Fig.(1-54): contraction in the stream Fig.

(1-55): standard design of the pouring basin

of molten metal

1-5-6 Sprue
• As the liquid metal enters the sprue from the pouring basin and travels
down, it accelerates under the influence of gravity. This acceleration has two
effects:

1) The metal stream acquires a high velocity, which, theoretically, is given

by the simple equation, v2 = 2gH.

2) Due to the acceleration of the freely falling stream, the cross-sectional area
reduces as the velocity increases; this is because, according to the law of continuity,
volume flowing past one section must be the same as at any other section. As a
result of the above, the metal pulls away from the walls of the sprue with
consequent turbulence and aspiration as shown in Figure (1-56).

Fig.(1-56): the sprue with consequent turbulence and aspiration as shown

• If the walls of the sprue are tapered sufficiently so that metal lies firmly against them,
aspiration is eliminated. The following equation may be used with advantage to
arrive at the taper necessary to prevent aspiration.

• A1 /A2 =√Z2 /Z1

• Where A1 ~ area of the sprue entrance.

A2 ~ area of any other location in the sprue.

 Z1 ~ level of the pouring basin above the sprue entrance.

Z2 ~ distance from the top of the pouring basin to the location of A2.

• Although the above equation indicates that the ideal sprue should have a
parabolic taper, straight sided taper has been found to suffice in practice as shown in
Figure (1-57).

• In addition to its shape, the height of the sprue also effects its filling. It has been
shown that short sprue tend to fill up completely, when the sprue: runner
is1:1. The precise sprue height at which incomplete filling begins, is determined by
the choke area.

Fig.(1-57): straight sided taper sprue

1-5-7 Sprue Base

• As it leaves the sprue, the molten metal travels at its highest velocity and
develops its maximum energy. At the sprue base, the direction of flow abruptly
change, which causes severe turbulence. Therefore, by increasing the area of sprue
base, both the velocity and the turbulence of metal can be effectively reduced. In
addition, as the sprue base is filled, the molten metal acts as a cushion to absorb
the impact of the falling stream. In order for the sprue base to function properly, its
bottom surface must be flat. This because curved bottom surface of a sprue base
will not absorb the kinetic energy of the falling stream causing severe
turbulence.

• The cross-sectional area of the sprue base should be approximately 5

times that of the sprue exit, its depth being 2 times that of the runner.

Fig.(1-58): sprue basin

1-5-8 Runner
The function of the runner is to change the direction of the flow of metal from
vertical to horizontal. Since liquid cannot turn through a right angle
instantaneously, a contraction results as shown in Figure (1-59).

• Although little is known of the optimum radii required to suppress this type of
contraction, an enlarged sprue base goes long way in meeting the above problem. Also
to reduce appreciably the velocity of the metal leaving the sprue or spue base, the
cross-sectional area of the runner must be larger than that of the sprue exit. As
mentioned earlier, short sprues tend to fill completely, the reverse is, however, true for
runners. As the metal stream proceeds along the runners, it expands as its
velocity falls off, and eventually, completely fills the runners. Therefore it may be said
that short sprues, and long runners are an ideal combination in a running system.
 Fig.(1-59): right angle runner

• To ensure that only clean metal enters the gates, and thereby, the mold cavity, the
runners should be filled before the gates. It is, therefore, best to place runners in the
drag and gates in the cope.

• The molten metal that first enters the running system is usually contaminated due to
turbulence, aspiration and eroded sand. Runner bar extensions are, therefore, used with
advantage to prevent this metal from entering the mold cavity. The runner
extension must, however, be extended far enough beyond the last gate to prevent the
backwash of unclean metal from entering the gate.

ingates

Fig.(1-60): runner bar extensions

Lecture No.8 Week No.8 No. of hours: 2 theoretical and 1 tutorial

1-5-9 Gates
• Similar conditions of flow exist at the junction of each gate and runner bar as the
junction of sprue and runner. The resulting contraction that takes place in the former
is shown in figure (1-61).

• It can be seen that the contraction at the leading edge is rather slight, but at
the trailing edge it is considerably pronounced.

• Suffice it to say that unless the degree of contractions at various junctions,

as enumerated above, are known, or suppressed altogether, it is not possible to talk
with any precision about the cross-sectional areas of a running system.

Fig.(1-61): conditions of flow at the junction of each gate and runner bar

• Research has shown that since, in the case of multiple gating, the
tendency of the stream of molten metal is to flow the path of least resistance,
a large portion of metal will flow through the last gate attached to the
runner.

• Following Newton’s First Law of Motion, a moving object, in this case the stream of
metal, tends to continue moving in the same direction until some outside force is
exerted to change it. The reduction of the cross sectional area of the runner just beyond
the first gate, acts as that force. It restricts the flow of metal to a certain extent and
builds up a slight back pressure, thereby making the stream of metal turn and flow
through the first gate. The amount by which the cross-sectional area must
be reduced at each gate is dictated by the gating ratio being used as shown in figure (1-
62).

