11
Pavement
Structures
A pavement structure is composed of one or more layers that
transfer and distribute loads applied by vehicles to the
underlying natural subgrade soils. Permanent-type pave-
ments in seasonal and permafrost areas require that there
should be no interruption of traffic at any time due to differ-
ential heave, reduction in load-supporting capacity, or dete-
rioration of the pavement resulting from low temperature
cracking or weakening during critical thaw periods. Pave-
ment design involves determination of the required thickness
for each layer and the combined thickness of all layers above
the subgrade so that the pavement structure will have ade-
quate resistance to distortion by frost heave and to cracking
and distortion under traffic loads as affected by seasonal
variation of supporting capacity. The design objective is to
determine the lowest-cost pavement system for which the
rate of deterioration under traffic loads and environmental
conditions will be acceptably low.
The four pavement design methods described here
include (1) the mechanistic model, (2) limited subgrade
frost penetration, (3) reduced subgrade strength, and (4) the
AASHTO guidelines. The mechanistic analyses of stresses
and strains yield a fundamental basis for the estimation of
pavement deformation, roughness, and fatigue life. Infor-
mation on base course composition and subgrade prepara-
tion for control of differential frost heaving is included. The
use of insulation materials in pavements to restrict or pre-
vent the advance of freezing temperatures into frost-suscep-
tible subgrade soils and to provide thaw protection in per-
mafrost areas is described. Differential icing and the
problem of frost action below culverts are addressed. For
low traffic volume roads with less stringent design stand-
ards, the use of load restrictions during spring thaw to
maintain pavement design life and serviceability is outlined.
In addition, special problems discussed below include longi-
tudinal and thermal cracking of pavements, the use of mem-
brane-encapsulated soil layers, and the presence of ice
wedges in permafrost.
11.1 Seasonal Frost Areas
The pavement design method selected will normally be made
in favor of the one with lowest cost. The mechanistic design
procedure, under development by the U.S. Army Cold Regions
Research and Engineering Laboratory (Bigl and Berg 1996), is
intended for use by the Federal Highway Administration. Cli-
matic variables of precipitation, temperature, and soil moisture
content are integrated into the mechanistic model. The limited
subgrade frost penetration method (Departments of the Army
and Air Force USA 1985) includes pavements in locations
where subgrade soils are so variable (some glaciated areas) that
the required subgrade preparation would not be sufficient to
restrict differential frost heave. In other cases, special opera-
tional demands (restrictions on pavement roughness) may
require that subgrade frost penetration be strictly limited or
prevented. The reduced subgrade strength method (Depart-
ments of the Army and Air Force USA 1985) does not limit
penetration of frost into the subgrade, but it determines a com-
bined thickness of pavement, base, and subbase that will ade-
quately carry traffic loads over the design life. This approach
relies on uniform subgrade conditions, adequate subgrade
preparation, and transitions between different pavement sec-
tions to control pavement surface roughness resulting from dif-
ferential heave.
Mechanistic Model
Pavement structure design based on the mechanistic model
involves (1) predicting stresses, strains, and deflections for a
specified pavement geometry and magnitude of wheel loading;
and (2) adjusting the properties and thickness of pavement lay-
ers to ensure that these predicted stresses, strains, and deflec-
tions are within allowable limits for the number of load appli-
cations that will occur over the service life of the pavement.
Critical locations in the pavement structure (Fig. 11-1) selected
for calculation of strains include tensile strain (et) at the bot-
281
282 FROZEN GROUND ENGINEERING

