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Process framework for describing the morphologic and stratigraphic evolution

of deltaic depositional system

Article · January 1975

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88 W.E. GALLOWAY
system (Fisher et al., 1969). Deltaic systems
themselves commonly show long-term evolu-
tionary trends as progradation extends into in-
creasing depths of water or as conditions change
from net regressive to net transgressive.
DELTAIC PROCESS/RESPONSE MODELS
The morphology and stratigraphy of a marine
delta are the result of the rate of sediment input
relative to the ability of energy sources within
the basin to rework and remove sediment (obvi-
ously sediment must be supplied at a faster rate
than removal for a delta to form at all). Signifi-
cance of this interplay on morphology of deltas
was noted early (Bernard and LeBlanc, 1965;
Bernard, 1965) and particularly emphasized by
Fisher et al. (1969). Wright and Coleman (1973)
and Komar (1973) attempted to quantify the rela-
tionship between delta morphology and one of
the important types of basin energy, namely,
wave energy flux. However, an understanding
of the full range of stratigraphic variability in
deltaic depositional systems requires a synthesis
of all types of marine energy impinging on the
deltaic shoreface and determination of their in-
teractions with fundamental aspects of the sed-
iment input.
Components of Basin Energy
Energy input along a shelf or other marine
platform has been divided by Swift (1969) into
several components which include: (1) intruding
oceanic currents; (2) meteorological currents,
which encompass barometric storm surge, wave
surge, and wind-generated currents; (3) tidal
currents; and (4) density currents. The relative
importance of these marine energy components
in transportation and redeposition of the flu-
vially introduced sediment is variable. Primary
effects of each component are readily identified
by analysis of modern deltaic coastlines.
Intruding oceanic currents act primarily to
transport the suspended sediment load away
from the locus of sediment input. The Orinoco
Delta, for example, is prograding into the
northwestward flowing North Equatorial Cur-
rent. Consequently, much of the prodeltaic mud
has been laterally displaced and deposited in the
Gulf of Paria between Trinidad and the main-
land of South America (Van Andel, 1967). In
effect, the locus of mud deposition has shifted
about 150 km northwest of the main body of
deltaic sediment. Density currents and other
gravity transport m e c h a n i s m s likewise act
primarily to remove sediment, including both
bed load and suspended load, down the prevail-
ing slope away from the delta. Such transport
may produce a prodelta characterized by abun-
dant graded beds, such as described by McBride
et al. (this volume) in the Difunta Group (Late
Cretaceous to Paleocene) of northern Mexico. It
also may form an integrated sediment dispersal
network capable of transporting much or all of
the introduced sediment away from the delta
and onto the floor of the basin (Moore and As-
quith, 1970). At the present time, sediment from
the Ganges-Brahmaputra distributaries is col-
lected into a submarine valley (the Swatch of No
Ground) and transported downslope onto the
Ganges Cone (Curray and Moore, 1971). Small-
er scale but analogous delta-associated sub-
marine slope and fan systems are described by
Asquith (1970) and Galloway and Brown (1972).
Construction of fans includes a variety of depo-
sitional processes other than true density cur-
rent flow, but the various products are difficult
to distinguish. Thus, in a stratigraphic context,
deposits of density currents, grain flow, and
slumping are grouped as products of gravita-
tional potential energy.
Meteorological currents may be important fac-
tors in shaping the morphology and facies dis-
tribution of deltas. Wave surge against the
shoreline sorts s e d i m e n t , p r o d u c i n g a
basinward-fining textural gradient, and, when
asymmetrically applied, sets up a net longshore
transport of bed-load sediment. Although the
importance of long-period wind-generated cur-
rents in determining depositional products is
poorly documented, work by Sternberg and
McManus (1972) suggested that such currents
may play a significant role in the transportation
of suspended and, to a lesser extent, bed-load
sediment on the northeast Pacific shelf. The abil-
ity of tidal currents to transport both suspended
and bed-load sediment and to deposit large-
 EVOLUTION OF DELTAIC SYSTEMS 89