Fig.(1-62): area reduction at each gate

1. When gating ratio is 1:1:1, decrease area of runner by the area of gate.

2. When gating ratio is 1:2:1.5, decrease area of the runner in proportion to the number
of gates passed.

1-5-10 Gating System

• Theoretically, the best way to fill a mould with liquid metal is to pour the
metal straight through the riser. This will create the ideal conditions for
directional solidification of castings. However, the method is not applicable in its
entirety, particular to steel castings made in sand mould for obvious reasons. Hence, the
need for a gating system. Some of the gates commonly used in steel foundry are
described below:

Top Gate

• Top gates are usually limited to relatively small castings of simple design. The
turbulence of metal as it enters the mould cavity causes erosion, which is a major
problem in the manufacture of steel castings. As such, top gates are used in steel
foundries only for broad shapes of low heights.
 Bottom Gate

• Bottom gating reduces the turbulence and erosion of the mould to

a minimum, but creates unfavorable thermal gradients. Whereas local hot spots
results at the gate entrance, cold metal appears in the riser. Foundry men have devised
various means of to find a compromise between these basic forms of gating. It may
be stated that bottom gating is most desirable where risers or atmospheric risers
area used to feed sections deep in the mould.

Horn Gate

• This gate, so called because of its shape, is a variety of bottom gating. The main
objection to its use is that the metal enters mould in a fountain like jet, causing
turbulence, aspiration of air etc. Horn gate is probably the greatest single cause of gas
cavities resulting from trapped air, and is not recommended for gating steel castings.
Experiments have shown that the above fountain effect can be considerably reduced
by enlarging the cross sectional area of the exit end of the horn gate into the mould to
twice the area of its entrance from the runner.

Parting Line Gate

• This particular form of gating is a compromise between top and bottom gating.
They are often chosen more as a molding expedient than for the intrinsic value. In
this case, metal enters the mould cavity at the same level as the mould joint or parting
line. Molten metal enters through the sprue and reaches the parting surface where the
sprue is connected to the runner or gates in a direction horizontal to the casting. The
arrangement of providing a gate at the parting line allows the use of devices that
can effectively trap any slag, dirt, or sand, which passes with the metal down the sprue.
Step Gate

This takes the advantage of bottom gating, at the same time allowing hot metal to
enter directly into the riser. In some instances, it is possible to arrange a series of
gates at several levels.

Metal flows through the bottom ingates, until the mold is filled to the level of the
next higher ingate. At this point, metal is expected to start flowing through this ingate
and through successively higher ones, as the mould gates filled. However, in practice,
step gates do not function in this ideal manner. The inertia of the metal falling through
the sprue and the resulting low pressure areas created at the entrance of the top
gates, as shown in figure (1-63), carries the metal past the higher ingates and nearly
all of it flows through the bottom ingates only.

Through experimentation, it has been observed that by slanting the ingates

upward at an angle to the casting, and designing the gates for relatively
increasing resistance to flow at lower levels, step gates can be made to function
properly.

Fig.(1-63): low pressure areas created at the entrance of the top gates

Whirl Gate

• A whirl gate is the most positive device for preventing dirt from entering the
mould cavity. Although steel foundry men have used them sporadically for man
ears, great interest in their use has been taken only very recently as the demand for
more cleaner steel castings increased. Cast irons can be effectively filtered by using
variety of Filters, But for steel, development successful filters is still awaited. The
following parameters have been recommended for whirl gates used for steel
castings:

1) Ratio of ingate to outgate cross-sectional area should be 1.5:1.

2) Optimum whirl gate basin diameter appears to be between three to five times the
ingate width, and the height about 1.5 the ingate height.

3) Whirl gate performance is improved on increasing the angular displacement

(recommended orientation: 1800 apart.)

Fig.(1-64): whirl gate

1-5-11 Design of Gating System

• There are two major steps in designing a gating system:

i) Calculation of the ingate area.

ii) Derivation of the size of other components, such as runner, sprue etc.
Gating Ratio

Gating ratios recommended by various theoreticians in the literature vary over a

wide range. For steel castings, a mildly pressurized gating system is generally used.
This has the following advantages:

i) The gating system is kept full of metal. The back pressure due to the restriction of at
the gates tends to minimize the danger of the metal pulling away from the mold walls,
causing the consequent aspiration, turbulence and sand erosion.

ii) In case of multiple gating system, the flow from the gates of equal area is uniform.
Since the kinetic effect of the metal stream is dampened by the back pressure created.

A non-pressurized gating system, wherein the area of runners and gates is larger than
that of the sprue i.e.. 1:2:2 or 1:4:4, offers a rapid filling, the low velocity metal stream
resulting in materially reduced mold erosion. Such systems, however, favor oxidation of
metal and may be partially responsible for the formation of ceroxide defect. Also
metal flow is non- uniform, when the gate area equals the runner area. A slight change
in the non- pressurized system of 1:2:2 to the gating ration of 1:2:1.5 will produce steel
castings nearly free from sand erosion, will minimize oxidation in the gating
system and will produce uniform flow. It is reported that general application of this
ratio reduced the percentage of steel castings requiring welding from about 10 to 2%.

Gating Calculation

• A number of methods for calculating gating systems are available in technical

literatures today. The method consist of calculating the optimum pouring time of the
casting, which is cross checked with minimum rate of rise of metal in the mould.
The next step is to determine the total ingate area, from which the size of the
individual gate, runner and sprue are derived, depending upon the gating ratio being
used.

