieving total nine tubes

585
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586 Z.Q. Yue et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612
nine tubes from the hole was 15 min and 14 s. The
subtotal time for penetrating the nine tubes into the
ground was 35 min and 35 s and is about 32.8% of
the total time. It is noted that such DPM data sets
of the seven drilling operations in time sequence
would be useful to management and for optimization
of the production drilling work. We will focus next on
how to use the DPM data set associated with the
penetrating operation such as those in Fig. 6 for ground
characterization.
5. Method for determining penetration rate
As discussed in the earlier review of instrumented
drilling in Section 2.4, the penetration rate of dril-
ling is the most important parameter in using the
instrumented drilling approaches for ground character-
istics. However, measurements using the existing
technologies could result in some high and significant
random variations in the penetration rate, which would
then be one of the major obstacles in the wide
application of existing instrumented drilling methods.
So, we will present a method to accurately and
effectively determine the penetration rate from the
DPM data.
5.1. Existing methods for determining penetration rate
Existing instrumented drilling devices estimate
the penetration rate from the total time that is
used for a pre-selected depth advancement increment
as follows:
Penetration rate at a depth
A pre-selected depth advancement increment
¼ ;
Total time used for bit advancing the pre-selected depth increment at that depth
where the total time used for bit advancing a
pre-selected depth advancement increment at that depth
is the basic measured parameter in the existing
technologies.
For example, the pre-selected depth advancement
increments were 5 mm in Hamelin et al. [23],
Smith [25], Pfister [26], Pazuki and Doran [27]
and Gui et al. [28,29], 10 mm in Fortunati and
Pellegrino [30], Colosimo [31], Garassino and Schinelli
[32], 25 mm in Suzuki et al. [38] and Nishi et al. [39],
50 mm in Peck and Vynne [19], 100 mm in Schunnesson
[33–36] as well as 300 mm in Horner and Sherrell [24].
These existing instrumented drilling devices recorded the
total time used for drilling each of the pre-selected
increments.
These existing methods (1) can cause significant
random variations in the measured penetration rate
because of the following observations:
* The drilling process during the drilling of the pre-
selected depth advancement increment is not known;
* The measured total time used for bit advancing the
pre-selected depth increment may not be the pure
penetrating time and can include the time for other
drilling operations;
* The penetration rate from Eq. (1) is an average
penetration rate over the pre-selected depth incre-
ment. Changes of the ground characteristics over the
pre-selected depth increment cannot be identified.
When a sharp soil and rock boundary is encountered,
different values of the average penetration rate may
be determined because of the differences in the two
portions of the pre-selected depth increment within
the soil and the rock materials;
* Different pre-selected increments could result in
different penetration rate variations with depth for
the same ground geological conditions;
* High random vibrations of the drilling machine, the
drill bit and rods and measurement transducers could
cause the incorrect measurement of the pre-selected
depth advancement increments; and
* The torques and thrusts and other power parameters
used for drilling a pre-selected depth increment in
different materials cannot be compared since they have
different time durations and their actual variations
over the different time durations are unknown.
Consequently, random variations in the penetration
rates determined with the existing methods are an
ð1Þ
intrinsic problem. We cannot pre-select a depth advance-
ment increment for accurately determining the penetra-
tion rate. In fact, we cannot measure the penetration rate
directly. What we can measure is the movement of the bit
(chuck) position with respect to a fixed (non-movable)
position with a real time. The penetration rate can then
be calculated from the variation of the bit position
advancement over the net penetrating time. In other
words, the penetration rate can be defined as follows:
Penetration rate at a depth
¼ Slope ðgradientÞ of the bit position
advancement versus the net penetrating time
curve at that depth: ð2Þ
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Z.Q. Yue et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612
Detailed discussions on the determination of penetration
rates associated with drilling process monitoring are
given in Yue et al. [44].
5.2. Method for drill bit depth advancement with net
penetrating time
Therefore, it is essential to determine the bit depth
advancement with the net penetrating time prior to any
accurate determination of the penetration rate. In the
ensuing, we present a method to determine the bit
depth advancement with the net penetrating time from
the DPM data. The time sequence data set for the
penetrating operation in Fig. 6 is used as an example to
present the method.
First, we remove the time periods that were used for
the other six non-penetrating operations from the sorted
time sequence data set such as that in Fig. 6. We can
obtain a new data set associated with a time sequence of
non-regular time increments. We then renumber the new
data set with a new time sequence of one regular and
constant time increment (i.e., the sampling time inter-
val). We term this new regular time sequence the net
drilling time sequence.
We can then plot the monitored drilling parameter
values against this new drilling time. For the above
example, the results are presented in Fig. 8. In Fig. 8,
twelve curves are plotted. The first nine curves are for
Fig. 8. Net drilling time series of the chuck position and associated compressed air pressures for the penetrating process of a pneumatic percussive
rotary drilling machine in forming a soil nail hole in weathered volcanic rock.
587
the chuck positions associated with the nine extension
tubes. Each of the first nine curves is for the chuck
position associated with one of the nine extension
tubes, where the commencement position of the chuck
for each extension tube is assumed at the same zero
position. The other three curves are for the percussion,
downward thrust and forward rotation pressures,
respectively.
Next, we can use the following procedure to obtain
the penetrating depth of hammer bit with the net
penetrating time from the DPM data. The down-the-
hole hammer and the extension tubes are usually made
of steel and have a diameter between 75 and 120 mm.
For a connected extension tube and hammer rod system
of less than 50 m, its rigidity and stiffness are high.
During drilling, the tube and hammer system would
have negligible elongation or shortening. So, we can
assume that the position of the swivel drill chuck has a
linear correlation with the penetrating depth of drill bit
at the drillhole bottom during the pure drilling opera-
tion. The forward movement of the chuck position at a
given time can be considered to be equal to the
downward advancement of the drill bit penetrating into
the ground at the same time. A linear summation of the
individual chuck forward movements during the pene-
trating up to a net time is equal to the depth where the
drill bit is penetrating the ground in the hole at the same
net time. Therefore, we have the following equation to
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588 Z.Q. Yue et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612
calculate the bit depth advancement with the net
penetrating time:
Bit depth advancement at the tk th sampling time
X
k
¼ Chuck forward movement during the
i¼1
penetrating between ti and ti1 ;
where k ¼ 1; 2; 3; y; N; N is the last sampling net time
for penetrating at completion of drillhole; ti is the ith
sampling net time during the penetrating operation. The
sampling net time series ti (i ¼ 1; 2; 3; y; k) is the net
penetrating time sequence. The sampling interval is equal
to ti  ti1 and equal to 1 s in the example in Fig. 8.
Using the above procedure, we can determine the
downward advancement of the hammer bit penetrating
the ground in a hole with the net time from the chuck
position movement with the net time in Fig. 8. The
result is presented in Fig. 9. It is noted that the
connection positions between any two connected exten-
sion tubes are also marked on the curve.
Such downward advancement of the drill bit pene-
trating depth with the net time carries rich information
about the ground characteristics. It is evident that
details of the penetrating operations with the net time
can be clearly observed for the particular hole in Figs. 8
and 9. The details include the number of extension tubes
used to drill the hole, the penetration depth of each
extension tube, the total depth of the drillhole, the net
time for the penetrating and the percussion, forward
Fig. 9. Drill bit advancement with net drilling time and associated zoning result for a pneumatic percussive rotary drilling machine in forming a soil
nail hole in weathered volcanic rock.
rotation and downward thrust pressures associated with
the penetrating. The bit advancement versus net time
curve will be used to determine the penetration rate and
zone volcanic weathering profiles in association with the
corresponding percussion, forward rotation and down-
ward thrust pressures.
ð3Þ
5.3. Method for determining penetration rate
Since the bit advancement versus net time curve
is an exact description of the time dependent advance-
ment of the hammer bit over the entire drillhole
depth, the task of determining the penetration rate has
become relatively easy now. It is evident that in Fig. 9,
the gradient of the bit advancement versus net time
curve at a net time is a rate of drilling penetration at that
net time. Therefore, the method for determining
penetration rate can be described as follows according
to Eq. (2).
From Fig. 9, it can be observed that the curve consists
approximately of a number of piecewise linear segments.
Each segment has one almost constant gradient.
Basically, the curve can be divided into the five zones
as shown in the Figure. In addition, the Zones 1, 3 and 4
can be further divided into sub-zones. The zoning results
of almost straight segments are shown in Fig. 9. For
each straight segment in the curve, we have the classical
least-squares method to determine its gradient or
penetration rate as follows.
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For a straight segment in the curve, we have a set of errors about the regression line:
data governing the relation between the bit advance- X L
1
ment depth dj and the corresponding net time tj ; where s2 ¼ ½dj  d#j 2
the subscript j ¼ l; l þ 1; y; L (1ploLpN). If there is L  l  1 j¼l
a linear relation between dj and tj ; we can use the X L
1
following equation to describe their relation: ¼ ½dj  ða þ btj Þ2 : ð8Þ
L  l  1 j¼l
d# ¼ a þ bt; ð4Þ
Also, the following coefficient of linear correlation r is
where a and b are two constant coefficients. Based on also usually used to measure the extent of the linearity:
PL
the least-squares method, the a and b would make the
j¼l ðtj  t%Þðdj  dÞ
%
following total difference square to be a minimum:. r ¼ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
PL ffi: ð9Þ
2 PL %2
j¼l ðtj  t%Þ j¼l ðdj  dÞ
X
L X
L
½dj  d#j 2 ¼ ½dj  ða þ btj Þ2 ¼ minimum: ð5Þ In this application, the constant coefficient b can be
j¼l j¼l
regarded as the penetration rate for the corresponding
Using regression analysis, the a and b can be segment between the time interval t1 to tl : The closer the
determined using the following equations: residual standard deviation to zero, the better the linear
correlation for the penetration rate. The closer the
PL
j¼l ðtj  t%Þðdj  dÞ
% coefficient of linear correlation to one, the better the
b¼ PL ð6Þ linear correlation for the penetration rate.
j¼l ðtj  t%Þ
2
Using Eqs. (4)–(9), the penetration rates and their
associated coefficient of linear correlation and residual
and
standard deviation have been calculated for the major
a ¼ d%  bt%; ð7Þ zones and sub-zones as shown in Fig. 9. The results are
PL given in Table 3. The penetration rate for each of the
% %
PL t ¼ 1=ðL  l þ 1Þ j¼1 tj and d ¼ 1=ðL  l
where main zones and sub-zones is also shown in Fig. 9.
þ1Þ j¼1 dj : Furthermore, details of the calculations for the six sub-
In addition, the following residual standard deviation zones 1-1 to 1-6 in the major zone 1 are presented in
s can be used to estimate the variance of the random Fig. 10. From the values of the coefficient of linear