scale subaqueous sedimentary features is well
documented in the literature (Allen, 1970b,
Chapter 5).
Figure 1 summarizes the components of
energy input that combine to determine the
morphologic and stratigraphic type of delta sys-
tems. Wave and tidal energy flux are the primary
long-term processes that transport and deposit
bed-load sediment (essentially all sand). Cur-
rent energy flux, which includes permanent in-
truding oceanic currents and variable wind drift
currents, acts primarily to transport suspended
load sediment (clay, silt, and some very fine
sand). Release of gravitational potential energy
entrains both bed and suspended load and re-
moves them into slope and basinal environments,
which may become independent depositional
systems characterized by their own suite of pro-
cesses and resultant facies. Though schemati-
cally illustrated as discrete entities, processes
are not truly independent variables; each is
modified by characteristics of the morphology of
the platform or basin into which the delta is
prograding. Platform slope, depth, width, and
inflection points (shelf edge for example) all in-
fluence the intensity of activity of the various
processes and, in turn, are modified by con-
tinued activity of the processes and prograda-
tion of the delta mass. The deltaic system is
typified by continual process feedback and mod-
ification; equilibrium over extended periods of
geologic time exists only when the delta ceases
to prograde.
Character of Fluvial Input
Sediment input must be defined in terms of
several parameters in the full analysis of a
~ ................. -'1
I PLATFORM MORPHOLOGY I
L,. . . . . . . . . . ~F . . . . . . . ---)
r ..... l .......... I- . . . . . . . . . . .

I , F, x, I Fux, I I["rgY, F,u. Pot.n.o,,E..ruy

MODIFIED BY:
Subsidence/A, Igrodofion
Climote (Ve =efofion,etc.)

Figure 1. Factors combining to determine the morphology and stratigraphy of a delta system.
90 W.E. GALLOWAY
prograding delta. Studies of modern deltas show
three factors to be most significant (Figure 1): (1)
Annual sediment discharge expresses the
amount of sediment delivered to the receiving
basin. Importance of this factor is obvious, but
equally obvious is the fact that some of the
world's greatest rivers, in terms of discharge,
such as the Amazon and Congo, have con-
structed insignificant deltas. (2) The ratio of bed
load (sand and gravel) to suspended load (clay
and silt) is a significant but complex factor. High
suspended load streams build confining levees
that tend to establish the channel in permanent
locations (Kolb, 1963) and to construct a shallow
mud platform, favoring extensive progradation;
however, suspended load is particularly suscep-
tible to loss from the system by wind drift, per-
manent oceanic currents, and tidal currents.
Fisher et al. (1969) stated that a high suspended
load to bed load ratio favors formation of
fluvial-dominated deltaic p r o g r a d a t i o n ,
whereas high bed load ratio streams are charac-
terized by marine-dominated, destructional
deltas. (3) Seasonal variation in the rate of sedi-
ment input results in periods of deposition dur-
ing which direction and/or intensity of reservoir
energy flux may be appreciably divergent from
the yearly average (Wright and Coleman, 1973).
Consequently, the stratigraphy of the delta may
be disproportionately influenced by the basin
energy regime that prevails during periods of
maximum sediment input.
Two additional factors affect the total stratig-
raphy of the delta system. First, preservation of
various deltaic fades is in part determined by the
rate of basin subsidence. Rapid burial results in
nearly complete sequences of prodelta, delta
margin, and delta plain facies. Perhaps more
importantly, subsidence that exceeds the capa-
bility of the rivers to input sediment results in
deepening of the prodelta platform with a con-
sequent increase in the effect of wave rework-
ing. Examples of this effect in evolution of delta
systems will be discussed below. Second, cli-
mate determines the types of deltaic plain facies
that will form. Temperature, rainfall, and winds
may combine to produce dunes, salt lakes, flats,
marshes, permafrost, or other surficial features.
The delta of the Copper River (southern
Alaska) provides an excellent example of the
interaction of various fluvial and marine proces-
ses. Figure 2 summarizes data from Reimnitz
(1966), coastal charts, and aerial photographs.
Marine energy components include a perma-
nent westward flowing current that locally pro-
duces velocities of 9 km/hr (8.2 fps), an average
tidal range of 3 m that produces currents of up to
13 km]hr (12 fps) in inlets, north-nOrtheast fair
weather wave surge, and west-northwest storm
surge. The Copper River transports an esti-
mated 107 x 106 metric tons of sediment per year,
of which about 15 percent is estimated to be bed
load (Reimnitz, 1966). Flow rates exhibit ex-
treme periodicity ranging from near zero during
the winter months, when the Copper is ice
jammed, to a high of 8.5 x 103 m3/sec in the sum-
mer when flow is augmented by breakup of ice
jams. Interaction of these processes has pro-
duced a delta with an extensive sandy shoreface
backed by subtidal to intertidal sand flats.
Westward transport of bed load by storm surge-
induced longshore drift is evident from the
morphology of the coastal barrier bars, and the
center of gravity of the delta mass has been
displaced approximately 40 km (25 mi) west-
ward by drift and the permanent marine cur-
rents. High wave-energy flux has resulted in a
s m o o t h i n g of the delta margin, and pro-
gradation beyond the flanking bedrock head-
lands will be very slow. The Holocene delta is
thus a complex product of many interacting
processes.
Delta Response Models
Analysis of modern deltas shows that the in-
terplay of fluvial and marine processes produces
a great variety of delta types, which have been
broadly categorized by Fisher et al. (1969) as
high constructional and high destructional.
Morphology suggests that high destmctional, or
marine-dominated, deltas consist of two distinc-
tive end members depending on whether wave
or tidal energy dominates reworking and trans-
portation of sediment. Figure 3 illustrates this
tripartate subdivision of deltas into fluvial-
 E V O L U T I O N OF DELTAIC SYSTEMS 91