• For determination of pouring time, the following empirical formula can be used:
3
t = S √VG
where t is pouring time in seconds,

S is time coefficient for steel castings (Table1)

V is mean section thickness of casting in millimeter.

G is weight of casting and risers in Kg.

TABLE-1

It has been reported that the following values for coefficient ‘S’ have found to be
suitable in actual production condition of steel castings over a considerable long period.

For castings weighing from 10 to 50 MT : 1.8 to 2.8

For castings weighing from 1.0 to 10.0 MT : 1.2 TO 2.0

For castings weighing up to 1.0 MT : 1.0 to 1.5

• In addition to the determination of pouring time of the casting, due consideration

must be given to the rate of rise of metal in the mould. As it is well known, besides
casting missrun, cold shut etc, too slow a rate of rise of metal in the mould tend to give
rise to scabbing defects on the cope surface.

Table2 gives the minimum rate recommended for the rise in the mould for steel
castings.
Table-2

• Having determined the optimum pouring time of the casting, the cross-sectional
area of the ingate may be calculated according to the following formula:-

F = G ÷(0.31u√hst .t)

Where F = Cross-sectionalareaofingate,cm2

G=Weight of the casting and risers, Kg

u=Flow coefficient

t=Optimum pouring time

hst =Mean ferrostatic pressure during pouring, cm

The flow coefficient ‘u’ represent the inverse value of the resistance offered by the
mould and the running system. Values applicable to steel castings are given in table 3.

Table-3
• Table3 represents castings made without an open risers or flow-offs in a moulding
sand of average permeability, cast at normal pouring temperature.

• The following factors, therefore, influences the value of coefficient ‘u’ :

• Maximum possible value of coefficient ‘u’ = 0.75

• The mean ferro static pressure hst (Figure 1-65) during pouring is calculated from the
equation:

hst = H0 – (P2 ÷2C)

where

H0 is Height of sprue ( from top of metal level in pouring basin to the ingate level) in cm.

P is the height of the casting above the ingate level in cm.

C is the total height of the casting in as cast condition in cm.

Fig.(165): the mean ferro static pressure.

A Practical Example of Gating Calculation

• For the method drawing shown below, the basic data available for gating calculation
are as follows:

Casting Weight: 128 Kgs.

Weight of casting including riser:145 Kgs.

Mean Casting thickness: 75mm

Height of metal level in pouring basin from ingate level: 250mm

• Calculate Pouring time where time coefficient ‘S’ for side gating and normal pouring
temperature is 1.4 (from table 1), Casting weight with risers ‘G’ is 145Kgs and
Mean section thickness ‘V’ is 75mm.

t = S 3√VG = 1.4 3√145X75 = 31 seconds

• Calculate Mean ferro static pressure ‘hst ’ where ‘H0 ’ is 25cm, ‘P’ is 0 as total height of
the casting is below the ingate level and ‘C’ is 7.5cm:

hst = H0 – (P ÷2C) = 25 – (0÷2X7.5) = 25 – 0 = 25cm

•Calculate ingate area ‘F’ where ‘G’ is 145Kgs, Flow coefficient ‘u’ is 0.6, Mean ferro
static pressure ‘hst ’ is 25cm and Pouring time ‘t’ is 31 sconds :

F = G ÷(0.31u√hst .t) = 145÷(0.31x0.6x√25x31) = 28 cm2

There are two ingates for the casting and as such cross-sectional area of each
ingate will be 14cm2 i.e.. 54mm wide and 26mm thick.

• Calculate area of runner and sprue :

A gating ratio i.e.. Sprue area: Runner area: Ingate area =1:2:1.5 to be used for steel
castings.

As such the runner area will be (ingate area÷1.5)x2 = (14÷1.5)x2 = 18.66 cm2 .

So the runner dimension is 54mmx36mm.

In case of sprue area, since it is feeding both the ingates, total area of ingates i.e.
28cm2 to be taken into account,

So the sprue area is 28÷1.5 = 18.66cm2

As such the sprue diameter at the end of the taper is 48.75mm≈49mm.

Lecture No.9 Week No.9 No. of hours: 2 theoretical and 1 tutorial

1-5-12 Points to Remember

1. Contraction in the metal stream occur at the various junctions of a running
system even after calculating a gating system accurately, defects in casting may
appear unless steps are taken to suppress these contractions.

2. Short, tapered sprues and long runners with a large well at sprue base, ensure the
complete filling of the system with minimum turbulence, aspiration etc, thereby
causing less mould erosion.

3. Runner bar extensions, whirl gate and runners in drag & gates in cope, are effective
dirt trap.

4. Faster flow rates with low metal stream velocities ensure castings with least mould
erosion.

5. Horn gate cause more air entrapment in steel castings and, therefore, are not
recommended.

6. Step gates do not function as expected. In practice, most of the metal tends to flow
from the bottom gate unless means are employed to obviate the above condition.

7. Multiple gating produces less mould erosion than a single ingate system.

8. A mildly pressurizes system with a gating ratio of 1:2:1.5 has been found to give very
satisfactory results in steel castings.