using several available damage models. The behavior is nor-

mally modeled for a 1-year period, with output on a daily basis.
By assuming that results from a single year will be repeated
annually, the number of applications to failure is estimated.
Detailed results for the Mn/ROAD test facility based on the
mechanistic pavement design procedure are presented by Bigl
and Berg (1996).
When the accumulated damage reaches the limiting criteria,
the pavement is assumed to have failed by fatigue cracking
caused by tensile stresses at the bottom of the asphalt concrete
(AC) or by rutting caused by excessive deformation of the sub-
grade. For underdesign relative to the asphalt concrete, the cor-
rection may involve a thicker upper layer, a thicker or stiffer
base, or a more fatigue-resistant asphalt concrete mix. When
the problem is the subgrade, the pavement must be thickened,
stiffened, or the subgrade stabilized. Pavement capacity can
FIGURE 11-1 Critical strain locations in the mechanistic also be increased using a thicker asphalt concrete surface layer,
design method. cement-treated base, untreated base or subbase, subgrade stabi-
lization, or a combination. For overdesign, layer thickness or
treatments can be reduced and the pavement life reestimated.
tom of the surface layer and vertical compressive strain (ev) at
the top of the subgrade. Predicted strains must not exceed max-
imum allowable values for a specified number of load repeti- Limited Subgrade Frost Penetration Method
tions. These criteria relate to surface layer fatigue failure (alliga- The limited subgrade frost penetration design method recog-
tor cracking) and subgrade rutting failure (surface depression nizes that as the pavement structure is made thicker it is more
in the wheel rut). Several problems are not addressed by the able to resist frost heave without distress. A small depth of
mechanistic model: pavement distress and failure due to freezing into a frost-susceptible subgrade can be allowed with-
asphalt stripping (moisture susceptibility), low
temperature cracking, rutting from plastic
deformation in the asphalt concrete, and
reflection cracking through an overlay.
Stresses, strains, and deflections are pre-
dicted using resilient moduli of available mate-
rials and multilayer elastic theory. Resilient
modulus testing of materials and results from
the Minnesota Road Research project are
described by Berg et al. (1996). The CRREL
mechanistic pavement design procedure (Bigl
and Berg 1996) consists of four computer pro-
grams; FROST, TRANSFORM, NELAPAV, and
CUMDAM (Fig. 11-2). FROST predicts the
amount of frost heave and thaw settlement of
the pavement structure based on conditions
throughout the depth of the structure (tem-
perature, water content, pore water pressure,
ice content, and density) at a given increment.
TRANSFORM uses the output from FROST as
input and divides the pavement structure into
“layers” based on moisture or temperature
conditions. Each layer is assigned a resilient
modulus, Poisson’s ratio, and density value.
NELAPAV, a nonlinear layered elastic pro-
gram, calculates stresses, strains, and deflec-
tions at specified locations within a pavement
profile when a load is applied to the surface.
CUMDAM calculates the incremental and FIGURE 11-2 Flowchart for the CRREL mechanistic design procedure.
cumulative damage the pavement undergoes Source: Reproduced from Bigl and Berg 1996.
 PAVEMENT STRUCTURES 283

out detriment to the pavement structure (Departments of the
Army and Air Force USA 1985). A design chart (Fig. 11-3)
specifies that a portion of the total frost penetration requires
non-frost-susceptible materials. The remaining frost penetra-
tion is allowed to occur in reasonably uniform frost-susceptible
subgrade soils.
The procedure requires average water contents and dry unit
weights for the base and subgrade materials at the start of the
freezing season. For a base course with successive layers—each
with different fractions of fine material, moisture contents, and
dry densities—layers should be weighted in proportion to layer
thickness. If layers of bound and granular base are used, the aver-
age may be assumed equal to the moisture content and dry unit
weight of the material in the granular unbound base. With this
information, the frost penetration (a) is determined for the
design freezing index (Fig. 11-4) in a base material of unlimited
depth beneath a 12-in.- (305-mm) thick rigid or bituminous
pavement kept free of snow or ice. For rigid pavements with
thickness greater than 12 in. (305 mm), deduct 10 °F · days (5.6
°C · days) for each inch of pavement exceeding 12 in. (305 mm)
from the design freezing index before entering Fig. 11-4. Add the
extra concrete pavement thickness to the frost penetration (a).
Compute the base thickness (c) required for zero frost pene-
tration into the subgrade (Fig. 11-3) and the ratio (r) as follows:
c=a–p (11.1-1)
r = ws /wb (11.1-2)
where p is surface layer thickness, ws the subgrade water con-
tent, and wb the base water content. Enter Fig. 11-4 with c as the
abscissa, then vertically to the r line, and read the base thickness
(b) on the left scale, and the allowable subgrade frost penetra-
tion (s) on the right scale. The value determined for b will result
in sufficient thickness of material between the frost-susceptible
subgrade and surface layer so that a subgrade frost penetration
of s should not cause excessive differential heave for the design
freezing index. The water content ratio (r) of 3.0 is considered
to be the maximum and should be used even though the data
may suggest a higher value. The maximum limit for the ratio r
recognizes that not all moisture in fine-grained soils will freeze
at temperatures that penetrate the subgrade soils. For critical

