Journal of Electrostatics, 7 (1979) 123--144 123

© Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam -- Printed in The Netherlands

ON THE INFLUENCE OF MECHANICAL PERTURBATION ON THE BREAKDOWN OF A LIQUID

DIELECTRIC

+
B. BOMMELI , C. FREI and A. RATAJSKI

Section de Physique, Universit4 de Gen~ve CH-1211 Gen~ve 4

SUMMARY

In a phenomenological description of the electrical breakdown of dielectric

liquids we note that the breakdown statistics change when the stressed liquid

moves relatively to the electrodes. A few observations of this kind referring

to measurements of the electrical strength have been reported previously. We

have demonstrated analogous effects in the realm of time lag measurements,

working mainly with contaminated liquids.

1 INTRODUCTION

At the 6th Conference on Conduction and Breakdown of Dielectric Liquids,

which took place in July 1978 at Rouen, France, we reported on our recent obser-

vations of the influence of dielectric motion on breakdown time lag distributions.

Here, we present a more detailed account of that work. Also, we take advantage

of this opportunity to add some new findings which provide a better understand-

ing of our previous results. Although quite an impressive amount of data have

been accumulated considerable experimental work remains to be accomplished in

order to attain a complete description of these phenomena. Any attempt to explain

the electrical breakdown of a dielectric liquid must take into account these new
experimental facts.

Prior to our work, some researchers, working with liquids which had been

brought into motion prior to, or during, discharge measurements, noticed phenomena

which are related to our observations. Although these results were not sought

deliberately, these researchers recognized that there is an increase of dielectric

strength when the tested liquid is circulated. Such results, though not spectacular,

might surely stimulate the interest of an engineer concerned with high insulation

+
B. Bommeli now with Ateliers des Charmilles S.A.
124

strength. Yet, with respect to the effects of l i q u i d motion, what reveals new

insight into the b r e a k d o w n mechanism is the c h a n g i n g statistical distribution of

the b r e a k d o w n voltage. Such a statistic change p o i n t s to some f u n d a m e n t a l proper-

ties of b r e a k d o w n w h i c h m u s t have b e e n i n f l u e n c e d in i n t r o d u c i n g the d i e l e c t r i c

velocity as a new parameter. Thus, the a l r e a d y b r o a d range of p a r a m e t e r s which

are n e c e s s a r y to c h a r a c t e r i z e breakdown is expanded. This fact d r a s t i c a l l y illus-

trates the c o m p l e x i t y of the p h y s i c a l process w h i c h cause liquids to break down.

T h e steps w h i c h led to the d i s c o v e r y of r e l a t e d p h e n o m e n a in our l a b o r a t o r y

were similarly tortuous. But as o u r e x p e r i m e n t a l approach to the b r e a k d o w n problem

is b a s e d on the t e c h n i q u e of m e a s u r i n g time lags we are able to give a more d e t a i l e d

picture of w h a t is h a p p e n i n g - at least f r o m an e m p i r i c a l p o i n t of v i e w - than was

possible hitherto. Time lag m e a s u r e m e n t s not o n l y have the a d v a n t a g e of being

easier to p e r f o r m than p e a k h e i g h t m e a s u r e m e n t s of v o l t a g e pulses, b u t also their

physical interpretation is i~m~ediate : in those cases where we deal w i t h e x p o n e n -

tially d i s t r i b u t e d time lags the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c time of the e x p o n e n t i a l function

m a y be c o n s i d e r e d to be the inverse of the p r o b a b i l i t y p e r u n i t time of a P o i s s o n

process; where the d i s t r i b u t i o n has a G a u s s i a n shape, one is tempted to i d e n t i f y

them as formative time.

As w i l l be shown later, analysis of o u r results yields distributions of the

type mentioned; also we shall interpret t h e m accordingly. One should b e a r in

mind, however, that other p h y s i c a l interpretations c a n n o t be e x c l u d e d and that

adhering to the a c c e p t e d h y p o t h e s i s may hamper progress towards a b e t t e r under-

standing of b r e a k d o w n in liquids. For the time being, we lack r e a s o n a b l e alternative

descriptions of the s t a t i s t i c s involved. In a c c o r d a n c e with general practice

we associate, therefore, a Gaussian distribution of time lags w i t h a formative

nrocess, and an e x p o n e n t i a l distribution, with a Poisson process. But this should

be taken as a h y p o t h e s i s w h i c h we adopt in order to avoid an undue a b s t r a c t pre-

sentation of our results, rather than as a c a t e g o r i c a l statement.

When dealing with a Poisson process it is g e n e r a l l y understood that the obser-

ved events m a y o c c u r at any i n s t a n t w i t h c o n s t a n t probability and that no c o r r e l a -

tion exists b e t w e e n the events. The d i s t r i b u t i o n of the time i n t e r v a l s between

any a r b i t r a r y instant and the s u b s e q u e n t event is then an e x p o n e n t i a l l y decreasing

function.
A formative process assumes the b u i l d - u p of a m e c h a n i s m whose d u r a t i o n corres-

ponds approximately to the m o s t f r e q u e n t time lag. The statistical variations

which inevitably accompany such a m e c h a n i s m will cause a distribution of the in-

dividual time lags a r o u n d the m e a n value. The shape of the d i s t r i b u t i o n closely

approximates a Gaussian curve; b u t it is b o u n d to deviate from it i n a s m u c h as

negative times, which would otherwise be c o n t a i n e d in the left w i n g of the distri-

bution, are excluded.

 125

Since we h a v e b e e n l o o k i n g at time lag d i s t r i b u t i o n s (ref. i), d e v i a t i o n s

f r o m the p u r e e x p o n e n t i a l f u n c t i o n h a v e b e e n noted. The r a t h e r frequent bending

downwards of w h a t s h o u l d be a s t r a i g h t line, when plotting an e x p o n e n t i a l distri-

b u t i o n on a l o g a r i t h m i c scale, can e a s i l y be e x p l a i n e d as a s u p e r p o s i t i o n of

exponentials of v a r i a b l e time c o n s t a n t s (ref. 2). An u p w a r d b e n d i n g distribution

c a n n o t be o b t a i n e d in this way. A t the time w h e n such shapes were first obtained,

they c o u l d be i d e n t i f i e d as d i s t r i b u t i o n s of time i n t e r v a l s stretching over more

than one b r e a k d o w n event. The c o r r e s p o n d i n g Poisson distribution from which these

distributions m a y be a s s e m b l e d do s h o w a m a x i m u m b e y o n d time zero. T h e s e results

w e r e traced to an i n s t r u m e n t a l defect causing an u n r e l i a b l e triggering of the

stop p u l s e of the time interval measurements. L a t e r on, when o c c a s i o n a l l y a dis-

tribution w i t h a m a x i m u m appeared, it was r e c e i v e d w i t h scepticism. Subsequently,

however, we w e r e able to e s t a b l i s h a relationship w i t h the i n j e c t i o n of the d i e l e c -

tric l i q u i d a n d r e c o g n i z e its relevance.

The preliminary presentation of o u r m e a s u r e m e n t s , w h i c h was p u b l i s h e d in the

proceedings of the 6th C o n f e r e n c e on C o n d u c t i o n and B r e a k d o w n of D i e l e c t r i c

Liquids (ref. 3), p r o v i d e s a useful introduction to the subject as it c o n t a i n s

o n l y the m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t aspects and n e g l e c t s some of the b e w i l d e r i n g details

w h i c h we will p r e s e n t here.