1-5-13 Ingots defects

Introduction

Molten steel from BOF/EAF is tapped into a teeming ladle. Deoxidizers,

decarburizes and alloying elements if required, are added for the final finishing with
respect to oxygen content and other elements in steel. The steel may be degassed
either before or during casting. In the modern steel plants, steel is cast continuously. In
several small scale plants, particularly those based on induction melting furnaces ingot
casting is practiced. Ingot casting is done in cast iron moulds having square, round or
polygon cross section. Ingots with square cross section are used for rolling into billets,
rails and other structural sections. Whereas, ingots with rectangular cross section (also
known as slab), are used for rolling into flat products. Round ingots are used for tube
making. Polygon ingots are used to produce tires, wheels, etc. Typically an ingot
weighing 5-20 tons for rolling, whereas few hundred to 300 tons for forging.

Ingot mould types

Cast iron is used to fabricate the mould. Thermal coefficient of cast iron is lower
than steel as a result, steel on solidification contracts more than cast iron which makes
detachment of ingot easier from the mold. Inner walls of the mould are coated by tar or
fine carbon. The coated material decomposes during solidification which prevents
sticking of solidified ingots with the inner walls of the mold.

Molds are essentially of two types:

i) Wide end up or narrow end down as shown in figure(1-66 3 a).

ii) Narrow end up or big end down as shown in figure (1-66 b )
 Fig.(1-66): (a) wide end up moulds (b) Narrow end up moulds

Wide end up moulds are used to produce forging ingots of killed plain carbon or
alloy steels. Wide end up molds may have a solid bottom. Narrow end up molds are
commonly used to produce rimming and semi-killed steel ingots. Narrow-end-up molds
facilitates easy escape of rimming reaction product, CO. Fully deoxidized or killed steel
used for high quality forgings shrink on solidification and may lead to formation of pipe.
Molds are generally provided with hot top which acts as reservoir to feed the metal and
to avoid formation of pipe. Insulating and exothermic materials are put on the top ingot
which ensures availability of hot metal towards the end of solidification. Both bottom
pouring and top pouring of steel are used in ingot casting.
1-5-14 Mechanism of solidification
With water cooled moulds, Killed steel solidifies in the ingot form as follows:

i) Metal near the mould walls and bottom is chilled by the cold surfaces and a thin shell
or skin is formed on the ingot surface. This surface has a fine equiaxed grains and the
skin. The formation of skin results in decrease in rate of solidification.

ii) Due to expansion of mould through the heat transferred from the solidifying steel
and contraction of solidified skin an air gap forms between the mould and the skin. This
results in decrease in the heat transfer rate, because air gap has a high thermal
resistance to heat flow

iii) The solidification front perpendicular to the mold faces moves inwards and towards
the centre as a result columnar grains form next to the chill surface. The columnar
crystals rarely extend to the centre of the mould.

iv) The central portion of the ingot solidifies as equiaxed grains of bigger size due to slow
rate of solidification.

The above zones of solidification depend on the evolution of CO gas due to

carbon and oxygen reaction. In semi killed steels, not all oxygen removed from steel.
Oxygen content of steel is very low. The necessary super saturation level of carbon and
oxygen reaches towards the end of solidification. As a result the central zone of the
equiaxed crystal is disturbed by way of formation of blow holes in the top middle potion
of the ingot. Solidification of rimming steels is controlled by evolution of CO during
solidification. Rimming steels are not killed. The gas is evolved at the solid/liquid
interface which stirs the molten steel during solidification. Stirring circulates molten
steel which brings hot metal to the surface and solidification of steel at top is delayed.
Columnar grain formation is prevented due to a more uniform temperature at interior
of an ingot. This gives rise to rimming ingots in which gas is entrapped mechanically as
blow holes.
1-5-15 Ingot defects: Causes and remedies
i) Pipe formation:

Cause: Steel contracts on solidification. The volumetric shrinkage leads to formation of

pipe. In killed steels pipe formation occurs toward the end of solidification. Figure (1-67
a) shows primary and secondary pipe in narrow end up mould and (1-67 b) in wide end
up mould while casting killed steel. Only primary pipe can be seen in wide end up
mould.

Fig.32: Primary and secondary pipe

(a) Narrow end up mould showing long pipe in killed steel.

(b) Wide end of mould showing pipe in killed steel.

Rimming and semi-finished steel show very less tendency for pipe formation.

Wide end up moulds show smaller pipe as compared with narrow end up mould (in
figure 1-67 a longer pipe can be seen). The portion of ingot containing pipe has to be
discarded which affects yields.

Remedy: use of hot top on the mold. The volume of the hot top is 10-15% higher than
ingot volume. Pipe formation is restricted in the hot top which can be discarded. Use of
exothermic materials in the hot top keeps the metal hot in the top portion and pipe
formation can be avoided. Another method is to pour extra mass of metal.

ii) Blow holes

Cause: Evolution of gas during solidification of steel. Entrapment of gas produces blow
holes in the ingot. Blow holes located inside the ingot can be welded during rolling.
Rimming steels show blow holes due to rimming reaction between carbon and oxygen.
The rimming reaction produces CO, which when is unable to escape during
solidification, produces blow holes. Semi-killed steels also show tendency to blow hole
formation.

Remedy: Control of gas evolution during solidification so that blow hole forms only
within the ingot skin of adequate thickness.

iii) Segregation: It is the difference in composition of steel within the ingot than some
average composition. Segregation is due to

a) Difference in solubility of solute elements in liquid and solid steel i.e. partition
coefficient of element in steel. Partition coefficient of solute (K) is defined as

The value of K ≤1. The solute elements whose K = 1 do not segregate. All elements
whose ‫ <ܭܭ‬1 tend to segregate.

b) Rate of solidification: faster rate of solidification avoids the elements to segregate.