GULF OF ALASKA --" ........

....~ ........................ ~7~:~.~:. ~r~ .....
~ ........

, < • : :lidwm
: : :Cummt
]
I tl'--II"" Dis~ri~foryCirctdofion PROCESSES AND SEDIMENT
DISPERSAL NETlYORK
COPPER RIVER DELTA AREA
• . core LoCollqm

J '~T'~/ sloms~.
I~ Ezlerd~ Tdlat ~ l l l , , c e
I~ .~,~, ~1o.,.o.,...,, llkm G~I~ tBT

Figure 2. Summary diagram showing processes active in the Holocene delta of the Copper River, Alaska, and
the resultant longshore transport paths of bed load sediment. Suspended load sediment (very fine sand to
clay) spreads farther out onto the shelf and is transported westward by the intruding marine current. The
delta plain includes lagoonal sand flats and marsh, which are influenced by tides, and prominent
marginal coastal barrier bars.

d o m i n a t e d , w a v e - d o m i n a t e d , a n d tide- Holocene lobes of the Mississippi, have been

dominated end members, represented by the published (Table 1).
Plaquemines-Modern (Mississippi), Sao Fran- Each of the three end member delta types is
cisco, and Fly deltas, respectively. All marine characterized by a distinctive framework of sand
deltas for which the author has collected mor- fades. The stratigraphy of fluvial- and wave-
phologic data can be plotted within the triangle dominated deltas has been well documented;
formed by these three end members (Figure 3). internal structure of tide-dominated deltas is
Detailed descriptions of several composite delta poorly k n o w n and is primarily interpreted from
s y s t e m s , i n c l u d i n g the O r i n o c o , Niger, morphology, studies of analogous fades in other
M e k o n g , a n d R h 6 n e , a n d v a r i o u s early depositional systems, and surface sediment
92 W.E. GALLOWAY

distribution. Morphologic and stratigraphic
characteristics of the three delta types are com-
pared in Table 2.
As discussed in the previous section, several
processes are active in the deposition of a delta.
Only confined fluvial flow, wave flux, and tidal
currents appear to be capable of transporting
appreciable quantities of sand (gravitational po-
tential energy, though locally important, tends
to m o v e sediment out of the delta system).

