GARCIA, MARK JULIUS BSME- V

RESEARCHER / REPORTER

PRIMARY SHAPING PROCESSES

(1) CASTING PROCESS

INTRODUCTION:
Casting is a manufacturing process that pours a liquid material into a hollow mold until the material
cools into a solidified shape.

Examples: door handles, locks, the outer casing or housing for motors, pumps, etc., wheels of many
cars. Casting is also heavily used in the toy industry to make parts, e.g. toy cars, planes, etc.

Advantages
• Complex forms, low cost
• Certain shapes cannot be machined
• One piece parts vs. multiple piece parts
• Design changes are easily incorporated
• High volume, low skilled labor
• Large, heavy parts can be made easily
DISADVANTAGES
• Problems with internal porosity
• Dimensional variations due to shrinkage
• Trapped impurities, solids and gasses
• High-tolerance, smooth surfaces not possible
• More costly than stamping or extruding in some cases
Casting Alloys
• Nonferrous Alloys
– Aluminum, magnesium, copper, zinc, tin, lead
– Good electrical conductivity and resistant to corrosion
– Most of these alloys share characteristics of good machinability and can all be welded
• Ferrous alloys
– Cast irons
• Largest quantity of all metals cast
• Good wear resistance, hardness and machinability
– Cast Steels
• Material used under extreme heat conditions
• Railroad, mining and construction
TWO TYPES OF MOLDS
Expendable Molds – molds that are not reusable.
• Green Sand
• Dry Sand
• Shell
• Investment
• Plaster
Permanent Molds – reusable molds.
• Die
• Centrifugal
• Pressure
• Injection
 COMMON TYPES OF CASTING METHODS
(SAND CASTING / INVESTMENT CASTING / DIE CASTING / CENTRIFUGAL CASTING/ VACUUM
CASTING)

SAND CASTING
Sand casting is a method involving pouring a molten metal into a sand mold. Is metal casting process
characterized by using sand as the mold material . It is relatively cheap and sufficiently refractory even for
steel foundry use.

STEPS IN CASTING PROCESS

1) Place a pattern in sand to create a mold.
2) Incorporate the pattern and sand in a gating system.
3) Remove the pattern.
4) Fill the mold cavity with molten metal .
5) Allow the metal to cool .
6) Break away the sand mold and remove the casting.

Size Range: Limitation depends on foundry capabilities. Ounces to many tons.

Tolerances:
Non-Ferrous ± 1/32″ to 6″
Add ± .003″ to 3″, ± 3/64″ from 3″ to 6″.
Across parting line add ± .020″ to ± .090″ depending on size.(Assumes metal patterns)
Surface Finish:
Non-Ferrous: 150-350 RMS
Ferrous: 300-700RMS
Minimum Draft Requirements:
1° to 5°
Cores: 1° to 1 1/2°
Normal Minimum Section Thickness:
Non-Ferrous: 1/8″ - 1/4″
Ferrous: 1/4″ - 3/8″
Ordering Quantities: All quantities
Normal Lead Time:
Samples: 2-10 weeks
Production 2-4 weeks A.S.A.

TYPES OF SAND MOLDS

Green-sand.
-Is a mixture of sand, clay, and water
Cold-box.
- Various organic and inorganic binders are blended into the sand to bond the grains chemically for
greater strength.
No-bake molds.
- A synthetic liquid resin is mixed with the sand; the mixture hardens at room temperature.

Advantages
– Inexpensive mold
– Complex geometry
– All alloys
– Unlimited size
– Economical in low Quantities
Disadvantages
– Labor intensive
– Slower production rate
– Rough surface finish
– Loose tolerances
– Requires relatively thick
walls (>3mm)
 INVESTMENT CASTING
Investment (lost wax) casting is an ancient method of precision casting complex near-net-shape
details. The investment casting process uses expendable patterns made of investment casting wax.

Background
•Originally developed by ancient Chinese and Egyptian culture to create artwork,
•Primarily used for art until development of the jet turbine engine at the end of World War II,
•Commercial and Consumer products,

BENEFITS OF INVESTMENT CASTING:

- Superior surface finish
- Wide range of alloys
- Complex, near net geometries
- Fine detail

Size Range: fraction of an ounce to 150 lbs..