The initial chill layer of ingot has practically the same composition as that of liquid steel.
Decrease in rate

of solidification causes elements to segregate.

c) Larger size ingots are prone to segregation than smaller size ones. Larger size ingots
require more time for solidification.
Remedy: soaking of ingots at high temperature can minimize segregation.

Non-metallic inclusions:

Non-metallic inclusions are inorganic oxides, sulphides and nitrides formed by

reaction between metal like Fe, Ti, Zr, Mn, Si, Al with non-metallic elements like oxygen,
nitrogen, sulphur etc.. An inclusion is a mismatch with the steel matrix.

Fine size inclusions when distributed uniformly are not harmful. Non deformable
inclusions like Žʹ͵ are undesirable.

Inclusion modification is the remedy to alleviate the harmful effect of inclusions on

properties of steel.

Ingot cracks

Surface cracks are formed due to friction between mold and ingot surface. The
improper design of mold taper and corner radius cause surface cracks. Different types of
cracks are:

Transverse cracks: They are parallel to the base of ingot and are formed due to
longitudinal tension in the ingot skin. As the aspect ratio of the ingot increases,
tendency to transverse crack formation increases.

Longitudinal cracks are formed due to lateral tension in the skin. They are parallel to
vertical axis of ingot. Alloy steels are more prone to longitudinal cracks than mild steels.

Sub-cutaneous cracks are internal fissures close to the surface. The cracks are formed
due to thermal shocks.

Restriction cracks can be near the corner radius of the ingot.

Smooth corners of the mould and gradual curvature minimize restriction cracks.
1-5-16 Castings defects
Figure (1-68) schematically shows various defects that are experienced during
casting, in particular, sand casting processes. A brief explanation of some of the
significant defects and their possible remedial measures are indicated in the text to
follow.

Shrinkage

Shrinkage of molten metal as it solidifies is an important issue in casting. It can

reduce the 5- 10% volume of the cast. Gray cast iron expands upon solidification due to
phase changes. Need to design part and mold to take this amount into consideration.
The thickness of the boss or pad should be less than the thickness of the section of the
boss adjoins and the transition should be gradual. The radius for good shrinkage control
should be from one half to one third of the section thickness. Shrinkage defect can be
reduced by decreasing the number of walls and increasing the draft angle.
 Fig.(1-68): Schematic pictorial presentation of various casting defects

Porosity

Porosity is a phenomenon that occurs in materials, especially castings, as they

change state from liquid to solid during the manufacturing process. Casting porosity has
the form of surface and core imperfections which either effects the surface finish or as a
leak path for gases and liquids. The poring temperature should be maintained properly
to reduce porosity. Adequate fluxing of metal and controlling the amount of gas-
producing materials in the molding and core making sand mixes can help in
minimizing this defect.
Hot tear

Hot tears are internal or external ragged discontinuities or crack on the casting
surface, caused by rapid contraction occurring immediately after the metal solidified.
They may be produced when the casting is poorly designed and abrupt sectional
changes take place; no proper fillets and corner radii are provided, and chills are
inappropriately placed. Hot tear may be caused when the mold and core have poor
collapsibility or when the mold is too hard causing the casting to undergo
severe strain during cooling. Incorrect pouring temperature and improper placement of
gates and risers can also create hot tears. Method to prevent hot tears may entail
improving the casting design, achieving directional solidification and even rate
of cooling all over, selecting proper mold and poured materials to suit the cast
metal, and controlling the mold hardness in relation to other ingredients of sand.

Scar

It is usually found on the flat casting surface. It is a shallow blow.

Blowhole

Blowholes are smooth round holes that are clearly perceptible on the surface of the
casting. To prevent blowholes, moisture content in sand must be well
adjusted, sand of proper grain size should be used, ramming should not be too
hard and venting should be adequate.

Blister

This is a scar covered by the thin layers of the metal.

Dross

The lighter impurities are appearing on the top of the cast surface is called the dross. It
can be taken care of at the pouring stage by using items such as a strainer and a skim
bob.

Dirt

Sometimes sand particles dropping out of the cope get embedded on the top surface of
a casting. When removed, these leave small angular holes is known as dirts.

Wash

It is a low projection on the drag surface of a casting commencing near the gate. It is
caused by the erosion of sand due to high velocity liquid metal.

Buckle

It refers to a long fairly shallow broad depression at the surface of a casting of a high
temperature metal. Due to very high temperature of the molten metal, expansion of the
thin layered of the sand at the mold face takes place. As this expansion is obstructed by
the flux, the mold tends to bulge out forming a V shape.

Rat tail

It is a long shallow angular depression found in a thin casting. The cause is similar to
buckle.

Shift

A shift results in a mismatch of the sections of a casting usually as a parting line.

Misalignment is common cause of shift. This defect can be prevented by
ensuring proper alignment of the pattern for die parts, molding boxes, and checking
of pattern flux locating pins before use.
Warped casting

Warping is an undesirable deformation in a casting which occurs during or after

solidification. Large and flat sections are particularly prone to wrap edge.
Wrap edge may also be due to insufficient gating system that may not allow rapid
pouring of metal or due to low green strength of the sand mold or inadequate /
inappropriate draft allowance in the pattern / mold cavity.