12 EXPERImeNTAL PROCEDURE

O n c e we r e c o g n i z e d that the o c c u r r e n c e of a formative time w a s a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h the d i e l e c t r i c liquid being injected during the m e a s u r e m e n t s our first task

was to find o u t w h e t h e r the effect was r e l a t e d to liquid m o t i o n or to pressure.

When injecting the d i e l e c t r i c into the n a r r o w gap b e t w e e n the e l e c t r o d e s a pres-

sure of several bars is n e c e s s a r y to cause the l i q u i d to flow. In order to create

a relative m o t i o n of the d i e l e c t r i c fluid w i t h r e s p e c t to the e l e c t r o d e surfaces,

without introducing noticeable pressure gradients, we i n s t a l l e d a p a i r of cylindr-

ical electrodes whose inner e l e c t r o d e could be r o t a t e d on its axis. Though this

geometry proved impractical f r o m the s t a n d p o i n t of the a l i g n m e n t of the e l e c t r o d e s

it r e v e a l e d to us i m m e d i a t e l y the d e c i s i v e role of d i e l e c t r i c motion. In addition,

this g e o m e t r y enabled the i n v e s t i g a t i o n of h i g h f l o w rates w i t h v e l o c i t i e s up to

4 m/s.
T h e d e s i g n of the e l e c t r o d e s was m o d i f i e d into truncated cones of w h i c h the

inner one r o t a t e s on its axis (Figure i). In k e e p i n g the angle of the cone small

(30 ° ) the t a n g e n t i a l velocities of the d i f f e r e n t surface elements of the e l e c t r o d e s

are r e a s o n a b l y uniform. O n the other hand, it b e c a m e possible, by spark m a c h i n i n g

in situ, to g u a r a n t e e alignment and p a r a l l e l i s m of the e l e c t r o d e surfaces with

a precision of b e t t e r than a few micrometers. The e l e c t r o d e s u s e d w e r e made of

 126

pulse - - t dielectric
commend liquid
circuitry injector
gap
control

electrode
drive
~7 mI data acquisition
discharge data
generator __ ~ ~electrode assembly
output

~ig. i. Oc~_i~ ,~c v i e ~ of ~c~Lsuring equi~.z~eAt, t~he e l e c t r o d e a s s e m b l y c o n s i s t s

of : (i) r o t a t a b l e upper electrode,(2) fixed lower e l e c t r o d e (average d i a m a t e r =
5.4 cm, e l e c t r o d e surface = 20 c m 2, (3) gap b e t w e e n electrodes, (4) n ~ t o r drive,
(5) servo c o n t r o l l e d v e r t i c a l adjustment, (6) m a n u a l l y a d j u s t a b l e support and (7)
transducer for gap size measurement. The e l e c t r o d e s are not d r a w n to the same scale
as the machine. The m a c h i n e p o s i t i o n s the v e r t i c a l l y a d j u s t a b l e upper e l e c t r o d e and,
thus, p r o v i d e s control of the size of the gap.

copper and of steel.

Although by now the p r e d o m i n a n t influence of liquid flow was established, an

additional pressure dependence could not be excluded. We provided, therefore, the

electrode assembly with a pressure-tight lid (not shown in Figure i) taking g r e a t

care that the seal b e t w e e n the lid and the r o t a t i n g shaft d i d not d e t e r i o r a t e the

alignment of the electrodes. In this way: comparative measurements c o u l d be p e r -

formed while m a i n t a i n i n g the same e l e c t r o d e geometry.

The electrode assembly was m o u n t e d on an E D M m a c h i n e (model D i0 equipped

w i t h an a c c e s s o r y high precision rotating shaft, courtesy Ateliers des Char-

milles S.A.). The electric drive of this shaft made it p o s s i b l e to o b t a i n pe-

ripheral speeds of the electrodes varying from 1 cm/s up to 24 cm/s. The m a c h i -

ne p r o v i d e d servo control of the p o s i t i o n of the upper e l e c t r o d e as d e s c r i b e d

elsewhere (ref. 2). A change of the v e r t i c a l position of the upper electrode,

which could be m e a s u r e d to an a c c u r a c y of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 ~m t r a n s l a t e s into

half this value w h e n r e f e r r i n g to the g a p b e t w e e n the electrodes. T h i s m a y be

deduced from the angle of the conical electrode surface. A further advantag~

of the c o n i c i t y of the e l e c t r o d e s is that it e n a b l e d the zero v a l u e of gap cali-

bration to be c h e c k e d from time to time by b r i n g i n g the e l e c t r o d e s into c o n t a c t

w i t h each other.

Rectangular voltage p u l s e s were a p p l i e d to the e l e c t r o d e s w i t h a rise time

corresponding approximately to 1 ~s (Figure 2). The a m p l i t u d e U g could be v a r i e d

 127

u p to a m a x i m u m level of 300 V. When the d i e l e c t r i c liquid b r e a k s down an arc

d i s c h a r g e o c c u r s whose c u r r e n t IA and d u r a t i o n ~t A can be controlled. For all

the e x p e r i m e n t s w h i c h we report in this p a p e r the d i s c h a r g e d u r a t i o n was fixed

at 2 Us. In m o s t cases, the d i s c h a r g e c u r r e n t was limited at IA. This is close

to the m i n i m u m m a i n t e n a n c e value. Given a typical average v a l u e of 25 V for the

arc v o l t a g e U A the e n e r g y d i s s i p a t e d p e r d i s c h a r g e r o u g h l y amounts to 50 ~J.

D i s c h a r g e s were p r o d u c e d repetitively, with the interval At I b e t w e e n d i s c h a r g e s

b e i n g adjustable. The time lag T, w h o s e d u r a t i o n is d e t e r m i n e d by the rise and c o l

lapse of the voltaqe accross the electrodes, was m e a s u r e d by means of digital

techniques. In this way, the time lags c o u l d be h a n d l e d by a m i n i c o m p u t e r at a

fast rate. The c o m p u t e r was p r o g r a m m e d to receive 2900 d i s c h a r g e events, to p l o t

the h i s t o g r a m of the d i s t r i b u t i o n and to calculate the r e l e v a n t statistical p a r a -

meters. Several typical c o m p u t e r p l o t s are r e p r o d u c e d in the figures presented.

The details o f the e l e c t r o n i c e q u i p m e n t and the data a c q u i s i t i o n system are

described elsewhere (ref. 2).

M o s t of our m e a s u r e m e n t s were c a r r i e d out with a h y d r o c a r b o n d i e l e c t r i c liquid

C h e v r o n EDM71. It is a high b o i l i n g (270 to 290 C) p a r a f f i n oil c o n t a i n i n g some

naphtenic (25 %) and a r o m a t i c (6 %) compounds. In o r d e r to be able to work at

/
UG . . . .