Table 3
Summary of determining zone penetration rate from bit depth versus net time curve

Zone no. Net time (s) Depth (m) Penetration rate (m/min) (least-squares
method)

Main zone Sub-zone Beginning Ending Duration Beginning Ending Thickness Rate Coefficient Residual
of linear standard
correlation deviation

1 1.1 0 40 40 0.000 1.171 1.171 1.727 0.994 0.037

1.2 40 66 26 1.171 2.504 1.333 3.101 0.995 0.042
1.3 66 88 22 2.504 2.736 0.232 0.660 0.996 0.006
1.4 88 118 30 2.736 3.699 0.963 1.804 0.981 0.054
1.5 118 161 43 3.699 4.321 0.623 0.780 0.988 0.026
1.6 161 234 73 4.321 6.580 2.258 2.044 0.996 0.064
All 0 234 234 0.000 6.580 6.580 1.611 0.994 0.198

2 All 234 579 345 6.580 13.121 6.541 1.165 0.999 0.076
3 3.1 579 1055 476 13.121 17.280 4.159 0.518 0.998 0.068
3.2 1055 1235 180 17.280 18.227 0.946 0.322 0.996 0.025
3.3 1235 1463 228 18.227 20.412 2.185 0.545 0.993 0.071
All 579 1463 884 13.121 20.412 7.291 0.475 0.998 0.127

4 4.1 1463 1573 110 20.412 21.867 1.455 0.776 0.995 0.043
4.2 1573 1616 43 21.867 22.830 0.962 1.297 0.999 0.014
4.3 1616 1761 145 22.830 24.327 1.497 0.578 0.995 0.040
All 1463 1761 298 20.412 24.327 3.915 0.786 0.993 0.130
5 All 1761 2135 375 24.327 26.095 1.768 0.291 0.995 0.054
Overall 0 2135 2135 0.000 26.095 26.095 0.649 0.979 1.384
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Fig. 10. Linear regression analysis for constant penetration rates for sub-zones 1-1 to 1-6 (a–f) of the straight segments in the bit advancement with
net time curve in Fig. 9.