Tolerances:
± .003″ to 1/4″
± .004″ to 1/2″,
± .005″ per inch to 3″
± .003″ for each additional inch
Surface Finish:
63-125RMS
Minimum Draft Requirements: None
Normal Minimum Section Thickness:
.030″ (Small Areas)
.060″ (Large Areas)
Ordering Quantities:
Aluminum: usually under 1,000
Other metals: all quantities
Normal Lead Time:
Samples: 5-16 weeks (depending on complexity)
Production 4-12 weeks A.S.A. (depending on subsequent operations)

STEPS IN INVESTMENT CASTING:

1. Creating a Wax Pattern

•In today’s manufacturing world, wax patterns are typically made by injecting wax into a metal tool or “die”
•With the evolution of Additive Manufacturing, patterns can be printed In the art community, one of a kind
pieces are carved by the artist from wax blocks
•For multiple castings, a silicon tool is usually made from the artist’s sculpture and wax is injected or
poured into the resulting cavity

2. Wax Tree Assembly

•It is typically uneconomical to make small parts one at a time, so wax patterns are typically attached to a
wax “sprue”
•The sprue serves two purposes
1.Provides a mounting surface to assemble multiple patterns into a single mold, which will be later filled
with alloy
2.Provides a flow path for the molten alloy into the void created by the wax pattern(s)
•The wax between the pattern(s) and the sprue are called “Gates”, because they throttle the direction and
flow of the alloy into the void made by the pattern

3. Shell Building
•The next step in the process is to build a ceramic shell around the wax tree
•This shell will eventually become the mold that metal is poured into
•To build the shell, the tree is dipped into a ceramic bath or “slurry”
•After dipping, fine sand or “stucco” is applied to the wet surface
•The mold is allowed to dry, and the process is repeated a number of times until a layered (or laminated)
ceramic mold, capable to undergo the stresses of the casting process, has been built
 4. Dewax / Burnout
•Before pouring metal into the mold, the wax is removed
•This is typically done using a steam-dewax autoclave, which is like a large, industrial pressure cooker
•Another method is the use of a flash fire oven, which melts and burns off the wax
•Many foundries use both methods in concert
•Autoclave removes the majority of the wax, which can be reconditioned and reused
•Flash fire burns off residual wax and cures the shell, readying it for casting

5. Metal Pouring
•Before the metal is poured into the ceramic mold or “shell”, the mold is preheated to a specific
temperature to prevent the molten alloy from solidifying or “freezing off” before the entire mold is filled
•Alloy is melted in a ceramic cup (called a crucible) using a process known as induction melting
•A high frequency electric current creates a magnetic field around the alloy, generating electric fields
inside the metal (eddy currents)
•The eddy currents heat the alloy due to the material’s electrical resistance
•When the alloy reaches its specified temperature, it is poured into the mold, and the mold is allowed to
cool

6. Shell Knock Off

•Once cool, the shell material is removed from the metal
•This is typically done via mechanical means
•Hammer
•High Pressure Water Blast
•Vibratory Table
•Shell removal can also be accomplished chemically, using a heated caustic solution of either potassium
hydroxide or sodium hydroxide, but this approach is being phased out due to environmental and health
concerns

7. Cut Off
•Once the shell material has been removed, the parts are cut off the sprue and the gates are ground off
•Part cut off can be done manually
•Chop saw
•Torch
•Laser (limited applications)
•Parts can also be cut off using automation, that is, the mold can be secured using a fixture on a
programmable cut off saw

8. Individual Castings
•Once the parts are removed from the sprue, and the gates removed, the surface can be finished via a
number of means
•Vibratory/Media finishing
•Belting or hand grinding
•Polishing
•Finishing can be done by hand, but in many cases it is automated
•Parts are then inspected, marked (if required), packaged and shipped
•Depending on the application, the parts can be used in their “net shape” or undergo machining for
precision mating surfaces

Advantages
-Good dimensional
accuracy
-Relatively inexpensive
Mold
-Rapid production rates
Possible
-Complex shapes

Disadvantages
-Long production cycle
-Mold is not reusable
 DIE CASTING

Die casting is a metal casting process in which molten metal is forced into a steel mold under
high pressure into a mold cavity. The steel molds, known as dies, are fabricated to produce castings with
intricate shapes in a manner that insures both accuracy and repeatability.

Design: hold and accurately close two mold halves and keep them closed while liquid metal is forced into
cavity.

Metals: Aluminum, Zinc, Magnesium, and limited Brass.

Size Range: Not normally over 2 feet square. Some foundries
capable of larger sizes.
Tolerances:
Al and Mg ± .002″/in.
Zinc ± .0015″/in.
Brass ± .001″/in.
Add ± .001″ to ± .015″ across parting line depending on size
Surface Finish: 32-63RMS
Minimum Draft Requirements:
Al & Mg: 1° to 3°
Zinc: 1/2° to 2°
Brass: 2° to 5°
Normal Minimum Section Thickness:
Al & Mg: .03″ Small Parts: .06″ Medium Parts
Zinc: .03″ Small Parts: .045″ Medium Parts
Brass: .025″ Small Parts: .040″ Medium Parts
Ordering Quantities:
Usually 2,500 and up.
Normal Lead Time:
Samples: 12-20 weeks
Production: ASAP after approval.

Two main types of DIE CASTING MACHINE:

1. Hot-chamber machine
2. Cold-chamber machine

1. HOT-CHAMBER MACHINE
Metal is melted in a container, and a piston injects
liquid metal under high pressure into the die

Cycle in hot chamber machine:

1. with die closed and plunger withdrawn,
molten metal flows into the chamber
2. plunger forces metal in chamber to flow into die,
maintaining pressure during cooling and solidification.