U -- I

' I I t

,A . . . . F

L
I i : t

• At A Att

Fig. 2. Schematic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of d i s c h a r g e pulse shape; Ug = voltage level

d e t e r m i n e d b y p u l s e generator, U A = arc d i s c h a r g e voltage, t y p i c a l l y b e t w e e n
20 V and 30 V, ~I A = arc d i s c h a r g e current, At A = arc discharge duration, At I =
time interval b e t w e e n d i s c h a r g e s (in these e x p e r i m e n t s w i t h i n the ms-range,
whereas ~t A % 2 Us, T = time lag between voltage a p p l i c a t i o n and breakdown.

c o n v e n i e n t l y low fields we c o n t a m i n a t e d the d i e l e c t r i c with metal powders. The

s u s p e n s i o n s were p r e p a r e d in a special vessel e q u i p p e d with a stirrer. F r o m

there they were i n j e c t e d into the electrode a s s e m b l y p r i o r to, or, in some ins-
tances, during, the measurements.
128

3 RESULTS

All the results we report are b a s e d on m e a s u r e m e n t s of the d i s t r i b u t i o n of

time lags w h i c h are the time intervals between the a p p l i c a t i o n of a v o l t a g e pulse

to the e l e c t r o d e s y s t e m and the i n s t a n t w h e n the d i e l e c t r i c m e d i u m breaks down

electrically. Figure 3 illustrates h o w the d a t a are obtained. The figure repro-

duces the c o m p u t e r output as r e c o r d e d by a x y - p l o t t e r showing, on the v e r t i c a l

axis, the l o g a r i t h m of the number N of d i s c h a r g e s p e r channel as a function of

the time lag Y or channel number on the h o r i z o n t a l axis. The two d i a g r a m s of

Figure 3 exemplify the d i f f e r e n c e between the d i s t r i b u t i o n obtained w h e n the

electrode-dielectric s y s t e m is at rest and the d i s t r i b u t i o n s obtained with a

rotating electrode. Except for the u p p e r electrode being immobile in (a) and

rotating in (b) b o t h m e a s u r e m e n t s (a) and (b) w e r e p e r f o r m e d successively and

under identical conditions. The d i s c h a r g e parameters are given in the legend of

Figure 3; the u p p e r and lower d i a g r a m s reflect the same m e a s u r e m e n t though they

differ in their h o r i z o n t a l scales. The lack of short time lags (smaller than

150 Us) w h e n the e l e c t r o d e is r o t a t i n g (Figure 3(b)) and the s u b s e q u e n t rise of

the d i s t r i b u t i o n curve, followed by a r e g u l a r exponential decline shows up n e a t l y

on an e x p a n d e d scale. It could easily be o v e r l o o k e d if the d i a g r a m had b e e n

J N j!N
a) b)
~ ".
%
•. -.j.

' v, 0 ..... v, 24cm/s

20'00 2500O

!1 O p,
:I
Fig. 3. C o m p u t e r p l o t of two time lag d i s t r i b u t i o n s under the same conditions,
:"
2o00pi

(a) s t a t i o n a r y liquid, (b) m o v i n g liquid, e l e c t r o d e tangential v e l o c i t y v =

24 cm/s. V e r t i c a l axis : l o g a r i t h m i c p r o b a b i l i t y d e n s i t y as the n u ~ e r of events
N per channel; h o r i z o n t a l axis : time lag T in ~s s u b d i v i d e d into i00 channels,
u p p e r and lower d i a g r a m s r e p r e s e n t the same m e a s u r e m e n t on two d i f f e r e n t scales.
Ys = 125 ~s for s t a t i o n a r y liquid, 2100 ~s for m o v i n g liquid. P a r a f f i n oil (EDM 71)
c o n t a m i n a t e d w i t h 2 g r / £ Fe powder, Ug = 260 V, At A = 2 ~s, At I = 7,6 ms, I A = 1 A,
g = 88 ~m, E = 29,5 kV/cm.
 129

plotted o n l y at a reduced scale. W i t h an i m m o b i l e electrode, no sign of a devia-

tion from an e x p o n e n t i a l law appears, even at a h i g h l y expanded scale (lower

d i a g r a m o f Figure 3 (a)).

Previous investigations (ref.2) have shown that under s t a t i o n a r y conditions for-

mative times do p r o b a b l y also exist. T h e i r duration, however, is m u c h shorter

(in the i00 ns range or below) than the f o r m a t i v e times due to l i q u i d m o t i o n :

the latter range in the m i c r o s e c o n d region and above. It w o u l d c e r t a i n l y be

interesting to v e r i f y experimentally the o c c u r r e n c e of short formative times

when simultaneously the rather long f o r m a t i v e times, c a u s e d by a m o v i n g dielectric,

are present. In d o i n g so, however, serious experimental obstacles will have to

be faced.

In a d d i t i o n to the m o s t p r o m i n e n t feature : that is that l i q u i d m o t i o n de-

monstrates the e x i s t e n c e of a n e w f o r m a t i v e time, the e x a m p l e in F i g u r e 3 r e v e a l s

that the e x p o n e n t i a l slope of the d i s t r i b u t i o n which is r e c o r d e d with a rotating

electrode is m o d i f i e d with respect to that of a d i s t r i b u t i o n taken w i t h an immo-

bile electrode. Under the c o n d i t i o n s of m e a s u r e m e n t s in F i g u r e 3 the slope changes

b y a factor of a l m o s t 20. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c time of the e x p o n e n t i a l p a r t of the

time lag d i s t r i b u t i o n is equal to 2100 ~s w i t h the e l e c t r o d e rotating, and 125 ~s

w i t h the s y s t e m at rest.

The e x a m p l e illustrates t h a t the s t a t i s t i c a l distribution of time lags dis-

closes two effects of d i e l e c t r i c m o t i o n on d i s c h a r g e ignition. In w h a t follows,

we shall continuously be c o n f r o n t e d w i t h these two aspects : evidence of a for-

mation process and a l t e r a t i o n of the P o i s s o n process.

The d i s t i n c t response of the f o r m a t i v e and of the e x p o n e n t i a l p a r t of the

distribution curves on d i s p l a c e m e n t o f the d i e l e c t r i c l i q u i d calls for a m a t h e -

matical analysis of the d i s t r i b u t i o n function involving two separate contributions.

This r e q u i r e m e n t is s a t i s f i e d by a c o n v o l u t i o n of two functions, of w h i c h each

5oo
_--T~ L
ps
o.1, T
50O ps

Fig. 4. E x a m p l e of time lag distributi~n~ a c o n v o l u t i o n of a G a u s s i a n d i s t r i b u t i o n

~ g w i t h an e x p o n e n t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n ~s' shown s e p a r a t e l y in the d i a g r a m at r i g h t
hand, has b e e n fitted to the measurement. P a r a f f i n oil + 2 g r / £ Fe, U g = 230 V,
I A = 1 A, E = 52 kV/cm, t I = 0,9 ms. U p p e r e l e c t r o d e rotating; v e l o c i t y g r a d i e n t
w i t h i n d i e l e c t r i c liquid a p p r o x i m a t e l y = 5 1/ms, Tg = 51 ~s, Og = 24 ~s, T s = 193 ~
180

one is r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of a specific p h y s i c a l process• Essentially, the whole

b o d y of our d a t a can be shown to be in a g r e e m e n t with appropriate convolutions

of a G a u s s i a n w i t h an e x p o n e n t i a l function. The m a t h e m a t i c a l expression of such

a convolution is given b e l o w as w e l l as its g r a p h i c a l representation in r e l a t i o n

to a m e a s u r e d sample (Figure 4). The formulas m a y also be r e g a r d e d as a r e f e r e n c e

with respect to our choice of symbols for the v a r i o u s p a r a m e t e r s w h i c h occur in

the two c o n v o l u t e d functions :

= 1 exp -
~g (T) /~Og 2 (Ig 2

i T for T = 0
exp
~s (~) T

0
s
I Ts
I for T < 0
"
~c (z) ~s(X-t) at >
for T = 0
t=-~

2T
1

S
exp g

s s
g

I 1 + erf - g

s
+

We call the scale p a r a m e t e r T of the e x p o n e n t i a l function the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

s
time of the r e s p e c t i v e p a r t of the time lag distribution. Frequently, it is also

called the "statistical" time. T h e inverse corresponds to the p r o b a b i l i t y per

u n i t time for t r i g g e r i n g a discharge according to a P o i s s o n process. The location

parameter of the G a u s s i a n distribution,

T , is to be c o n s i d e r e d the f o r m a t i v e time
g
with O being a m e a s u r e of its dispersion.
g
In our p r e l i m i n a r y report (ref. 3), the symbol Tf was a t t r i b u t e d to the for-

mative time. A deconvolution of the d i s t r i b u t i o n curves w a s not accomplished,

instead the m o s t f r e q u e n t time lags were taken to r e p r e s e n t the f o r m a t i v e time.