Metal Penetration and Rough Surfaces

This defect appears as an uneven and rough external surface of the

casting. It may be caused when the sand has too high permeability, large grain size,
and low strength. Soft ramming may also cause metal penetration.

Fin

A thin projection of metal, not intended as a part of casting, is called a fin. Fins occur
at the parting of the mold or core sections. Molds and cores in correctly assembled will
cause the fin. High metal pressures due to too large downsprue, insufficient weighing of
the molds or improper clamping of flasks may again produce the fin defect.

Cold Shut and Mis-Run

A cold shut is a defect in which a discontinuity is formed due to the imperfect fusion of
two streams of metal in the mold cavity. The reasons for cold shut or mis-
run may be too thin sections and wall thickness, improper gating system,
damaged patterns, slow and intermittent pouring , poor fluidity of metal caused by
low pouring temperature, improper alloy composition, etc.
Lecture No.10 Week No.10 No. of hours: 2 theoretical and 1 tutorial

1-5-17 Inspections of Casting

Visual inspection

Visible defects that can be detected provide a means for discovering errors
in the pattern equipment or in the molding and casting process. Visual inspection may
prove inadequate only in the detection of sub surface or internal defects.

Dimensional inspection

Dimensional inspection is one of the important inspection for casting. When

precision casting is required, we make some samples for inspection the tolerance, shape
size and also measure the profile of the cast. This dimensional inspection of casting may
be conducted by various methods:

• Standard measuring instruments to check the size of the cast.

• Contour gauges for the checking of profile, curves and shapes

• Coordinate measuring and Marking Machine

• Special fixtures

X-Ray Radiography

In all the foundries the flaw detection test are performed in the casting where the
defects are not visible. This flaw detection test is usually performed for internal
defects, surface defects etc. These tests are valuable not only in detecting but even
in locating the casting defects present in the interior of the casting. Radiography is one
of the important flaw detection test for casting. The radiation used in radiography
testing is a higher energy (shorter wavelength) version of the electromagnetic waves
that we see as visible light. The radiation can come from an X-ray generator
or a radioactive source.
Magnetic particle inspection

This test is used to reveal the location of cracks that extend to the
surface of iron or steel castings, which are magnetic nature. The casting is first
magnetized and then iron particles are sprinkled all over the path of the magnetic field.
The particles align themselves in the direction of the lines of force. A discontinuity
in the casting causes the lines of the force to bypass the discontinuity and to
concentrate around the extremities of the defect.

Fluorescent dye-penetration test

This method is very simple and applied for all cast metals. It entails applying a thin
penetration oil-base dye to the surface of the casting and allowing it to stand for some
time so that the oil passes into the cracks by means of capillary action. The oil is then
thoroughly wiped and cleaned from the surface. To detect the defects, the
casting is pained with a coat of whitewash or powdered with tale and then
viewed under ultraviolet light. The oil being fluorescent in nature, can be easily detect
under this light, and thus the defects are easily revealed.

Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic testing used for detecting internal voids in casting is based on

the principle of reflection of high frequency sound waves. If the surface under test
contains some defect, the high frequency sound waves when emitted through the
section of the casting, will be reflected from the surface of defect and return in a shorter
period of time. The advantage this method of testing over other methods is that
the defect, even if in the interior, is not only detected and located
accurately, but its dimension can also be quickly measured without in any
damaging or destroying the casting.
Fracture test

Fracture test is done by examining a fracture surface of the casting. it

is possible to observe coarse graphite or chilled portion and also shrinkage cavity, pin
hole etc. The apparent soundness of the casting can thus be judged by seeing the
fracture.

Macro-etching test (macroscopic examination)

The macroscopic inspection is widely used as a routine control test in steel

production because it affords a convenient and effective means of determining internal
defects in the metal. Macro- etching may reveal one of the following conditions:

• Crystalline heterogeneity, depending on solidification

• Chemical heterogeneity, depending on the impurities present or localized

segregation and

• Mechanical heterogeneity, depending on strain introduced on the metal, if any.

Sulphur Print test

Sulphur may exist in iron or steel in one of two forms; either as

iron sulphide or manganese sulphide. The distribution of sulphur inclusions can
easily examined by this test.

Microscopic Examination

Microscopic examination can enable the study of the microstructure of the

metal alloy, elucidating its composition, the type and nature of any treatment given to
it, and its mechanical properties. In the case of cast metals, particularly steels, cast iron,
malleable iron, and SG iron, microstructure examination is essential for assessing
metallurgical structure and composition. Composition analysis can also be done
using microscopic inspection. Distribution of phase can be observed by metallographic
sample preparation of cast product. Grain size and distribution, grain boundary area can
be observed by this procedure. Distribution of nonmetallic inclusion can also be found
from this process of inspection.

Chill Test

Chill test offers a convenient means for an approximate evaluation of the

graphitizing tendency of the iron produced and forms an important and quick shop floor
test for ascertaining whether this iron will be of the class desired. In chill test,
accelerated cooling rate is introduced to induce the formation of a chilled specimen of
appropriate dimension. It is then broken by striking with a hammer in such a manner
that the fracture is straight and midway of its length. The depth of chill obtained on the
test piece is affected by the carbon and silicon present and it can therefore be related to
the carbon equivalent, whose value in turn determines the grade of iron.