2. COLD-CHAMBER MACHINE:
Molten metal is poured into unheated chamber
from external melting container, and a piston
injects metal under high pressure into die cavity

Cycle in cold-chamber machine:

1. with die closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal is
poured into the chamber
2. ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining
pressure during cooling and solidification.

The die casting process consists of 5 basic steps:

1. Clamping
 The first step in die casting is clamping. The dies are cleaned and lubricated to aid in step two,
injection. Once the dies have been properly cleaned and lubricated, the die halves are closed and
clamped together with high pressure.
2. Injection
The molten metal is transferred from a furnace into a ladle. The ladle then pours the molten metal
into shot chamber where it is ready to be injected into the clamped die. The molten metal is then forced
into the die using extremely high pressure. The high pressure then holds the metal in the die until it has
time to solidify.
3. Cooling
The third step in the process is cooling. After the molten metal is injected into the die, it must
have time to solidify and cool. During this time the die cannot be unclamped. Once the metal has
completely cooled it takes on its final shape of the casting.
4. Ejection
Once the cooling process has finished, the die halves can be unclamped and an ejection
mechanism pushes the solidified casting out of the die.
5. Trimming
The final step in the die casting process is trimming. While the metal is cooling, the excess metal
in the sprue and runner must be removed along with any flash that has transpired. This extra material is
then trimmed away from the final casting. The trimmed sprue, runners, and flash can then be recycled
and reused in the die casting process.

Advantages
-Die casting is a highly productive method of casting parts with low dimensions tolerance and high
surface quality.
Disadvantages
-Expensive die
-Small parts
-Complex and large
machinery: expensive

CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
Centrifugal casting is a method of casting parts having axial symmetry. The method involves
pouring molten metal into a cylindrical mold spinning about its axis of symmetry. The mold is kept rotating
till the metal has solidified. As the mold material steels, Cast irons, Graphite may be used. A centrifugal
casting machine is schematically presented in the picture:

Centrifugal casting is carried out as follows:

1. The mold wall is coated by a refractory ceramic coating
2. Starting rotation of the mold at a predetermined speed.
3. Pouring a molten metal directly into the mold
4. The mold is stopped after the casting has solidified.
5. Extraction of the casting from the mold.
 Centrifugal casting technology is widely used for manufacturing of iron pipes, bushings, wheels,
pulleys bi-metal steel-bronze bearings and other parts possessing axial symmetry.

Advantages
_ Large cylindrical parts
_ Good quality
Disadvantages
_ Expensive
_ Limited shapes

VACUUM CASTING
For vacuum casting, the material is sucked upwards into the mold by a vacuum pump. The mold in an
inverted position from the usual casting process, is lowered into the flask with the molten metal.
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RELATED MACHINERY AND EQUIPMENTS USED IN CASTING:

1. DIE CASTING MACHINE – it utilize a pneumatic or hydraulic actuator to fill die molds.
2. VACUUM CASTING MACHINE – it implements a vacuum to expulse air from the die chamber,
draw the molten liquid into the cast, and hold sand in place as the molten material is poured.
3. CONTINUOUS CASTING MACHINE – it requires a conveyor system as wellas mechanical
shears.
4. INGOT CASTING MACHINE
5. CENTRIFUGAL CASTING MACHINE – it requires motor and a shaft upon which the mold is
affixed.

COMMERCIAL PROGRAMS USED IN CASTING PROCESS:

1. AutoCAST
2. MAGMA

CASTING PROCESS SIMULATION uses NUMERICAL METHODS to calculate cast component quality
considering mold filling and solidification and cooling.

BENEFITS OF CASTING PROCESS SIMULATION:

1. ENERGY SAVING
2. MATERIAL SAVING
3. TOOLING SAVING

AUTOMATION, VARIATIONS AND DEVELOPMENTS OF CASTING METHOD:

1. Continuous casting
2. Lost foam molding
3. 3D Printing of Investment tooling
4. Direct printing with metal droplets
5. Uniform metal spray

REFERENCES:
• ABB, Automation Solutions, 2005, 10/01/2005, www.abb.com
• Brown Jerry, Primary Metals, 10/01/2005, www.p2pays.org
• ECO BRASS workability, 10/01/2005, www.ecobrass.com
• 2.008 Casting, 10/01/2005, www.ocw.mit.edu
• Wright, Thomas, Processes of Manufacturing, Goodheart-Wilcox Company, Inc., 1990
• Lindbeck, John R., Product Design and Manufacture, Prentice-Hall, 1995
• Kalpakjian & Schmid, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Prentice-Hall, Fifth Ed.
• G. Boothroyd et al., "Design for Die Casting" Flemings, "Solidification Process" Kalpakjian Ch 10-
12, Skim Sec 30.9,30.10, Skim Ch 32 (Ch 10-12, Skim Ch 29, 30)