SEDIMENT INPUT

FLUVIALFACIES(OOMINANTLYSAND)

[] DELTM MARGINSANDFACIES
[~ MARSH/SWAMPANDMUOOYOVERSANKSEDIMENTVENEER

st ~ord Logo-

FLUV
A
IL

/ Ebro

/ Ns
,. o,.o. ~.,

WAVE's" '~'*°~ TIDE

Fsy

WAVE ENERGY FLUX TIDAL ENERGY FLUX

Fly

$6o Irr onclsCO

TRIANGULAR CLASSIFICATION OF D E L T A I C D E P O S I T I O N A L SYSTEMS

Figure 3. Schematic diagram illustrating the threefold division of deltas into fluvial-dominated, wave-
dominated, and tide-dominated types. The relative importance of sediment input, wave energy flux, and
tidal energy flux determine the morphology and internal stratigraphy of the delta.
 EVOLUTION OF DELTAIC SYSTEMS 93

TABLE 1. SOURCES OF STRATIGRAPHIC INFORMATION FOR MAJOR HOLOCENE DELTA SYSTEMS

Delta System Basin Class Author(s)

Mississippi Gulf of Mexico F to F/W Many, including Fisk (1955); Kolb

and Van Lopik (1966); Frazier (1967)
Po Adriatic Sea F/W Nelson (1970)
Rh6ne Mediterranean Sea W/F Kruit (1955); Oomkens (1967, 1970)
Orinoco Atlantic Ocean W/F/T Van Andel (1967)

Niger Gulf of Guinea W-T Allen (1965, 1970a)

Mekong South China Sea T-W Gagliano and McIntire (1968)
Klang Lan~at Malacca Strait T Coleman et al. (1970)

F = Fluvial-dominated F/W = Fluvial-dominated, wave-modified

W = Wave-dominated W-T = Subequal wave and tidal domination
T = Tide-dominated

Thus, bed load is trapped in distributary chan- c a u s e s a n d y facies f o r m the stratigraphic

nels and distributary mouth bars, coastal bar-
riers and beach ridges, or tidal sand ridges and
estuary fill. Oceanic currents, wind drift, den-
sity currents, and storm surge have not been
s h o w n to f o r m v o l u m e t r i c a l l y significant
framework sand fades within delta systems. Be-
framework or skeleton of the delta, a genetic
classification of deltas based on the relative im-
portance of wave energy flux, tidal energy flux,
and rate of sediment input is equally useful for
modern deltas and their stratigraphic analogs.

TABLE 2. CHARACTERISTICS OF DELTAIC DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS

Fluvial-Dominated Wave-Dominated Tide-Dominated

Geometry Elongate to lobate Arcuate Estuarine to irregular

Channel type Straight to sinuous Meandering Flaring straight to

distributaries distributaries sinuous distributaries

Bulk composition M u d d y to mixed Sandy Variable

Framework facies Distributary mouth bar Coastal barrier and Estuary fill and tidal
and channel fill sands, beach ridge sands sand ridges
delta margin sand sheet

Framework orientation Parallels depositional Parallels depositional Parallels depositional