1-5-18 Design Recommendations for Casting

1. Compensate the shrinkage of the solidified molten metal by making patterns of
slightly oversize.

2. In sand casting, it is more economical and accurate if the parting line is on a flat plane
[figure 1-69(a)]. Contoured parting lines are not economical. Further, some degree of
taper, or draft is recommended to provide to the pattern for its easy
removal [Figure 1-69(b)]. The recommended draft angles for patters under various
conditions are given elsewhere.

3. In sand casting, it is recommended to attach the raiser near to the heavier section.
The thinnest sections are farthest from the raiser and solidify first and then the
solidification proceeds toward the direction of raiser i.e. towards the heavier section
[Figure 1-69(c)].

4. Sharp corners in a casting design cause uneven cooling and lead to formation of hot
spots in the final cast structure. Moreover sharp corner in a casting structure acts as a
stress raiser. Rounding the corner decreases the severity of the hot spot and lessens the
stress concentration [Figure 1-69(d)].

5. Abrupt changes in sections should be avoided. Fillets and tapers are preferable to
sharp steps [Figure 1-69(e)].

6. The interior walls and sections are recommended to be 20% thinner than
the outside members to reduce the thermal and residual stresses, and metallurgical
changes [Figure 1-69(f)].

7. When a hole is placed in a highly stressed section, add extra material around the hole
as reinforcement [Figure 1-69(g)].

8. To minimize the residual stresses in the gear, pulley or wheel casting, a balance
between the section size of the rim, spokes and hub is maintained [Figure 1-69(h)].

9. An odd number of curved wheel spokes reduce cast-in-residual stresses [Figure 1-

69(i)].

10. Similar to sand casting, permanent mold castings also require draft for the
easy withdrawal of the casting from the mold. The recommended draft angles are
given elsewhere.

11. Due to pattern shrinkage, investment shrinkage and metal shrinkage during
solidification, there is always a tendency for an investment part to “dish”
(develop concave surfaces where flat surfaces are specified). This condition
takes place in areas of thick cross section. Dishing is minimized by designing
parts with uniformly thin walls [Figure 1-69(j)].
Fig.(1-69): Recommended design for casting
Fig.(1-69): Recommended design for casting (continued)
12. When keys and keyways are required, the recommended ratio of width to depth is
1.0 or more. The minimum castable key width is 2.3 mm for ferrous metals
and 1.5 mm for nonferrous metals [Figure 1-70].

13. Heavy bosses connecting to the surface can cause “sinks” due to the
shrinkage of the large mass of the metal in the boss during cooling. This
shrinkage problem can be reduced by moving the boss away from the surface and
connecting it to the surface with a short rib [Figure 1-71].

(a) (b)
Fig.(1-70): The recommended casting design for key and key ways for (a) ferrous metal,

(b) non-ferrous metal.

Fig.(1-71): The recommended cast design to avoid surface shrink.

 Welding Processes
2-1 Fusion Welding Processes
Fusion welding is a joining process that uses fusion of the base metal to make the
weld. The three major types of fusion welding processes are as follows:

1. Gas welding:

Oxyacetylene welding (OAW)

2. Arc welding:

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)

Gas–tungsten arc welding (GTAW)

Gas–metal arc welding (GMAW)

Plasma arc welding (PAW)

Flux-cored arc welding (FCAW)

Submerged arc welding (SAW)

Electroslag welding (ESW)

3. High-energy beam welding:

Electron beam welding (EBW)

Laser beam welding (LBW)

Since there is no arc involved in the electroslag welding process, it is not exactly an
arc welding process. For convenience of discussion, it is grouped with arc
welding processes.
2-1-1 Power Density of Heat Source
Consider directing a 1.5-kW hair drier very closely to a 304 stainless steel sheet
1.6mm ( 1/16 in.) thick. Obviously, the power spreads out over an area of roughly 50mm
(2in.) diameter, and the sheet just heats up gradually but will not melt. With GTAW at
1.5kW, however, the arc concentrates on a small area of about 6mm (1/4 in.) diameter
and can easily produce a weld pool. This example clearly demonstrates the
importance of the power density of the heat source in welding.

The heat sources for the gas, arc, and high-energy beam welding processes are a
gas flame, an electric arc, and a high-energy beam, respectively. The power
density increases from a gas flame to an electric arc and a high-energy beam. As
shown in Figure (2-1), as the power density of the heat source increases,
the heat input to the workpiece that is required for welding decreases. The
portion of the workpiece material exposed to a gas flame heats up so slowly that, before
any melting occurs, a large amount of heat is already conducted away into the bulk of
the workpiece. Excessive heating can cause damage to the workpiece, including
weakening and distortion. On the contrary, the same material exposed to a sharply
focused electron or laser beam can melt or even vaporize to form a deep keyhole
instantaneously, and before much heat is conducted away into the bulk of the
workpiece, welding is completed.