The more r i g o r o u s approach in this paper is m a r k e d b y a change of the s u b s c r i p t

of the symbol for the f o r m a t i v e time, Tg. The n e w d e f i n i t i o n leads to smaller

values than those in (ref. 3). This is i l l u s t r a t e d by the families of c a l c u l a t e d

distribution curves shown in Figure 5 . T h e y have b e e n o b t a i n e d either by c o n v o l u -

ting the same G a u s s i a n function w i t h d i f f e r e n t exponential functions or vice

versa. In b o t h families of curves the l o c a t i o n p a r a m e t e r Tg of the G a u s s i a n

component is k e p t u n c h a n g e d and equals one u n i t of the h o r i z o n t a l scale• The ma-

xima of the curves, which correspond to the d e f i n i t i o n of Tf, lie b e y o n d this

value.
 131

I I l I I ~"' i 0,~ I I I I I

loOPc =O'o

Ts ;

T T

Fig. 5. F a m i l i e s of c o n v o l u t i o n curves r e p r e s e n t i n g the logarithm of the p r o b a b i -

lity d e n s i t y function l~c of time lag distributions~ h o r i z o n t a l scale : T in ar-
b i t r a r y units~ vertical scale : 1 unit equals log e. D i a g r a m at left : c o n v o l u t i o n
of same G a u s s i a n function, Yg = i, Ug = 0,4, w i t h exponential functions of dif-
ferent Ts; d i a g r a m at right : c o n v o l u £ i o n o f same e x p o n e n t i a l function, T s = i, with
G a u s s i a n functions of d i f f e r e n t Ug, Yg = i. It is n o t e d that the m a x i m u m of the
curves is shifted w i t h r e s p e c t to the location p a r a m e t e r of the G a u s s i a n function,
chosen as one u n i t in both diagrams.

A m a j o r p r o b l e m has b e e n the d i f f i c u l t i e s in r e p r o d u c i n g some of our m e a s u r e -

ments. We n o t i c e d that a d u p l i c a t i o n of a series of m e a s u r e m e n t s u n d e r the same

c o n d i t i o n s but at an interval of some days or longer p e r i o d s did not always p r o d u c e

results w i t h i n the a c c e p t e d statistical uncertainty. G r e a t care at e v e r y stage of

the e x p e r i m e n t s improved, b u t did not c o m p l e t e l y resolve, the problem. T h i s

b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t w h e n cross c h e c k i n g data from d i f f e r e n t series of measurements.

The d e p e n d e n c e of the formative time on the v e l o c i t y of the d i e l e c t r i c m e d i u m

w i t h r e s p e c t to the e l e c t r o d e s a r o u s e d our c u r i o s i t y in the first place. Figure

6 shows a p l o t of the results o b t a i n e d when the speed of r o t a t i o n of the u p p e r

e l e c t r o d e was varied. At a peripheral speed of a few c e n t i m e t r e s per second, a

formative time appears and r a p i d l y attains its full value. F r o m this it decreases

s l i g h t l y when the electrode reaches the h i g h e s t speed of r o t a t i o n of w h i c h our

device is capable (24 cm/s). In our p r e l i m i n a r y e x p e r i m e n t s (Figure 7) w i t h the

c y l i n d r i c a l electrode system we were able to cover a range of v e l o c i t i e s u p to

4.5 m/s by i n j e c t i o n of the liquid. Figure 8 (a) confirms the trend o b s e r v e d

with the r o t a t i n g electrodes. Above 1 m/s, the formation times d e c r e a s e drasti-

cally. This strange b e h a v i o u r needs to be c o n f i r m e d b y further experiments. It

c o u l d p o s s i b l y o r i g i n a t e f r o m an i n c r e a s i n g error o f e c c e n t r i c i t y o f the r o t a t i n g

electrode. The slope of the e x p o n e n t i a l p a r t of the d i s t r i b u t i o n curves seems to

f o l l o w the same unusual p a t t e r n (Figure 8 (b)).

Within this context, it is o f g r e a t i n t e r e s t to k n o w w h a t influence hydros-

tatic p r e s s u r e exercises on the time lags. To this effect, we c o v e r e d the elec-

trodes w i t h a p r e s s u r e - t i g h t lid and o b s e r v e d the d i s t r i b u t i o n of the time lags

at p r e s s u r e s up to i0 bars. The absence of any formative time when the p r e s s u r i z e d

liquid is s t a t i o n a r y is e x e m p l i f i e d by the m e a s u r e m e n t s in Figure 9. As soon as
132

"£g
lOO,
ps
I

II o ,otn,,n, .,co.0,.,
x injection of dielectric
v

1
o lb 2~ 30

Fig. 6. F o r m a t i v e time Yg v e r s u s tangential v e l o c i t y v of r o t a t i n g electrode; in-

c l u d e d are two v a l u e s of Yg o b t a i n e d by the i n j e c t i o n of the d i e l e c t r i c liquid :
p a r a f f i n oil + 2 g r / £ Fe, U g = 225 V, I A = 1 A, At I = 0,9 ms, g = 67 ~m,
E = 62 kV/cm.

q:s" 1.e v = 4.5 m / s ...~ ~s= e.e v. 2 m/s

":... 16.0 %25
3.5
2.75
261 08

T T
5 0 ps Soo ps

Fig. 7. T i m e lag d i s t r i b u t i o n s w i t h c y l i n d r i c e l e c t r o d e geometry. Several p l o t s

have b e e n s u p e r i m p o s e d on the same diagram. D i e l e c t r i c : p a r a f f i n oil + 0,2 gr/Z
graphite; v e l o c i t y v of d i e l e c t r i c d i s p l a c e m e n t m a i n l y d e t e r m i n e d by liquid
i n j e c t i o n through capillary. Ug = 250 V, I A = 1 A, E ~ 40 kV/cm, At I = 6 ms.

the e l e c t r o d e is set in m o t i o n a formative time is present. It is equal to the

formative time w i t h a r o t a t i n g electrode and w i t h the d i e l e c t r i c liquid at

atmospheric pressure (Figure 10). An i n f l u e n c e of p r e s s u r e on the e x p o n e n t i a l

time constant, T s, is p r o b a b l y to be e x c l u d e d on a c c o u n t of the m e a s u r e m e n t s

w h i c h we p e r f o r m e d (Figure ii, also Figure i0).