correlation and the residual standard deviation for each
zone, it is evident that the bit advancement depth dj has
an extremely high linear correlation with its net time tj in
each zone. The degree of the confidence interval for the
linear correlation estimation is greater than 99%.
5.4. Normalized penetration rates with applied pressures
The penetration rate for each of the straight segment
zones in Fig. 9 is determined without direct considera-
tion of the possible effects of the applied percussion,
thrust and torque. In order to compare the penetration
rate values among the different straight segment zones
for one hole, it becomes necessary to take into account
the effects of the applied percussions, thrusts and
torques. Such effects can be examined using the
associated DPM data for the percussion, downward
thrust and forward rotation pressures. The variations of
the three applied pressures with the net penetrating time
are shown in Fig. 8.
Each of the straight segment zones in Fig. 9 is used to
determine its corresponding net time interval. This net
time interval is then used to determine the correspond-
ing data sets for the three pressures in Fig. 8. The mean
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Z.Q. Yue et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612
p% a and standard deviation sa of each of the three
pressures paj over this net time interval ½l; L can be
calculated using the following equation:
1 X L
p% a ¼ paj ;
L  l þ 1 j¼l
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
1 XL
sa ¼ ½p  p% a 2 ;
j¼l aj
Ll
where the subscript a ¼ P; T and R for the percussion,
downward thrust and forward rotation pressures,
respectively.
As a result, we can obtain the mean and standard
deviation values of the three pressures for all the
identified straight segment zones. The results are
presented in Fig. 11 and Table 4. Since the three
pressures and the chuck position were sampled simulta-
neously with the same sampling interval (1 s), the mean
pressure values can be considered as a representative
level of the external percussion force, thrust force and
torque application to each of the straight segment zones
in Fig. 9. From Fig. 11, we can have the following main
observations:
* For the major zones and the sub-zones 4-1 to 4-3 and
1-1 to 1-6, their mean percussion pressures generally
decrease with the increase in their penetration rates
although for the sub-zones 3-1 to 3-3, their mean
percussion pressures increase slightly with the in-
crease in their penetration rates.
Fig. 11. Variations of zone mean compressed airflow pressures with their zone constant penetration rate for the major zones or sub-zones in Fig. 9.
591
* For the major zones, their mean forward rotation
pressures decreases slightly with the increase in their
penetration rates. For the sub-zones 3-1 to 3-3, their
mean forward rotation pressures are almost same.
ð10Þ For the sub-zones 1-1 to 1-6 and 4-1 to 4-3, their
mean forward rotation pressures have irregular
variations as their penetration rates increase.
* For the major zones and the sub-zones, the mean
ð11Þ downward thrust pressures have very slight variations
as their penetration rate increase.
The above observations have shown that a straight
zone with a lower penetration rate can have a higher or
slightly higher mean percussion pressure and an almost
constant mean thrust pressure and a variable mean
forward rotation pressure over the zone net time
interval. Since the penetration rate in each of the zones
is almost constant, the above findings demonstrate the
following:
* the percussion pressure played the most dominant
role in the bit penetrating process;
* the fluctuations in the percussion, downward thrust
and forward rotation pressures with the net time had
limited effects on the penetration rate for that zone;
and
* the mean values of the three pressures for each zone
can be used to assess the effects of the external forces
and torque on the constant penetration rates.
Furthermore, the fact that a lower penetration rate in
a zone corresponds to a higher mean percussion pressure
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592 Z.Q. Yue et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612

Table 4
Statistical data of applied compressed airflow pressures for constant penetration zones

Zone no. Percussion pressure (MPa) Downward thrust pressure (MPa) Forward rotation pressure (MPa)

Main zone Sub-zone Mean (A) Standard Ratio (B/A) Mean (A) Standard Ratio (B/A) Mean (A) Standard Ratio (B/A)
deviation deviation deviation
(B) (B) (B)

1 1.1 1.049 0.132 12.6% 0.152 0.051 33.5% 0.361 0.087 24.0%
1.2 1.154 0.153 13.2% 0.206 0.035 17.1% 0.391 0.018 4.6%
1.3 1.166 0.165 14.1% 0.159 0.042 26.6% 0.341 0.074 21.7%
1.4 1.116 0.118 10.6% 0.174 0.085 48.7% 0.494 0.046 9.3%
1.5 1.234 0.126 10.2% 0.160 0.053 32.9% 0.514 0.062 12.0%
1.6 1.091 0.110 10.1% 0.155 0.061 39.2% 0.546 0.138 25.3%
All 1.128 0.142 12.6% 0.164 0.059 36.3% 0.467 0.123 26.4%

2 All 1.133 0.103 9.1% 0.144 0.068 47.0% 0.480 0.094 19.5%

3 3.1 1.302 0.130 10.0% 0.173 0.059 34.3% 0.472 0.090 19.1%
3.2 1.410 0.106 7.5% 0.170 0.063 36.8% 0.441 0.081 18.3%
3.3 1.318 0.141 10.7% 0.162 0.051 31.5% 0.447 0.099 22.2%
All 1.328 0.135 10.2% 0.170 0.058 34.3% 0.459 0.092 20.0%

4 4.1 1.308 0.100 7.7% 0.141 0.054 38.1% 0.609 0.089 14.6%
4.2 1.354 0.120 8.9% 0.181 0.026 14.2% 0.592 0.023 3.9%
4.3 1.280 0.180 14.1% 0.148 0.056 37.8% 0.447 0.123 27.5%
All 1.301 0.216 16.6% 0.150 0.057 38.0% 0.528 0.135 25.6%
5 All 1.425 0.069 4.8% 0.163 0.019 11.4% 0.535 0.020 3.8%

Overall 1.288 0.172 13.3% 0.161 0.056 34.8% 0.486 0.101 20.8%

Fig. 12. Variations of the two normalized zone penetration rates with the original zone constant penetration rate for the major zones or sub-zones in
Fig. 9. (a) penetration rate normalized by production factor of three mean pressures for each major zone or sub-zone, (b) penetration rate normalized
by summation factor of three mean pressures for each major zone or sub-zone.

over the zone can further demonstrate that the zone had
a stronger or less easily drillable weathered rock
material. Moreover, the variations with the net time of
the three applied pressures can be measured with the
percentage ratios of their standard variations over their
mean values. From Table 4, it is evident that the
percussion, the forward rotation and downward thrust
pressures have their percentage ratios between 4.8% and
14.1%, between 3.8% and 27.5%, as well as between
11.4% and 47.0%, respectively. Their overall average
values are 13.3%, 20.8% and 34.8%, respectively. The
lower the percentage ratio, the more stable the applied
pressure. So, the percussion pressure is the most stable
power during the penetrating. Therefore, it can be
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Z.Q. Yue et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612 593

Table 5
Summary of zone constant penetration rates normalized with pressure factors

Zone no. Production factor Summation factor Penetration rate for each major zone or sub-zone (m/min)
of three mean of three mean
pressures pressures
Main zone Sub-zone A B Original Normalized by Normalized by
factor A factor B

1 1.1 1.755 1.239 1.727 3.032 2.140

1.2 1.083 1.105 3.101 3.358 3.426
1.3 1.599 1.162 0.660 1.055 0.767
1.4 1.054 1.085 1.804 1.901 1.958
1.5 0.996 1.014 0.780 0.777 0.791
1.6 1.092 1.080 2.044 2.232 2.208
All 1.172 1.101 1.611 1.888 1.773

2 All 1.284 1.101 1.165 1.496 1.283

3 3.1 0.946 0.994 0.518 0.490 0.515

3.2 0.954 0.957 0.322 0.307 0.308
3.3 1.058 1.005 0.545 0.576 0.547
All 0.974 0.989 0.475 0.462 0.469

4 4.1 0.898 0.941 0.776 0.697 0.730

4.2 0.697 0.910 1.297 0.904 1.181
4.3 1.187 1.032 0.578 0.686 0.596
All 0.977 0.978 0.786 0.768 0.769
5 All 0.813 0.912 0.291 0.236 0.265