slope strike slope
94 W. E. GALLOWAY

EVOLUTION OF DELTA SYSTEMS of the platform is indicated by the fact that larger
distributaries eroded down through their genet-
The style of deltaic progradation is extremely ically associated prodeltaic and shelf margin
sensitive to variations in the relative intensity of facies into shelf and interdeltaic deposits that
marine and fluvial processes. As the delta pro- predate the progradational cycle. Total thick-
grades further into the basin or as the geologic ness of distributary sand bodies rarely exceeds
framework of the fluvial source area or basin of 30 feet, and the entire delta sequence is com-
deposition evolves, the relative intensity of pro- pressed vertically. Almost all sand was stored as
cesses will vary; succeeding delta lobes within distributary and fluvial channel fill. In contrast,
the delta system will reflect this variation. Sev- basinward of the platform edge, thick prograda-
eral such evolutionary trends are possible. Two tional sequences containing up to 100 feet of
examples that have been documented in de- sandstone coalesce and locally contain both dip
tailed studies of ancient deltaic depositional sys- and strike oriented thickness trends. The picture
tems illustrate common trends. is further complicated by the fact that considera-
ble sandstone extends down through the thick
S h a l l o w Platform to Basin prodelta slope wedge and onto the floor of the
basin in discrete submarine channel systems. In
The Cisco fluvial-deltaic system of latest addition to the simple deposition of suspended
Pennsylvanian to early Permian age was depos- sediment typical of the prodelta environment,
ited on the Eastern Shelf of the Midland Basin, much sediment, including bed load material,
north-central Texas. The Eastern Shelf is a con- was moved down depositional slope by chan-
structional platform built up by deposition of nelized, gravity-induced currents and slumps.
platform margin carbonate, submarine fan, and In fact, the dominance of gravity transported
deltaic facies (Brown, 1969; Galloway and sediment leads to the segregation of the entire
Brown, 1972). Along the margin of the platform, dastic wedge as the Sweetwater slope, or sub-
at any instant in the development of the delta marine fan, system. The deltaic facies that cap
system, water depths changed relatively ab- the wedge display evidence of wave reworking
ruptly from very shallow (estimated tens of feet) of sediment into coalescing distributary mouth
to moderately deep (up to 1,400 feet). Delta bars and coastal barriers (Galloway and Brown,
lobes prograded across the shallow platform to 1972, Figure 24-1).
the shelf edge repeatedly during the history of Evolution of the delta as it prograded across
the Cisco fluvial-deltaic system. As sediment the platform edge is explained by consideration
was dumped onto the slope, which had a gra- of the processes likely to dominate in each set-
dient of 2 to 5 degrees, thick slope wedges, or ting. First, wave energy would be damped by
submarine fans, developed at the toe and con- bottom friction as waves moved across a broad
structed a sand and mud platform onto which shallow water platform. As the delta prograded
the delta was able to prograde. Deposition of the into deeper water beyond the platform edge, the
slope wedges resulted in a basinward extension delta margin would be subjected to open basin
of the platform as the delta system evolved. wave surge; increased influence of wave energy
Figure 4 illustrates a single deltaic prograda- flux on sand dispersal would be likely. Sec-
tional cycle. The sandstone isolith map and ondly, gravitational potential energy would
cross section are modified from more complete have little possibility of significant sediment
data on the Upper Hope Sandstone in Galloway transport on a broad platform lacking appreci-
and Brown (1972). Two significantly different able relief. Beyond the platform margin, an
types of deltas exist on either side of the subja- extensive slope averaging 2 to 5 degrees with
cent platform edge. On the platform side, sand- differential relief of hundreds of feet existed; in-
stone forms elongate, bifurcating trends charac- deed, gravitational transport dominated to the
teristic of fluvial-dominated deltas. Shallowness extent that deltaic facies are subordinate and can
 EVOLUTION OF DELTAIC SYSTEMS 95

Seo Level DELTAIC PLATFORM

~, 5yO'

~ Subjacent PlatformEdge

o ---<..

\~o ~ o o/

FLUVIAL-DOMINATED LOBATE FLUVIAL- DOMINATED ELONGATE

DELTAS DELTAS
Open basin energy conditions Attenuated wove energy on shallow shelf-
Thick progradationol platform - Considerable Thin platform -Rapid progrodotion
downslope sediment loss and slow progradation

Figure 4. Sandstone isolith map and schematic dip section of a Pennsylvania age Upper Hope Sandstone delta
deposited on the Eastern Shelf of the Midland Basin. As the delta prograded across the platform edge
separating the shallow shelf from the deep, starved basin, increased wave energy flux and slower rates of
progradation (resulting from construction of a thick prodelta platform and loss of sediment into subjacent
submarine fans) caused the change from fluvial-dominated elongate to wave-dominated or wave-
influenced lobate deltas. Modified after Galloway and Brown, 1972.

be differentiated only in areas of dense well con- influx, delta m a r g i n s w o u l d be e x p o s e d to