The response of the s y s t e m w i t h a m o v i n g liquid on those p h y s i c a l quantities

which determine the electric field or the stresses fluid, i.e. v o l t a g e a n d gap
 133

i
p, 10~
'~s b)
p,,

10, lOO "-..~

10

.m 1
o~1 o',1 i m/, ool dl i m/,

Fig. 8. P l o t o f (a) c h a r a c t e r i s t i c time T , (b) f o r m a t i v e time T versus dielec-

s
tric v e l o c i t y v for the m e a s u r e m e n t s shown in Figure 7 . W i t h i n ~ e range o f small
velocities, some values are added w h i c h w e r e o b t a i n e d w i t h r o t a t i n g e l e c t r o d e s at
similar d i s c h a r g e parameters, g = 60 Um.

N
1 p: 6 bar
I!" p.Gbar
a)

I, il
iS.
.,.. . •
• ° ° ° • °', ~.
°.

T 'T
-,le,
200 ps I000 p, ,

N
| |I " .
p.Obar

• ". |

- ;- -" ", -~,c

'":" "... m . *. . • -... *.%-..........-

T
2000 ps 1000 ps

Fig. 9. E x a m p l e of time lag d i s t r i - Fig. i0. E x a m p l e of two time lag d i s t r i -

b u t i o n of p r e s s u r i z e d , b u t statio- b u t i o n s w i t h r o t a t i n g upper electrode,
n a r y d i e l e c t r i c : p a r a f f i n oil + 2 v = 22 cm/s : (a) p r e s s u r i z e d dielectric,
gr/e Fe, p = 6 bar, v = 0, U = 225 (b) a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e . P a r a f f i n oil
V, I = 1 A, At = 0,9 ms, gg= 6 9 ~ m . + 0,08 gr/8 graphite, U = 250 V, I A =
A I
B o t h d i a g r a m s b e l o n g to the same 4A, At = 7 ms, g = 62 ~ m Characteristic
I
m e a s u r e m e n t ; no f o r m a t i v e time and f o r m a t i v e times are e s s e n t i a l l y equal
appears on the e x p a n d e d scale of w i t h and w i t h o u t p r e s s u r e increase.
the upper diagram.
134

distance, indicates a very pronounced dependence of the f o r m a t i v e time on the

gap, but little or none w i t h r e s p e c t to v o l t a g e (Figure 12). In v i e w of the con-

siderable scatter of our d a t a it is p r e m a t u r e to s u g g e s t an a n a l y t i c form for the

gap dependence. In particular, it is u n c e r t a i n whether or n o t the f o r m a t i v e time

possesses a threshold at a p p r o x i m a t e l y 20 ~m as our graph in F i g u r e 12 suggests.

It m i g h t well be that at smaller gaps short f o r m a t i v e times exist. Measurements

at small gaps are h i n d e r e d because discharges degenerate frequently into short-

circuits (ref. 4). T h e spread of the formative time ~g as a f u n c t i o n of the gap,

shown in F i g u r e 13, follows to a s u r p r i s i n g degree the p a t t e r n of F i g u r e 12. This

r e s u l t is also c o n f i r m e d by the following measurements. It m e a n s that the two

parameters Tg a n d ~g of the f o r m a t i o n process are c l o s e l y correlated.

T,

Ij•

\ Fig. ii. D e p e n d e n c e of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c time

of e x p o n e n t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of time lags
\ on m e a n a p p l i e d field s t r e n g t h for several
pressures. S t a t i o n a r y d i e l e c t r i c : p a r a f f i n
15
oil + 0,2 g r / £ graphite, U g = 250 V, I A =
4 A, t I = 7 ms. No p r e s s u r e d e p e n d e n c e can
be a s s u m e d b e y o n d the limits given by the
scatter of the data.

• ~ " 4o " 8e ~v/~,.-

The relationship between the e l e c t r i c field and the e x p o n e n t i a l component

of the time lag d i s t r i b u t i o n s has n o t h i n g in common w i t h the r e s p e c t i v e rela-

t i o n s h i p of the G a u s s i a n component. The e x p o n e n t i a l l y decreasing law of T s w i t h

increasing m e a n electric field E - well k n o w n for s t a t i o n a r y liquids - remains

valid for moving liquids, though the n u m e r i c a l v a l u e s m a y differ by a large

amount. The larger the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of c o n t a m i n a n t s and the larger the field

strength, the larger the d i f f e r e n c e between T s and of a moving, and of a sta-

tionary, liquid. This fact is well illustrated by the d i s t r i b u t i o n s in F i g u r e 3.

Whereas for a given value of E, c e r t a i n contaminants cause the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

time T s to d e c r e a s e when liquid m o t i o n is induced, other c o n t a m i n a n t s produce

the o p p o s i t e effect. Figure 14 shows the results of some typical measurements

with paraffin oil. Later, we p r o v i d e equivalent results for w a t e r as the d i e l e c -

tric liquid (Figure 20).

 135

Tg
c'g
1000

p" I,s

I
100 I 100 I
I
I
I I :If fI' i

I1' , 1i
I

ill I
10~

i . . . . . . . lOOV . . . . . . . . IOOV
.... 150V - - - - - - 150
.... 190V ..... 190
I --230V 230
) gap gap

0 2"0 40 ~m 2"O 4"O 4O pm

Fig. 12. F o r m a t i v e time Tg v e r s u s gap Fig. 13. M e a n d e v i a t i o n of f o r m a t i v e

size for v a r i o u s Ug. R o t a t i n g u p p e r time ~ g v e r s u s gap size g for the
electrode, v = 24 cm/s. D i e l e c t r i c : same m e a s u r e m e n t s as in F i g u r e 12.
p a r a f f i n oil + 2 g r / £ Fe, I A = 4 A,
At I = 0,9 ms.

'~s *} b) ©)
ld
p,
\1 ~'~¢
lo:

,,\ I
L
10
Ocm/~
- - - - - 24
E
io 4b do "o 2o ~ ~o o 2"o 4~ 4OkV/cA-

Fig. 14. E x a m p l e s of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c time T s of e x p o n e n t i a l d i s t r i b u t i o n v e r s u s

a p p l i e d m e a n f i e l d s t r e n g t h E for v a r i o u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f c o n t a m i n a n t s :
(a)paraffin oil + 0,2 g r / £ Fe, (b) + 2 g r / £ Fe, Ug = 250 V, I A = 1 A, A t I = 0,9
ms, (c) + 4 g r / £ graphite, Ug = 80 V, I A = 4 A, At I = 0,7 ms.

The results of F i g u r e 14 c o r r e s p o n d either to an i m m o b i l e electrode o r to a

maximum rotational-speed of 24 cm/s~ Between these extreme values of e l e c t r o d e

136

velocity, T s varies in a m o n o t o n o u s fashion. Figure 15 p r o v i d e s an example. Fi-

gure 8 (b) c o n t a i n e d similar information for p a r a f f i n oil c o n t a m i n a t e d with

graphite. There the slope is o p p o s i t e to that of F i g u r e 15, in a g r e e m e n t with

the d a t a of F i g u r e 14.

"T$

ps
J
/
/
/
£,
lOO

/ Fig. 15. E x e m p l e of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c time

T s of e x p o n e n t i a l time lag d i s t r i b u t i o n
v e r s u s tangential v e l o c i t y v of ro-
t a t i n a electrode. D i e l e c t r i c : p a r a f f i n
v oil + 2 g r / i Fe, Ug = 250 V, I A = i A,
E = 35,5 kV/cm.

The relationship between formative time a n d d i e l e c t r i c motion strongly sug-

gests an e x p l a n a t i o n b a s e d on a m e c h a n i c a l model. Any mechanical e q u a t i o n of

motion contains necessarily the viscous p r o p e r t i e s of the m e d i u m in question.