Therefore, the advantages of increasing the power density of the

heat source are deeper weld penetration, higher welding speeds, and better weld
quality with less damage to the workpiece, as indicated in Figure (2-1). Figure (2-2)
shows that the weld strength (of aluminum alloys) increases as the heat input per unit
length of the weld per unit thickness of the workpiece decreases. Figure (2-3 a) shows
that angular distortion is much smaller in EBW than in GTAW. Unfortunately, as shown
in Figure (2-3 b ), the costs of laser and electron beam welding machines are very high.
 Fig.(2-1): Variation of heat input to the workpiece with power density of the heat source.

Fig.(2-2): Variation of weld strength with heat input per unit length of weld per unit thickness of
workpiece.
Fig.(2-3): Comparisons between welding processes: (a) angular distortion; (b) capital equipment cost.

2-1-2 Types of Joints and Welding Positions

Figure (2-4) shows the basic weld joint designs in fusion welding: the butt, lap, T-,
edge, and corner joints. Figure (2-5) shows the transverse cross section of
some typical weld joint variations. The surface of the weld is called the face, the two
junctions between the face and the workpiece surface are called the toes, and the
portion of the weld beyond the workpiece surface is called the reinforcement. Figure (2-
6) shows four welding positions.

Fig.(2-4): Five basic types of weld joint designs.

Fig.(2-5):Typical weld joint variations. Fig.(2-6): Four welding positions.
Lecture No.11 Week No.11 No. of hours: 2 theoretical and 1 tutorial

2-1-3 Oxyacetylene Welding

The Process

Gas welding is a welding process that melts and joins metals by heating them with
a flame caused by the reaction between a fuel gas and oxygen. Oxy- acetylene
welding (OAW), shown in Figure (2-7), is the most commonly used gas welding process
because of its high flame temperature. A flux may be used to deoxidize and cleanse the
weld metal. The flux melts, solidifies, and forms a slag skin on the resultant weld metal.
Figure (2-8) shows three different types of flames in oxyacetylene welding: neutral,
reducing, and oxidizing , which are described next.

Fig.(2-7): Oxyacetylene welding (a) overall process; (b) welding area enlarged.

Three Types of Flames

A. Neutral Flame
 This refers to the case where oxygen (O2) and acetylene (C2H2 ) are mixed in
equal amounts and burned at the tip of the welding torch. A short inner cone and a
longer outer envelope characterize a neutral flame (Figure 2-8 a). The inner cone is the
area where the primary combustion takes place through the chemical reaction between
O2 and C2H2 , as shown in Figure (2-9). The heat of this reaction accounts for about two-
thirds of the total heat generated. The products of the primary combustion, CO and H2 ,
react with O2 from the surrounding air and form CO2 and H2O. This is the secondary
combustion, which accounts for about one-third of the total heat generated. The area
where this secondary combustion takes place is called the outer envelope. It
is also called the protection envelope since CO and H2 here consume the O2 entering
from the surrounding air, thereby protecting the weld metal from oxidation. For most
metals, a neutral flame is used.

Fig.(2-8): Three types of flames in oxyacetylene welding

 Fig.(2-9): Chemical reactions and temperature distribution in a neutral oxyacetylene

flame.

B. Reducing Flame

When excess acetylene is used, the resulting flame is called a reducing

flame. The combustion of acetylene is incomplete. As a result, a greenish acetylene
feather between the inert cone and the outer envelope characterizes a reducing flame
(Figure 2-8 b). This flame is reducing in nature and is desirable for welding
aluminum alloys because aluminum oxidizes easily. It is also good for welding high-
carbon steels (also called carburizing flame in this case) because excess oxygen can
oxidize carbon and form CO gas porosity in the weld metal.

C. Oxidizing Flame

When excess oxygen is used, the flame becomes oxidizing because of the presence
of unconsumed oxygen. A short white inner cone characterizes an oxidizing flame
(Figure 2-8 c). This flame is preferred when welding brass because copper oxide
covers the weld pool and thus prevents zinc from evaporating from the weld pool.
Advantages and Disadvantages

The main advantage of the oxyacetylene welding process is that the

equipment is simple, portable, and inexpensive. Therefore, it is convenient for
maintenance and repair applications. However, due to its limited power density, the
welding speed is very low and the total heat input per unit length of the weld is rather
high, resulting in large heat-affected zones and severe distortion. The oxyacetylene
welding process is not recommended for welding reactive metals such as titanium and
zirconium because of its limited protection power.

2-1-4 Shielded Metal Arc Welding

The Process

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is a process that melts and joins metals by
heating them with an arc established between a sticklike covered electrode and the
metals, as shown in Figure (2-10). It is often called stick welding. The electrode
holder is connected through a welding cable to one terminal of the power
source and the workpiece is connected through a second cable to the other terminal of
the power source (Figure 2-10 a).

The core of the covered electrode, the core wire, conducts the electric
current to the arc and provides filler metal for the joint. For electrical contact, the top
1.5cm of the core wire is bare and held by the electrode holder. The electrode holder
is essentially a metal clamp with an electrically insulated outside shell for the
welder to hold safely.

The heat of the arc causes both the core wire and the flux covering at the
electrode tip to melt off as droplets (Figure 2-10 b). The molten metal collects in the
weld pool and solidifies into the weld metal. The lighter molten flux, on the other hand,
floats on the pool surface and solidifies into a slag layer at the top of the weld metal.