Overall 1.000 1.000 0.649 0.649 0.649

argued again that the percussion pressure is mainly
responsible for the constant penetration rate of each
straight segment zone.
In order to normalize the effects of the percussion,
thrust and torque on the constant penetration rates for
the straight zones, we suggest the following normalized
penetration rate for a straight zone I:
Normalized penetration rate
¼ Penetration rate  Normalized pressure factor;
ð12Þ
where the normalized pressure factor Azone I or Bzone I
for the zone I can be defined as follows:
PK
ðp% zone kP  p% zone kT  p% zone kR Þ
Azone I ¼ k¼1
Kðp% zone IP  p% zone IT  p% zone IR Þ
PK
ðp% zone kP þ p% zone kT þ p% zone kR Þ
Bzone I ¼ k¼1
Kðp% zone IP þ p% zone IT þ p% zone IR Þ
where K is the total number of the identified straight
zones; p% zone kP ; p% zone k2T and p% zone k2R are the mean
percussion, downward thrust and forward rotation
pressures for the zone k; respectively (k ¼ 1; 2; y; K
and 1pIpK). Azone I and Bzone I can be named as the
mean pressure production factor and the mean pressure
summation factor, respectively.
By using Eqs. (12)–(14), the normalized penetration
rates for the zones in Figs. 9 and 11 and Tables 3 and 4
are calculated. The results are shown in Fig. 12 and
Table 5. From Fig. 12 and Table 5, it can be observed
that in general, the lower the penetration rate for a
straight zone, the lower the normalized penetration
rate for that zone and vice versa. One particular case is
the penetration rates for the sub-zone 1-1. Although
the sub-zone 1-1 has a much lower original
penetration rate than the sub-zone 1-2, its normalized
penetration rate by production is closer to that of the
sub-zone 1-2. In other words, the sub-zone 1-1 and sub-
zone 1-2 may be the similar material. These findings
further demonstrate that both the original penetration
rate and the normalized penetration rates are physical
parameters whose magnitudes have direct relations with
the properties of the weathered volcanics along the
; ð13Þ
drillhole.
; ð14Þ
6. Method for zoning weathered volcanic profiles
6.1. Volcanic weathering profiles
Over the last 60 years, a number of researchers and
engineers have examined volcanic and igneous rock
weathering profiles and their properties in Hong Kong.
For example, Brock [45], Ruxton [46], Parham [47] and
Lumb and Lee [48] examined the mineralogy of
weathered rocks. Lumb [16,49] examined specific
 594
Table 6
Geotechnical and geological classification systems for idealized weathering profiles in volcanic rocks
GEO [9] GEO [9] Dearman [57] and BSI [1] IAEG [58] GSL [59] All rock GSL [60]

Rock material weathering zone Rock mass weathering zone Rock mass weathering Term Symbol Description

Description Grades General characteristics Term Symbol Term Description

Z.Q. Yue et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612
Residual Soil VI Original rock texture Residual Soil RS Residual Soil All rock material Residual soil Residual soil VI Zone 6 (100% soil)
completely destroyed; can converted to soil: mass
be crumbled by hand and structure and material
finger pressure into fabric destroyed.
constituent grains Significant change in
volume
Completely V Original rock texture Partially PW 0/30 Completely All rock material Extremely V
decomposed preserved; can be weathered (o30% rock) weathered decomposed and/or weathered
crumbled by hand and disintegrated to soil.
finger pressure into Original mass structure
constituent grains; easily still largely intact.
indented by point of
geological pick; slakes in

ARTICLE IN PRESS
water; completely
discoloured compared
with fresh rock
Highly IV Can be broken by hand PW 30/50 Highly More than 50% of rock Highly IV Zone 5 (o30% rock)
decomposed into smaller pieces; makes Weathered material decomposed and/ weathered
a dull sound when struck or disintegrated to
by hammer; not easily discontinuous framework
indented by point of pick; or corestones.
does not slake in water;
completely discoloured
compared with fresh rock
Moderately III Cannot usually be broken PW 50/90 Moderately Less than 50% of rock Moderately Weathered III Zone 3 (50–90% rock)
decomposed by hand; easily broken by weathered material decomposed and/ weathered Bedrock
hammer; makes a dull or or disintegrated to soil. (o30% soil)
slight ringing sound when Fresh/discoloured rock
struck by hammer; present as continuous
completely stained framework or corestones
throughout
Slightly II Not broken easily by PW 90/100 Slightly Discoloration indicates Slightly II Zone 2 (>50% rock)
decomposed hammer; makes a ringing weathered weathering of rock weathered
sound when struck by material and discontinuity
hammer; fresh rock surfaces. All rock material
colours generally retained may be discoloured by
but stained near joint weathering and may be
surfaces weaker than in its fresh
condition
Fresh I Not broken easily by Unweathered UW Fresh No visible sign of rock Fresh Unweathered I Zone 1 (100% rock)
hammer; makes a ringing rock material weathering, Bedrock
sound when struck by perhaps slight staining of
hammer; no visible signs major discontinuity
of decomposition (i.e. no surfaces.
discolouration)
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
Z.Q. Yue et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612
geotechnical properties of weathered soils. Berry [50],
Hencher and Martin [51], Gamon [52], Gamon and Finn
[53] and Martin and Hencher [54] have investigated
weathered profiles from either geological or geotechnical
perspectives. More comprehensive results on weathered
volcanic rocks in Hong Kong can be found in GEO [9],
Irfan [55], Fyfe et al. [12] and Martin [56].
In general, the volcanic weathering profile is con-
sidered to be in situ materials mainly composed of
completely to highly decomposed volcanics (grades V
and IV, respectively) but with some RS (grade VI) and
cores-tones. It overlies the main rock mass mainly
comprised of moderately to slightly decomposed and
fresh volcanics (grades III, II and I, respectively)
material. In Table 6, we present a summary of the
geotechnical and geological classification systems that
have developed for weathering profiles in volcanic rocks
in Hong Kong and around the world. The soil zones of
the volcanic weathering profiles are usually less than
15 m thick although they can be up to 35 m thick in
coarser grained volcanic rocks and deeper in faults
and closely fractured zones [55]. Furthermore, the RS
layer over weathered volcanic rocks is not very well
developed and may be a few meters thick in some
isolated areas.
From the geotechnical engineering point of view,
zoning of volcanic weathering profiles at a specific
construction site has been one of the most important
Fig. 13. A typical volcanic weathering profile exposed on a fresh cut slope in Hong Kong showing irregular interface boundaries of the three grade
zones: V (the upper flat slope surface covered with erosion control mat), IV with III (the middle rough slope surface with soil nail heads) and III (the
bottom slope surface behind the GEO fence and below soil nailing scaffolding.
595
tasks that have attracted a great deal of attention in
practice. One of the main tasks is to accurately and
effectively zone the exact boundaries among the
different weathering grades (Table 6). As discussed
before, such zoning task is usually difficult because the
weathering profiles are often complex and irregular. The
weathering profile variability cannot usually be pre-
dicted using standard methods of geological interpola-
tion and extrapolation [61]. Fig. 13 shows a typical
volcanic weathering profile on a fresh cut slope surface
in Hong Kong. Evidently, zones of the six different
weathered grades on the surface can be easily identified
from visual inspections. However, their extensions into
the depth of the hill slope are difficult to determine
exactly.
In Table 7, we further present a summary of the
physical and mechanical properties of weathered volca-
nic rocks with different weathering grades in Hong
Kong. Basically, the six different volcanic weathering
grades have distinctive physical and mechanical proper-
ties. The lower the decomposition grades, the higher the
volcanic strength and modulus. For one zone with the
same decomposition grade, the spatial distribution of its
physical and mechanical properties is considerably
homogeneous within the zone. Such substantial differ-
ences in physical and mechanical properties among
different homogeneous grade zones should allow identi-
fiable differences in drillability and penetration rate
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596 Z.Q. Yue et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612

when a drill bit penetrates the different zones. We will

permeability
discuss how to use the present DPM device and

105–107
105–107
associated data analysis methods to carry out the zoning
Mass

(m/s) of weathering profiles in volcanic rocks.