It is challenging, therefore, to search for an i n f l u e n c e on the f o r m a t i v e time

by m o d i f y i n g the c o e f f i c i e n t of v i s c o s i t y of the d i e l e c t r i c liquid. To this

purpose, we tried to raise the t e m p e r a t u r e of the d i e l e c t r i c f r o m the a m b i e n t

temperature to some 50 C. T h i s reduces the c o e f f i c i e n t of v i s c o s i t y of o u r pa-

raffin oil to half the value at the a m b i e n t temperature. T h e results, shown in

Figure 16, are not e n t i r e l y conclusive : a dependence on a c c o u n t of the'tempe-

rature is not perceptible; on the o t h e r hand, a comparison of the v a l u e s at

the ambient temperature with those of the m e a s u r e m e n t s in F i g u r e 12, for ins-

tance, discloses some shifting. We took the p r e c a u t i o n to v a r y the t e m p e r a t u r e

in the course of m e a s u r e m e n t in an i r r e g u l a r manner.

A comparison of d i e l e c t r i c liquids having different compositions should

also p r o v i d e useful information about the b r e a k d o w n mechanism. Water, when

contrasted with hydrocarbon oil, is an i n t e r e s t i n g candidate. Whereas hydro-

carbons are non-polar, water m o l e c u l e s are h i g h l y polar. Solubility, ionizabi-

lity, presence of e l e c t r o n donors and a c c e p t o r s differ markedly as well as its

mechanical properties among which is viscosity. Yet, the r e s u l t s we o b t a i n e d

w i t h water regarding the f o r m a t i v e times do not differ f r o m those we o b t a i n e d

with paraffin oil. T h e f i v e f o l d d i f f e r e n c e of the c o e f f i c i e n t of v i s c o s i t y

between these two liquids d o e s not give rise to a d i s t i n c t behaviour of their

formative times. The r e s u l t s of Figure 17 were o b t a i n e d w i t h u n c o n t a m i n a t e d

dielectrics : C h e v r o n E D M 71 p a r a f f i n oil, filtered to p o r e size 0,22 ~ m

 137

(Millipore), and d o u b l y - d i s t i l l e d water. T h e s e liquids b e c o m e s l i g h t l y c o n t a m i n a -

ted, however, in the course o f m e a s u r e m e n t s as a c o n s e q u e n c e o f e l e c t r o d e ero-

sion d u r i n g the s h o r t arc p e r i o d of the r e c u r r i n g discharges.

'T e
,ooo.
.'t"e
p'

~JS
100, 100.

kin ilJ :
i
g
d
!

- - 2 0 C HzO
-----35
........ 55 ..... -EDM 7!
gap
gap
• ID
,,m ~) p,." -- "pm
o 2~

Fig. 16. F o r m a t i v e time Yg v e r s u s gap Fig. 17. F o r m a t i v e time Tg v e r s u s g a p

size g for v a r i o u s t e m p e r a t u r e s of the
e l e c t r o d e - d i e l e c t r i c assembly. U p p e r
e l e c t r o d e rotating, v = 24 cm/s. Die-
lectric : p a r a f f i n oil + 2 g r / £ Fe,
U g = 250 V, IA = 1 A, ~t I = 1,2 ms.
size for an u n c o n t a m i n a t e d p o l a r and
n o n - p o l a r d i e l e c t r i c : water, U g ="
80 V, IA = 4 A, ~t I = 0,7 ms and C h e -
v r o n E D M 71 p a r a f f i n oil, Ug = 260 V,
IA = 1 A, At I = 0,9 ms. U p p e r elec-
trode rotating, v = 24 cm/s.

A m o s t i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f the role of the c o n t a m i n a t i o n in the d i e l e c t r i c

became e v i d e n t w h e n we s t u d i e d the d e p e n d e n c e of the formative time on the con-

c e n t r a t i o n of s u s p e n d e d particles. In Figure 18, w i t h p a r a f f i n oil as the die-

lectric, the c o n c e n t r a t i o n was c h a n g e d b y a factor o f 250. No systematic shift

o f the formative time d e p e n d i n g on p a r t i c l e c o n c e n t r a t i o n can be d e d u c e d from

these results. A s a m a t t e r of fact, w h e n one adds the p r e c e d i n g m e a s u r e m e n t s of

F i g u r e 17 to those of Figure 18, the independence of T g o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n is m u c h

m o r e impressive, since c o n c e n t r a t i o n then varies far in excess o f a factor of

250.

A n a l o g o u s m e a s u r e m e n t s w i t h p a r t i c l e s s u s p e n d e d in w a t e r reveal, however,

an e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t behaviour. F i g u r e 19 i l l u s t r a t e s c l e a r l y the c o n c e n t r a -

tion d e p e n d e n c e o f the f o r m a t i o n time versus gap size. A t a g i v e n gap, the for-

138

mative time d e c r e a s e s for an i n c r e a s i n g particle concentration in water. T h e con-

centration dependence of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c time T s follows the well k n o w n p a t -

tern of a h y d r o c a r b o n dielectric. By w a y of example, Figure 20 i l l u s t r a t e s the

familiar exponentially decreasing law of T s versus the m e a n a p p l i e d field s t r e n g t h

E. We w e r e o n l y able to p e r f o r m the m e a s u r e m e n t s with a rotating electrode. A

stationary dielectric inevitably leads to s h o r t - c i r c u i t s . The limitation of the

pulse voltage level at 80 V is d i c t a t e d by the c o m p a r a t i v e l y high residual con-

duction c u r r e n t of o u r w a t e r samples.

~g
"T o 1000

p,
I
p' II
i i
i •
100.
'Ib
t
t
I
I
II :

,i i I
10,
;i '
I I
I

...... 0,02011
Q2
. . . . 2
5
. . . . . . °'g/l
gap gap
. . . . . . . . . . D
o io ~o ~ pm 40 8O 120 leo Im

Fig. 18. F o r m a t i v e time Y versus gap Fig. 19. F o r m a t i v e time T versus g a p

size g for v a r i o u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of size g for various c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of
Fe contaminant. D i e l e c t r i c : p a r a f f i n Fe contaminant. D i e l e c t r i c : doubly
oil, U = 250 V, I = 1 A, 4 A, A t I = d i s t i l l e d water, U = 80 V, I A = 4 A,
0,9 m s ~ Upper e l e c t r o d e rotating, v ~t I = 0,7 ms. Uppeg electrode rotating,
24 cm/s. v = 24 cm/s . The values for unconta-
m i n a t e d w a t e r are i d e n t i c a l to those
in Figure 17.

According to the p r e c e d i n g presentation of our experiments we are i n c l i n e d

to a s s o c i a t e the o c c u r r e n c e of a f o r m a t i v e time w i t h a ~ v i n g dielectric liquid.