trol.
Regressive to Transgressive Cycles
Influx of thick w e d g e s of clastic sediment,
such as have p u n c t u a t e d d e p o s i t i o n in the
northern Gulf of Mexico Basin during Tertiary
and Quaternary times, m a y exhibit distinctive
progradational a n d transgressive phases charac-
terized b y a change in types of deltas formed
(Figure 5). D u r i n g the initial p r o g r a d a t i o n a l
phase, fluvial-dominated elongate to lobate del-
tas p r e d o m i n a t e . As p r o g r a d a t i o n rate d e -
creases due to a decrease in the rate of s e d i m e n t
marine reworking for greater periods of time,
producing lobate, wave-modified, fluvial-
d o m i n a t e d deltas. Further decrease in the rate of
sedimentation, resulting in net transgressive
conditions, d e e p e n i n g of prodelta water depth,
a n d greater marine modification of the delta
lobes, w o u l d favor wave- or t i d e - d o m i n a t e d
delta types.
E x a m p l e s of e v o l u t i o n f r o m f l u v i a l -
d o m i n a t e d deltas in the regressive portion of a
major clastic cycle to w a v e - d o m i n a t e d deltas in
the transgressive portion have been
d o c u m e n t e d in the Wilcox of Texas (Fisher a n d
M c G o w e n , 1967; F i s h e r et al., 1969) a n d
96 W. E. GALLOWAY
w/F
F/w
Figure 5. Evolution of delta types in a thick, Tertiary
clastic cycle of the Gulf Coast Basin results from
the decreasing influx of sediment as prograda-
tion ceases and net transgression ensues. Dur-
ing rapid progradation of the cycle, fluvial
input is high and fluvially-dominated elongate
(F) or bird foot deltas form. As rate of sediment
input wanes, marine processes, primarily wave
energy flux, begin to modify the deltas produc-
ing fluvially-dominated lobate (F/W) and
fluvially-influenced wave-dominated (W/F)
types.
Louisiana (Galloway, 1968a,b). The lower Wil-
cox Holly Springs and Rockdale delta systems
contain elongate delta lobes at the base, grading
u p into lobate types. The overlying u p p e r Wil-
cox is characterized b y s t r i k e - o r i e n t e d delta
m a r g i n a n d coastal b a r r i e r s a n d b o d i e s of
wave-dominated delta lobes. Curtis (1970) illus-
trated a similar evolution of delta types from
f l u v i a l - d o m i n a t e d to w a v e - d o m i n a t e d in the
Miocene progradational w e d g e of Louisiana.
U n d o u b t e d l y , close examination of other clastic
cycles in the Gulf Basin would reveal more ex-
amples of similar evolutionary trends within
delta systems.
Marine-Dominated Delta Systems
Interpretation a n d description of ancient de-
positional systems a p p e a r in print in proportion
to the a b u n d a n c e of p u b l i s h e d material on
analogous Holocene systems (LeBlanc, this vol-
ume). Thus, m a n y studies of fluvial-dominated,
Mississippi-type deltas are in the literature, and
evolutionary trends are well documented. Papers
on w a v e - d o m i n a t e d d e l t a s are p r o p o r t i o n -
ally fewer, because the stratigraphy of m o d e r n
counterparts has b e e n discussed in only a few
publications. Interpretations of t i d a l - d o m i n a t e d
deltas are virtually nonexistent; w h e r e tidal in-
fluence is interpreted, it is recognized primarily
on the basis of tidal flat deposits similar to those
of the N o r t h Sea. A few p a p e r s on the internal
stratigraphy of t i d e - d o m i n a t e d deltas are n o w
available (Meckel, this volume); m a n y more are
needed. Such deltas are very c o m m o n along
m o d e r n strandlines. There is every reason to
believe that they have b e e n equally p r o m i n a n t
d u r i n g much of geologic history. Their recogni-
tion will d e p e n d on the d e v e l o p m e n t of better
stratigraphic models a n d a m o r e thorough u n -
d e r s t a n d i n g of the processes responsible for
their formation. Evolutionary trends resulting
from basin modification b y deltaic infilling re-
main to be described.
AFTERWORD
I n t e g r a t e d u t i l i z a t i o n of d e p o s i t i o n a l
p r o c e s s - r e s p o n s e models is necessary for cor-
rect stratigraphic interpretation. Recognition of
the range of delta types possible, even within
the same depositional system, will lead to better
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of m a n y stratigraphic units that
have been only generally described as marginal
marine, paralic, or estuarine.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The ideas and content of this paper were reviewed and
discussed with Charles Caughey and Robert Brenner.
Bill Rigsby and John Elliott drafted the figures. Typing
was supervised by Gerry Tingley.
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, 1970a, Sediments of the modern Niger
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, 1970b, Physical Processes of Sedimenta-
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