—
cohesion (kPa)

6.2. DPM method for zoning weathered volcanic profiles

Effective

We have presented a simple and objective method

5–10
5–10

5–10 to estimate penetration rate from the curve of bit

—
advancement depth versus net time. We have
frictional angle

found that the curve can be divided into a number

of straight segments and a constant penetration
Effective

(degree)
internal

32–38
32–38

38–45

rate can be calculated for each straight segment zone.

—

—
Two basic questions that have to be addressed are as
follows:
Dry unit weight

* Can we assume that each straight segment zone with

(kN/m3)

a constant penetration rate represents a layer of

13–18
14–19

17–24

23–26

25–26

25–26

homogeneous geomaterial in the ground?

* Can the constant penetration rate be further used as a
weight (kN/m3)

signature representing its geomaterial stiffness and

Bulk unit

strength capacity?
16–21
16–21

18–25

24–26

25–26

25–26

If the answers to the above two questions are ‘yes’, we

can easily identify a number of homogeneous geomater-
strength (MPa)

ial layers with different strengths along the drillhole

compressive

depth from the curve, e.g. Fig. 9. We can then use the
Uniaxial

100–200

150–350
10–150

results and the penetration rates as the signature to zone

—
—

volcanic weathering profiles.

Penetration rate for a pneumatic rotary-percussive
hammer value

drilling machine depends upon the following factors

(N-type)

according to Jimeno et al. [62]:

Schmidt

25–45

45–60

50–70
0–15
0–18

0–24

(a) geomechanics, mineralogical characteristics and

abrasiveness of soils and rocks;
(b) percussion power of the drill;
SPT N value

(c) thrust and torque loads on the drill bit;

80–200
10–80

>200

>200

>200

(d) drillhole diameter;

5–20

(e) flushing of drillhole;

Physical and mechanical properties of weathered volcanic rocks

(f) efficiency of operation;

Poisson’s ratio

(g) design of drilling machines and work conditions;

and
0.2–0.5
0.2–0.5

0.2–0.5

0.2–0.5

0.2–0.5

0.2–0.5

(h) drilling length.

For a pneumatic rotary-percussive drilling machine
30,000–80,000

60,000–15,000

with down-the-hole hammer bit, its percussion

deformation

5000–40,000
Laboratory
modulus of

500–4000

power is directly applied to drill bit contacting with

10–100
20–500
(MPa)

soil or rock at bottom of a drillhole. Such design means

that its penetration rate would not be affected sig-
nificantly by drilling length and would remain practi-
Between soil
Engineering

cally constant as the hole deepens in similar

definition

and rock

geomaterials [62].
Rock

Rock

Rock
Soil
Soil

Furthermore, the above factors (d)–(g) can be

eliminated or controlled to have a minimum influence
volcanic (HDV)
volcanic (CDV)

volcanic (SDV)
Fresh volcanic

on penetration rate by grouping different drilling

Residual soil

decomposed

decomposed

decomposed

decomposed
Description

Moderately
Completely

machines, operators and hole diameters into different

Table 7

volcanic

Slightly
(MDV)
Highly

groups of DPM data for a specific drilling project.

term

Each DPM data group would have the same

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Z.Q. Yue et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612 597

Fig. 14. Details of the variation of the bit advancement depth with the net time adjacent to the connection depths of two extension tubes in Fig. 9.
Continuation of (a) 1st to 2nd tubes, (b) 2nd to 3rd tubes, (c) 3rd to 4th tubes, (d) 4th to 5th tubes, (e) 5th to 6th tubes, (f) 6th to 7th tubes, (g) 7th to
8th tubes, (h) 8th to 9th tubes.
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598 Z.Q. Yue et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612

Fig. 15. Comparisons of the bit advancement depth versus the net time curves and their DPM zoning results for three horizontally adjacent soil nail
holes in a cut slope.

Fig. 16. Comparisons of the bit advancement depth versus the net time curves and their DPM zoning results for three vertically adjacent soil nail
holes in a cut slope.

drilling machine, operators, a drillhole diameter and penetration rate and the ground conditions by taking
down-the-hole hammer. We can then carry out further into account the effects of percussion, thrust force and
data analysis to examine the relations between the torque.
 Z.Q. Yue et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612
Table 8
Statistical results of DPM analysis for three horizontally adjacent soil nail holes in Fig. 15 in a cut slope

Zone no. Soil nail Zone Measured penetration rate Percussion pressure (MPa) Downward thrust pressure (MPa) Forward rotation pressure (MPa) Penetration rate (m/
hole no. thickness min) normalized by
(m)
Rate (m/ CLC Sample Mean SD SD/Mean Mean SD SD/Mean Mean SD SD/Mean Factor A Factor B
min) Number

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Zone 1 D77 — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
D76 5.931 2.171 0.973 161 1.203 0.072 6.0% 0.420 0.141 33.5% 0.287 0.073 25.5% 2.556 2.318
D71p 5.188 3.299 0.971 106 1.169 0.074 6.3% 0.436 0.114 26.2% 0.282 0.055 19.3% 3.910 3.564

Zone 2 D77 2.605 0.522 0.984 300 1.248 0.078 6.2% 0.498 0.146 29.3% 0.310 0.083 26.9% 0.462 0.518
D76 1.109 0.280 0.987 211 1.286 0.027 2.1% 0.584 0.120 20.5% 0.211 0.051 24.4% 0.301 0.274
D71p 0.509 0.614 0.995 52 1.263 0.029 2.3% 0.559 0.125 22.4% 0.220 0.023 10.3% 0.676 0.614

Zone 3 D77 0.810 0.710 0.996 68 1.269 0.091 7.2% 0.488 0.202 41.3% 0.277 0.058 21.1% 0.706 0.712
D76 0.702 0.670 0.989 59 1.258 0.044 3.5% 0.437 0.101 23.2% 0.296 0.055 18.7% 0.704 0.686
D71p 1.231 1.257 0.979 55 1.255 0.048 3.8% 0.550 0.130 23.6% 0.337 0.097 28.9% 0.923 1.197

Zone 4 D77 5.578 0.227 0.998 1679 1.294 0.025 2.0% 0.511 0.130 25.5% 0.220 0.043 19.7% 0.266 0.229
D76 4.992 0.232 0.999 1296 1.290 0.011 0.9% 0.693 0.165 23.8% 0.228 0.037 16.2% 0.194 0.214
D71p 5.803 0.267 0.999 1352 1.292 0.017 1.3% 0.582 0.115 19.7% 0.187 0.050 27.0% 0.324 0.264

Average= 1.257 0.047 3.7% 0.523 0.135 25.9% 0.260 0.057 22.0%

Note: CLC—Coefficient of linear correlation; SD—Standard derivation.