Some g e n e r a l considerations a l l o w us, however, to c o n c e i v e of the p o s s i b i l i t y

t h a t the o b s e r v e d formation process is n o t p r i m a r i l y related to l i q u i d m~tion,

but rather with its consequences. In o r d e r to test these ideas, we m o d i f i e d

the e x p e r i m e n t a l procedure.
 139

If the f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s is n e c e s s a r y to r e - a c t i v a t e a dielectric l i q u i d we

conjectured that the time lag o f the first d i s c h a r g e of a s e q u e n c e s h o u l d con-

tain a f o r m a t i v e component. We c o n t r i v e d to h a v e the u p p e r e l e c t r o d e rotating

intermittently. During the pauses, after the l i q u i d had to come to rest, we

applied a sequence of v o l t a g e p u l s e s in o r d e r to induce breakdown. The time

lags w e r e r e c o r d e d and a r r a n g e d into groups according to w h e t h e r they b e l o n g e d

to the first d i s c h a r g e of a sequence, or to the second, or to one of the fol-

lowing discharges. When a sufficient number of events w a s collected, the v a r i o u s

time lag d i s t r i b u t i o n s were plotted out. F i g u r e 21 shows by w a y of example the

results of such a m e a s u r e m e n t . There is i n c l u d e d the r e s u l t s obtained with a

continuously rotating electrode. Our conjecture about a formation process being

necessary to initiate the f i r s t d i s c h a r g e is c l e a r l y confirmed.

IT.!

1(~
p.
Ii
1(

ld

I
E
10
0 i ,; f4 w/&~
Fig. 20. E x a m p l e of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c time T s of e x p o n e n t i a l time lag d i s t r i b u t i o n
v e r s u s m e a n field s t r e n g t h E for v a r i o u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of C u contaminant. Die-
lectric : d o u b l y d i s t i l l e d water, Ug = 80 V, I A = 8 A, 16 A, At I = 2,5 ms.
U ~ p e r e l e c t r o d e rotating, v = 24 cm/s.

4 DISCUSSION

Our results s h o w t h a t the state o f m o t i o n of a c o n t a m i n a t e d l i q u i d has an

influence on the e x p o n e n t i a l component of the time lag d i s t r i b u t i o n of d i s c h a r -

ges in that d i e l e c t r i c medium. O n the o t h e r hand, the G a u s s i a n component is n o t

140

directly related to the speed of the

dielectric fluid. Rather, it seems to

o c c u r as a c o n s e q u e n c e of a m e c h a n i c a l
"(o,lOI ps
•I e, u p, li)
perturbation to w h i c h the d i e l e c t r i c
t
liquid is exposed. Though such a p e r -

turbation is c a u s e d b y i n d u c i n g m o t i o n

in a liquid, the two e f f e c t s are n o t

equivalent. The formative time, Tg, can

be r e c o r d e d after the l i q u i d has come

to rest. T h i s is not the case of the

characteristic time of the e x p o n e n t i a l

lOOO
time lag d i s t r i b u t i o n . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

time Ts depends on the v e l o c i t y of the

c) dielectric l i q u i d at the i n s t a n t w h e n

the d i s c h a r g e is initiated.

.l . .

Fig. 21. E x a m p l e of time lag d i s t r i b u -

tions f r o m d i s c h a r g e sequences. Before
each s e q u e n c e the d i e l e c t r i c is given

i, ....,.,°...w ,,
an i m p u l s i v e r o t a t i o n a l m o v e m e n t : (a)
oI time lag d i s t r i b u t i o n of first d i s c h a r g e
of sequence, (b) of second, (c) of third,
(d) of fourth, (e) of fifth discharge,
(f) time lag d i s t r i b u t i o n a c c o r d i n g to
standard procedure with upper electrode
r o t a t i n g continuously, (g) same d i s t r i -
~z ... . le~ el b u t i o n as (f) at e x p a n d e d h o r i z o n t a l
scale. D i e l e c t r i c : p a r a f f i n oil + 2 gr/£

.~_.. ,.[ Fe, Ug = 225 V, I A, At I = 1,2 ms, g = 60

~m. D l s t r i b u t i o n s (a) to (e) each c o n t a i n
580 events, (f) and (g) 2900 events.
1ooo ~

An u n a m b i g u o u s demonstration is

TN
~~
provided by our e x p e r i m e n t w i t h dis-

charge sequences. Figures 21 (b) to (e)

2,17 " f)
represent the time lag d i s t r i b u t i o n s of

recurring discharges in an i ~ o b i l e li-

quid, whereas (f) and (g) refer to a

10000
moving liquid. T h e m e a n v a l u e s of the

characteristic and f o r m a t i v e times are

• . . .2,~ g) respectively : T s = 182 ~s, Tg = 0 and

T s = 2111 ~s, Tg = 61 ~s. Now, w h e n the

dielectric has b e e n p e r t u r b e d and come

2~s to rest again - as r e c o r d e d in (a) - the
 141

m e a s u r e m e n t yields : T = 185 ~s, T = 48 HS . T h e s e values u n m l s t a k a b l y corres-

s g
p o n d to the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c time o f the immobile l i q u i d and to the formative time

o f the m o v i n g liquid.
In addition, the e x p e r i m e n t d e m o n s t r a t e s the total i n d e p e n d e n c e of the for-

m a t i v e time w i t h r e s p e c t to the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c time. This is not an important

p o i n t in the c o n t e x t of the d i s c u s s i o n a b o u t the m a t h e m a t i c a l analysis of our

time lag distributions. It d r a s t i c a l l y reduces the choice of a n a l y t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n s

since the p a r a m e t e r s of the leading p a r t of the d i s t r i b u t i o n m u s t not influence

the t e r m i n a t i n g p a r t of the d i s t r i b u t i o n and vice versa. By way o f example,

W e i b u l l - t y p e distributions, in spite of their p h y s i c a l relevance, are therefore

excluded. Obviously, a c o n v o l u t i o n o f two functions fulfils the requirements.

The d i e l e c t r i c liquids act as if they are c o m p e l l e d to go through a formation

or a c t i v a t i o n p r o c e s s w h e n they are s u b j e c t e d to an electric field. The r e q u i r e d

time is our formative time r a n g i n g in the m i c r o s e c o n d domain. It depends, essen-

tially, o n l y on the thickness of the d i e l e c t r i c layer. W h e t h e r or not it also

depends on the electrode surface is not yet known. Once the liquid has a t t a i n e d

an a c t i v a t e d c o n d i t i o n it is r e a d y to b r e a k down at any i n s t a n t a c c o r d i n g to a

Poisson process. The c u r r e n t b u i l d - u p process, w h i c h sets in when the d i s c h a r g e

ignites, n e c e s s i t a t e s a second formative time. It is the one r e f e r r e d to as b e i n g

in the n a n o s e c o n d r a n g e .
The d i e l e c t r i c appears to be capable of m a i n t a i n i n g the a c t i v a t e d c o n d i t i o n

over a length o f time in excess of the time intervals for w h i c h our e x p e r i m e n t a l

set-up was designed. D i s c h a r g e s w h i c h o c c u r s u b s e q u e n t to a f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s

do not a f f e c t the c o n d i t i o n i n g of the liquid as a whole. Yet, a slight m e c h a n i -

cal perturbation, of the k i n d we have a p p l i e d w h e n slowly d i s p l a c i n g the liquid,

is s u f f i c i e n t to d e s t r o y the a c t i v a t e d condition.

The m i n i m u m amount o f p e r t u r b a t i o n w h i c h is n e c e s s a r y to d e s t r o y the e f f e c t

can be e s t i m a t e d f r o m an e x p e r i m e n t where we d i m i n i s h e d the time interval At I

b e t w e e n c o n s e c u t i v e discharges. W i t h the electrode r o t a t i n g at the m a x i m u m speed

o f 24 cm/s, the formative time d i s a p p e a r e d at a p p r o x i m a t e l y At I = 150 ~s. This

c o r r e s p o n d s to a d i s p l a c e m e n t o f the liquid o f the o r d e r of the size of the gap.