599
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Z.Q. Yue et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612
Table 9
Statistical results of DPM analysis for three vertically adjacent soil nail holes in Fig. 16 in a cut slope
Zone no. Soil nail Zone Measured penetration rate Percussion pressure (MPa) Downward thrust pressure (MPa) Forward rotation pressure (MPa) Penetration rate (m/min) normalized by
hole no. thickness
(m) Rate CLC Sample Mean SD SD/Mean Mean SD SD/Mean Mean SD SD/Mean Factor A Factor B
(m/min) number

Zone 0 L72 3.28 0.402 0.965 407 1.196 0.076 6.4% 0.484 0.108 22.2% 0.108 0.022 20.2% 1.075 0.444

ARTICLE IN PRESS
Zone 1 K72p 12.19 1.133 0.985 612 1.104 0.161 14.6% 0.255 0.099 38.8% 0.540 0.145 26.9% 1.249 1.178
L72 10.99 1.521 0.983 451 1.143 0.081 7.1% 0.558 0.191 34.2% 0.100 0.030 30.0% 3.993 1.667
M72 9.71 1.231 0.978 429 1.104 0.161 14.6% 0.203 0.064 31.4% 0.440 0.088 20.0% 2.085 1.390

Zone 2 K72p 1.37 0.358 0.979 207 1.270 0.180 14.2% 0.292 0.112 38.3% 0.502 0.069 13.8% 0.323 0.343
L72 2.91 0.255 0.991 607 1.222 0.036 3.0% 0.730 0.146 20.0% 0.083 0.006 7.4% 0.574 0.248
M72 2.33 0.363 0.989 388 1.367 0.140 10.2% 0.218 0.046 21.3% 0.401 0.085 21.2% 0.509 0.361

Zone 3 K72p 5.17 0.483 0.995 673 1.274 0.180 14.1% 0.333 0.113 33.9% 0.514 0.077 15.0% 0.371 0.450
L72 4.98 0.384 0.983 682 1.189 0.155 13.1% 0.817 0.156 19.1% 0.080 0.006 8.0% 0.825 0.363
M72 7.76 0.737 0.994 625 1.276 0.141 11.0% 0.249 0.072 29.0% 0.500 0.077 15.5% 0.776 0.718

Zone 4 K72p 3.68 0.256 0.993 899 1.394 0.142 10.2% 0.336 0.147 43.6% 0.481 0.094 19.6% 0.191 0.229
L72 6.33 0.191 0.997 1926 1.223 0.041 3.3% 0.758 0.107 14.0% 0.075 0.006 7.9% 0.460 0.184
M72 7.75 0.274 0.999 1698 1.409 0.072 5.1% 0.229 0.049 21.4% 0.388 0.070 18.1% 0.366 0.267

Average= 1.244 0.120 9.7% 0.420 0.108 25.8% 0.324 0.060 18.5%

Note: CLC—Coefficient of linear correlation; SD—Standard derivation.

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Fig. 17. Variations of the coefficients of linear correlations with their corresponding constant zone penetration rates for drilling machine Nos.
DC45A-1 (a) and DC45A-2 (b).
Based on the CDV and the core-stones exposed on the
cut slope surface, we may have the following geological
interpretation of the weathering profile along the
drillhole in Fig. 9:
* Zone 1 has the sub-zones 1-1 and 1-2 as RS, the sub-
zones 1-4 and 1-6 as completely decomposed
tuff, and the sub-zones 1-3 and 1-5 as core-stones
comprising highly to moderately decomposed tuff.
* Zone 2 comprises completely to highly decomposed
tuff;
* Zone 3 comprises a moderately decomposed
tuff with the sub-zone 3-2 as slightly decomposed
tuff;
* Zone 4 is moderately decomposed tuff with sub-zones
4-1 and 4-2 as highly and completely decomposed
tuff;
601
* Zone 5 comprises slightly decomposed tuff.
7. Further results and discussions
In the above, we have proposed DPM and data
analysis methods for zoning volcanic weathering pro-
files. We will present further results and discussions on
the methods.
7.1. Penetration rates at tube connection depths
From Fig. 9, it is evident that zoning of the straight
segments in the bit advancement depth and the net
time curve is independent of the connection depths
of the nine tubes. In other words, the penetration
rates at the depth immediately above and below a tube
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602 Z.Q. Yue et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612

connection depth can be constant. Fig. 14 further 7.2. Adjacent holes

illustrates the curves of the bit advancement depth with
the net time at each of the nine tube connection depths.
In this Figure, a net time of 20 s is used to show the
measurements before and after the connection depth of
two tubes, respectively. A linear regression line is also
included for each bit depth and net time curve. Results
presented in Fig. 14 can further demonstrate that the
zoning in Fig. 9 is independent of the tube connections
and associated operations during the drilling. This
finding could also show that the length of extension
tubes cannot affect the penetration rate substantially
and the pneumatic percussion power in the down-the-
hole hammer bit plays a dominant role in drilling the
ground.
Although volcanic weathering profiles are often
complex and irregular, the results in Tables 6 and 7
have shown that there are basically six decomposition
grades with distinctive material properties and strengths.
Hence, the volcanic weathering profiles determined with
the above DPM method in adjacent holes of one
geological site should have certain similarities. Exam-
ination of the DPM results for more than four hundred
drillhole results in weathered volcanic and granitic rocks
have shown the zoning results for one drillhole can be
successfully compared with the zoning results of other
adjacent holes. Examples of such results are presented in
Figs. 15 and 16.

Fig. 18. Variations of the coefficients of linear correlations with their corresponding zone thicknesses for drilling machine Nos. DC45A-1 (a) and
DC45A-2 (b).
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Fig. 19. Variations of zone thicknesses with their corresponding constant zone penetration rates for drilling machine nos. DC45A-1 (a) and
DC45A-2 (b).
Fig. 15 shows the three curves of the bit advancement
depth with net time for three adjacent soil nail holes
that were drilled in a cut slope at one elevation level.
Fig. 16 shows the three curves of the bit advancement
depth with net time for three adjacent soil nail holes that
were drilled in the cut slope along one slope cross-
section and at three different elevation levels. The
corresponding statistical results of the DPM data for
the two groups of six adjacent holes are listed in Tables 8
and 9. From the two figures and the two tables, it is
evident that Zone 1 and Zone 4 are completely
decomposed tuff and slightly decomposed tuff, respec-
tively. In particular, Zone 4 should be the bedrock.
Zones 2 and 3 are the transitional weathering zones
between the soil zone (Zone 1) and the bedrock zone
(Zone 4). They comprise soil and rocks from completely,
highly, moderately to slightly decomposed tuffs. The
603
above DPM results for the six soil nail holes have
demonstrated that the DPM zoning results for adja-
cent holes are compatible and can be used to construct
three-dimensional volcanic weathering profiles in the
ground.
7.3. Effects of drilling machines
Effects of different drilling machines have been
examined on the DPM data and zoning results. In Figs.
15 and 16, the soil nail hole Nos. D71p, D76, D77 and
L72 were drilled with a pneumatic rotary-percussive
drilling machine No. DC45A-1 by two operators while
the soil nail hole Nos. K72 and M72 were drilled with
another pneumatic rotary-percussive drilling machine
No. DC45A-2 by two other operators. From the two
figures and the statistical data in Tables 8 and 9, it can
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604 Z.Q. Yue et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612

Fig. 20. Variations of the zone middle depths with their corresponding constant zone penetration rates for drilling machine nos. DC45A-1 (a) and
DC45A-2 (b).

be observed that the zoning results of the DPM data
from the two different drilling machines are compatible
and consistent. Further examination of the applied
pressures from the two machines can result in the
following observations:
* The mean values of the percussion pressures are
between 1.143 and 1.294 MPa and between 1.104
and 1.409 MPa for DC45A-1 and CD45A-2, respec-
tively. Their percentage ratios of the standard
deviation values over the mean values are between
0.9% and 13.1% and between 5.1% and 14.6%,
respectively.
* The mean values of the downward thrust pressures
are between 0.420 and 0.817 MPa and between 0.203
and 0.336 MPa for DC45A-1 and CD45A-2, respec-
tively. Their percentage ratios of the standard
deviation values over the mean values are between
14.0% and 33.5% and between 21.3% and 43.6%,
respectively.
* The mean values of the forward rotation pressures
are between 0.075 and 0.337 MPa and between 0.388
and 0.540 MPa for DC45A-1 and CD45A-2, respec-
tively. Their percentage ratios of the standard
deviation values over the mean values are between
7.9% and 30.0% and between 13.8% and 26.9%,
respectively.
The above results have shown that the two machines
applied very similar percussion pressures in terms of the
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Fig. 21. Variations of the zone middle depths with their corresponding zone thicknesses for drilling machine nos. DC45A-1 (a) and DC45A-2 (b).
mean values and standard deviations. However, they
applied substantially different downward thrust and
forward rotation pressures. The values of the downward
thrust pressure for DC45A-1 were similar to those of the
forward rotation pressure for DC45A-2. The values of
the forward rotation pressure for DC45A-1 were similar
to those of the downward thrust pressure for DC45A-2.
The values of the downward thrust pressure for
DC45A-1 and the forward rotation pressure for
DC45A-2 were about twice as those of the forward
rotation pressure for DC45A-1 and the downward
thrust pressure for DC45A-2. Those results have further
shown that the less variable percussion powers had
played a dominant role for the two drilling machines to
make straight segments in the bit depth and net time
curves and the compatible DPM zoning profiles in
Figs. 15 and 16.
605
7.4. Statistical results of DPM data for zoning volcanic
weathering profiles
A number of DPM results are now presented to
further confirm and verify the DPM methods and
findings. At the cut slope site, the drilling machine
Nos. DC45A-1 and DC45A-2 were used to drill a large
number of holes for soil nail installation. The full
drilling processes were recorded with DPM for six and
seventeen production holes that were drilled with
DC45A-1 and DC45A-2, respectively. The total mon-
itored lengths of the six DC45A-1 holes and the
seventeen DC45A-2 holes were 106.03 and 377.67 m,
respectively. From the DPM data, the curve of the
hammer bit advancement versus net time is determined
for each of the 23 soil nail holes. Similar to those
presented in Figs. 9, 15 and 16, each curve consists of a
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606 Z.Q. Yue et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612
Fig. 22. Variations of the three mean pressures with their corresponding constant zone penetration rates for drilling machine nos. DC45A-1 (a) and
DC45A-2 (b).
number of linear segment zones. A total of 48 linear
zones are found for the six curves of bit advancement
depth versus net time for the six DC45A-1 holes. A total
of 113 straight zones are found for the seventeen curves
of bit advancement depth versus net time for the
seventeen DC45A-2 holes. Statistical results of the
DPM data associated with DC45A-1 and Dc45A-2 are
presented in Figs. 17a–25.
Figs. 17a and b show the coefficients of linear
correlations for the 48 and 113 straight segment zones
with respect to their zone penetration rates for the holes
drilled with DC45A-1 and DC45A-2, respectively. Figs.
18a and b show the coefficients of linear correlations for
the 48 and 113 straight segment zones with respect to
their zone thicknesses for the holes drilled with DC45A-
1 and DC45A-2, respectively. From the four figures, it is
evident that the bit advancement depth has a high linear
correlation with the net time for each of the 161 straight
segment zones. The straight segment zones have
thicknesses between 0.13 and 16.03 m.
Figs. 19a and 19b illustrate the zone thicknesses for
the 48 and 113 straight segment zones with respect to
their zone penetration rate for the holes drilled with
DC45A-1 and DC45A-2, respectively. Figs. 20a and b
illustrate the zone middle depths for the 48 and 113
straight segment zones with respect to their zone
penetration rate for the holes drilled with DC45A-1
and DC45A-2, respectively. Figs. 21a and b illustrate the
zone thicknesses for the 48 and 113 straight segment
zones with respect to their zone middle depths for the
holes drilled with DC45A-1 and DC45A-2, respectively.
Basically, the zone penetration rate generally increases
as the zone middle depth increases but has no clear
correlation with the zone thickness. The zone thickness
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Fig. 23. Variations of the normalized zone penetration rates with their corresponding constant zone penetration rates for drilling machine nos.
DC45A-1 (a) and DC45A-2 (b).

also has no clear variation trends with the zone middle
depth. It is noted that the soil nail holes were drilled in
the cut slope at different elevation levels and with a
declination angle of 15 degrees, which could be one of
the main reasons why there were no clear corrections
among these values of the penetration rate and the zone
middle depth and the zone thickness in Figs. 19a–21b.
Figs. 22a and b give the mean values of the
percussion, downward thrust and forward rotation
pressures for the 48 and 113 straight segment zones
with respect to their zone penetration rate for the holes
drilled with DC45A-1 and DC45A-2, respectively. Figs.
23a and b give the normalized zone penetration rates
with the production factor A (13) and the summation
factor B (14) for the 48 and 113 straight segment zones
with respect to their zone penetration rate for the holes
drilled with DC45A-1 and DC45A-2, respectively. Figs.
24a and b give the percentage ratios of the standard
variations over the mean values of the percussion,
downward thrust and forward rotation pressures for the
48 and 113 straight segment zones with respect to their
zone penetration rate for the holes drilled with DC45A-
1 and DC45A-2, respectively. Results presented in these
figures further confirm the findings on the effects of the
three applied powers on the penetration rate discussed
above.
Values of the original and two normalized zone
penetration rates in Figs. 23a and b for the two drilling
machines are re-plotted in Fig. 25. In Fig. 25, the
vertical axis represents the percentage number of the
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608 Z.Q. Yue et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612

Fig. 24. Variations of the percentage ratios of the standard derivations over the mean pressures associated with applied percussion, downward thrust
and forward rotation pressures with their corresponding constant zone penetration rates for drilling machine nos. DC45A-1 (a) and DC45A-2 (b).