F r o m this result, w e conclude that a d i s p l a c e m e n t of this m a g n i t u d e r e p r e s e n t s

the m i n i m u m p e r t u r b a t i o n n e e d e d to cancel the formation p r o c e s s in the dielectric.

The s u b s e q u e n t d i s p l a c e m e n t of the liquid does not cumulate the p e r t u r b a t i o n

effects, p o s s i b l y because the r e c u r r e n t v o l t a g e p u l s e s s u c c e e d to m a i n t a i n the

a c t i v a t e d condition. A further c o n f i r m a t i o n of these ideas m a y be d e r i v e d from

the v e l o c i t y d e p e n d e n c e of the formative time in Figure 6. If we d e t e r m i n e from

the curve the v e l o c i t y c o r r e s p o n d i n g to w h e r e the curve b e n d s down to zero and

if we then m u l t i p l y this v e l o c i t y w i t h the time interval At I of those measurements,

we obtain the same d i s p l a c e m e n t d i s t a n c e as above.
142

We have m e n t i o n e d the s u r p r i s i n g fact that in a s t a t i o n a r y liquid the discharge

w h i c h occurs after an e l e c t r i c field has been a p p l i e d does not d e s t r o y the condi-

tioning o f the dielectric. We recall our h y p o t h e s i s a c c o r d i n g to w h i c h the con-

ditioning, or else the a c t i v a t i o n process, results from the a p p l i c a t i o n of the

v e r y same electric field. A d i s c h a r g e is a v i o l e n t event of highly c o n c e n t r a t e d

e n e r g y w h i c h v i s i b l y p r o d u c e s fluid motion. The degree of m o t i o n is c o m p a r a b l e

in size w i t h the rotational m o t i o n we used in our e x p e r i m e n t s to remove the ac-

tivated condition. The a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n s is, however, r e s o l v e d if we assume

that the p e r t u r b a t i o n caused by a discharge is limited to the v i c i n i t y o f the

discharge spot. A t a s u f f i c i e n t l y large d i s t a n c e from the discharge spot the

dielectric remains activated. In this region the d i e l e c t r i c is r e a d y to b r e a k

down from the m o m e n t of arrival of a new v o l t a g e pulse. This e x p l a n a t i o n has the

advantage of b e i n g in p e r f e c t a g r e e m e n t w i t h our p r e v i o u s o b s e r v a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g

the spatial d i s c h a r g e p a t t e r n s (ref. 5). We n o t e d in those e x p e r i m e n t s the tendency

of the discharge spots to assume a r a n d o m distribution. Indeed, the local enhan-

cement of the b r e a k d o w n p r o b a b i l i t y due to c o n t a m i n a t i o n from the discharge is

c o u n t e r a c t e d b y the n e c e s s i t y to re-activate the d i e l e c t r i c at the surroundings

of the discharge. The latter p r o c e s s demands a formative time during w h i c h break-

down has a g o o d chance to o c c u r elsewhere.

The p e r t i n e n t q u e s t i o n c o n c e r n i n g the p h y s i c a l nature of the a c t i v a t i o n pro-

cess remains open for speculation. We feel it r e a s o n a b l e to p o s t u l a t e some kind

of an order b e i n g e s t a b l i s h e d in the dielectric liquid. W h e t h e r this o r d e r is

to be sought in the m i c r o s c o p i c or in the m a c r o s c o p i c d o m a i n is not at all clear.

The fact that we have been u s i n g suspensions of metal p o w d e r s as a d i e l e c t r i c

w o u l d strongly suggest m a c r o s c o p i c effects : for instance, the well o b s e r v e d

particles bridges or the equally well known turbulences. The p o s s i b i l i t y of the

existence of vortices in liquid as layers as thin as those w h i c h we are dealing

with, w h i c h w o u l d be caused by the e l e c t r o h y d r o d y n a m i c action of the a p p l i e d

field, needs yet to be demonstrated.

T h e r e are also, however, some strong arguments a g a i n s t the hypothesis invol-

ving particles. We have mentioned, within the context of Figures 17 and 18, the

independence of the formative time of the c o n c e n t r a t i o n of the c o n t a m i n a n t s in

a h y d r o c a r b o n liquid. This result is d i f f i c u l t to reconcile with a p i c t u r e where

the formative time w o u l d be d e t e r m i n e d by the lapse of time r e q u i r e d for rear-

ranging the p a r t i c l e s according to a g i v e n order. At low concentrations, the

particles w o u l d need to travel long d i s t a n c e s in order to build up highly con-
c e n t r a t e d configurations, as, for instance, p a r t i c l e bridges.

We m e n t i o n e d at the b e g i n n i n g that several other r e s e a r c h e r s have o b s e r v e d

an increase of d i e l e c t r i c strength when w o r k i n g with flowing dielectric liquids.

 143

Also they all noticed a change of the statistics of the breakdown voltage distri-

bution. Their observations are related to the phenomena reported in this paper

and can be explained phenomenologically by decomposing the statistics into Gaussian

and Poisson components. Particularly interesting in this context is the fact

that these workers have used purified liquids : Nelson, Salvage and Sharpley

used transformer oil (ref. 6), Boone and Vermeer used Flurocarbon liquids (ref. 7),

Centurioni, Delfino, Molinari and Viviani used liquid nitrogen (ref. 8). This

indicates, in agreement with our experiments with uncontaminated liquids (Figure

17), either that the basic phenomena, which we interpret hypothetically by an

activation process, are independent of the degree of particle contamination or,

on the contrary, that all liquids, including the purified ones, contain an un-

perceivable background contamination causing t h e m t o behave in a similar fashion.

5 CONCLUSION

By way of conclusion we would like to draw attention to the following main

experimental fact. Our observations are based on the technique of measuring

time lag distributions of electrical discharges. These time lag distributions

possess a formative component whenever the dielectric liquid, prior to being

stressed, was subjected to a mechanical perturbation. These observations can

be interpreted by assuming that an activation process takes place in the die-

lectric liquid. The liquid maintains the activated condition, unless a mecha-

nical perturbation, as that caused, for instance, by liquid motion, restores

the dielectric to its former condition. It is our hope that these observations

contribute to shed new light on the mechanism of breakdown in liquids.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank M. Peter for his interest in this work. The conti-

nuing support of the Ateliers des Charmilles S.A. is gratefully acknowledged.

Our thanks include also the electronic contributions of G. Rey-Mermier.

144

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1 C. Frei, U. Rudolf, F. Balleys and D. Dubi, 4th Int. Conf. on Conduction

and Breakdown in Dielectric Liquids, Dublin, 1972, 243.
2 U. Rudolf, Thesis, 1977
B. Bonmaeli, Thesis, 1978.
3 B. Bommeli, C. Frei, A. Ratajski, 6th Int. Conf. on Conduction and Break-
down in Dielectric Liquids, Rouen, 1978, 123.
4 F. Balleys, C. Frei and E. Manzin, Fertigung 5/73 (1973) 147.
5 F. Balleys, B. Bommeli and C. Frei, Annals CIRP 22/1 (1973) 53.
B. Bommeli and C. Frei, Rev. Phys. Appl. 12 (1977) 1861.
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7 W. Boone and J. Vermeer, 4th Int. Conf. on Conduction and Breakdown in
Dielectric Liquids, Dublin, 1972, 214.
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Conduction and Breakdown in Dielectric Liquids, Delft, 1975, 221.