original (or the normalized) zone penetration rates
that are less or equal to a given penetration rate
along the horizontal axis. As a result, six curves are
presented in Fig. 25. The three curves associated with
DC45A-1 are similar to those associated with DC45A-2.
The six curves have similar variation patterns. The
similarity in the variation patterns of the six curves
are very high at low penetration rate and become
lower and lower as the penetration rate becomes greater
than 0.95 m/min. From their variation patterns, the six
curves can be clearly divided into the following four
zones as the penetration rate increases along the
horizontal axis:
* Zone A has the values of penetration rate varying
from 0.05 to 0.45 m/min and the percentage
number of zone penetration rates less than the
upper bound value (i.e., 0.45 m/min) is about
40–43%.
* Zone B has the values of penetration rate varying
from 0.45 to 0.95 m/min and the percentage number
of zone penetration rates less than the upper bound
value (i.e., 0.95 m/min) is about 63–68%.
* Zone C has the values of penetration rate varying
from 0.95 to 2.0 m/min and the percentage
number of zone penetration rates less than the
upper bound value (i.e., 2.00 m/min) is about
88–93%.
* Zone D has the values of penetration rate varying
from 2.0 to 8.0 m/min and the percentage number of
zone penetration rates less than the upper bound
value (i.e., 8.00 m/min) is about 100%.
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Z.Q. Yue et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612 609

Fig. 25. Distributions of values of the original and normalized zone constant penetration rates for zoning of volcanic weathering profiles with drilling
machine Nos. DC45A-1 and DC45A-2.

Table 10 The above results are further summarized in Table 10.

Criteria for zoning weathered grades of volcanic rocks with the three
These DPM results are considered to be compatible and
DPM penetration rates
consistent with the conventional mechanical properties
Zone no. Three DPM Weathered grades of summarized in Table 7, although the DPM results have
penetration rates volcanics shown continuous variations in the penetration rates.
(m/min)
Further refinements of the zoning results can be
A 0.05–0.45 I, II to III carried out using the percentage ratios of the standard
B 0.45–0.95 III–IV to IV variations over the mean values of the percussion,
C 0.95–2.0 V
downward thrust and forward rotation pressures for the
D 2.0–8.0 V–VI to VI
straight segment zones. For example, for sound
rock zone (say, fresh or slightly decomposed volcanics),
the percentage ratios are small. In addition, the
Based on the above analyses and discussions, the flushing time used for a straight segment zone can also
criteria for using the three DPM penetration rates to be used to refine the zoning results. Site experience
zone volcanic weathering profiles are further summar- indicates that the high the flushing time, the high the
ized in Fig. 25. They are as follows: ground material heterogeneity and the less the ground
material integrity.
* Zone A, with penetration rate between 0.05 and
0.45 m/min, corresponds to fresh, slightly or MDV 7.5. Drillhole depths From DPM and manual
(I, II, III). measurements
* Zone B, with penetration rates between 0.45 and
0.95 m/min, corresponds to moderately to highly or In this section, a simple verification is presented to
highly decomposed volcanics (III–IV, IV). show the accuracy of the DPM method in determining
* Zone C, with penetration rates between 0.95 and the drillhole depth. When carrying out the DPM
2.0 m/min, corresponds to CDV (V). monitoring on site, the depth for each soil nail hole
* Zone D, with penetration rates greater than 2.0 m/ was manually measured after its completion. The total
min, corresponds to CDV to residual soils or residual depth of a hole was estimated on site using the following
soils (V–VI, VI). equation.
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610 Z.Q. Yue et al. / International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 41 (2004) 573–612
Fig. 26. Differences in drilling hole depths between manual and DPM measurements.
Drillhole depth
¼ Length of the hammer and bit rod
þ Extension tube length
 Its total number in the drillhole
 Length left outside the drillhole
at the last extension tube;
where all the lengths were measured manually on site
using an ordinary steel tape with meter, centimeter and
millimeter scales.
Depth of each of the above 23 soil nail holes was also
measured manually immediately after the completion of
the drilling work. Fig. 26 shows a comparison of the
hole depths between the DPM measurement and the
manual measurement. The differences are within
7100 mm, which are small. The relative differences are
within 71.0%.
8. Concluding remarks
We have presented a methodology for identifying
zones of volcanic weathering and decomposition grades
in the ground from automatic monitoring of pneumatic
rotary-percussive drilling process for production holes
in soil nail construction. The methodology includes an
in situ technique for automatic monitoring and record-
ing of the full drilling process in real time and a number
of data analysis methods and criteria for identifying
individual drilling operations, determining drill bit
advancement depth with net penetrating time, calculat-
ing zone penetration rates as well as identifying zones of
volcanic weathering and decomposition grades.
Factual data presented in the paper have shown that
the methodology can accurately and effectively identify
the zones and their boundaries of RS, completely,
highly, moderately and slightly decomposed volcanics
and fresh volcanics. The in situ digital technique,
namely, DPM, is innovative and successful since it can
automatically, objectively and continuously measure
ð15Þ
and record the full drilling process while a hole is being
drilled in the ground in real time, while the existing
techniques for instrumented drilling were only able to
record drilling parameters at pre-selected bit advance-
ment depths. Most importantly, this DPM for full
drilling process monitoring has resulted in the discovery
that the curve of drill bit advancement depth versus its
net penetrating time for a production hole is composed
of a number of linear segments in time series. The
connection boundary between any two linear segments
can be either a clear point and have almost zero thickness
or a smooth curve over a short distance. The gradient of
the interface curve is between the constant gradients of
the upper and lower connected linear segments.
Consequently, a constant penetration rate can be
determined for each of the linear segment zones along
the curve. Factual data presented in the paper have
further shown that with similar pneumatic rotary-
percussive drilling machines, the linear segment zones
and their constant penetration rates are mainly deter-
mined by the ground materials. Therefore, the linear
segment zones and their constant penetration rates can
be used to accurately and cost-effectively identify and
zone spatial distributions of the volcanic weathering and
decomposition grades in the ground. The higher the
constant penetration rate of a straight segment zone,
the higher the decomposition and weathering grade of
the corresponding volcanic zone.
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It is believed that this methodology will provide
engineers and geologists with a simple and cost-effective
tool to widely record and utilize the by-products of
current normal drilling practice for ground investiga-
tion, geotechnical design and verifications, drilling
construction management, as well as drilling quality
control. It is expected that the proposed methodology
will be able to further the geotechnical knowledge and
engineering practice in Hong Kong and in main other
mountainous regions comprising weathered soils and
rocks. Moreover, it is hoped that the principles and
practical techniques can also be applied in the wider civil
and mining engineering contexts, such as estimation of
the mechanical properties of rock zones in general and
fault/shear zones in particular.
Acknowledgements
The work described in this paper was substantially
supported by a grant from the Research Grant Council
of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region,
China (Project No. HKU 7005/01E) and a financial
support from the Hong Kong Jockey Club Charities
Trust. The authors also thank some in-kind supports
from the Geotechnical Engineering Office of the
Government of the Hong Kong Special Administration
Region, Halcrow China Ltd, Maunsell Geotechnical
Services Ltd. and Fugro (Hong Kong) Ltd. The authors
would also like to thank Professor J.A. Hudson for his
valuable comments and suggestions for improvement of
the manuscript.
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