FIGURE 11-3 Design depth of non-frost-susceptible base for limited subgrade frost
penetration.
Notes: a = combined thickness of pavement and non-frost-susceptible base for zero frost penetration into
subgrade; c = a – p; wb = water content of base; ws = water content of subgrade; and r = ws /wb , not to
exceed 2.0 for type A and B areas on airfields and 3.0 for the other pavements.
Source: Reproduced from Departments of the Army and Air Force USA 1985.
284 FROZEN GROUND ENGINEERING

a)

b) c)

FIGURE 11-4 Frost penetration beneath pavements: (a) soil density, 135 pcf (21.2 kN/m3) and 150 pcf (23.6 kN/m3); (b) soil
density, 115 pcf (18.1 kN/m3); (c) soil density, 100 pcf (15.7 kN/m3).
Source: Reproduced from Departments of the Army and Air Force USA 1985.

areas, a more conservative value of 2.0 may be appropriate,
thereby resulting in less frost heave when compared with other
pavements.
When the combined thickness of pavement and base exceeds
60 in. (1.5 m), consideration should be given to the following
alternatives (Departments of the Army and Air Force USA
1985): (1) limiting total combined thickness to 60 in. and, in
rigid-type pavements, using steel reinforcement to prevent
large cracks; (2) limiting total combined thickness to 60 in.
and, in rigid- type pavements, limiting the maximum slab
dimensions to 15 ft (4.6 m) without the use of reinforcement;
(3) or reducing the required combined structure thickness by
use of a subbase of uniform fine sand, with high moisture when
drained, in lieu of a more free-draining material.
The first two alternatives may result in a greater surface
roughness than obtained under the basic design method
because of greater subgrade frost penetration. For alternative
(3), normal base course drainage requirements must still be
 PAVEMENT STRUCTURES
satisfied. On the basis of local experience, less total thickness of
the surface layer and base than indicated by the basic design
method may be used. The combined thickness of the surface
layer and base should not be less than would be required by the
non-frost criteria. Base course composition requirements are
described in a later section.
■ EXAMPLE 11.1-1: Pavement construction is planned for a
site with a design air freezing index of 1,620 °F · days (900 °C ·
days). The pavement structure will include 3.9 in. (100 mm) of
asphalt concrete over a gravel base compacted to a dry unit
weight of 135 pcf (21.2 kN/m3) at a water content of 7%. The
uniform silty clay subgrade soil has a dry unit weight of 115.9
pcf (18.2 kN/m3) at a water content of 15%. Determine the
gravel base thickness required for the limited subgrade frost
penetration method.
Solution: The depth of frost penetration for the design freez-
ing index of 1,620 °F · days, base dry unit weight of 135.0 pcf,
and water content of 7% is close to 78.2 in. (1.99 m), as is
shown by Fig. 11-4a. Compute the base course thickness c = a –
p = 78.2 – 3.9 = 74.3 in. Compute the water content ratio r =
ws /wb = 15/7= 2.1. Enter Fig. 11-3 with c = 74.3 in., then verti-
cally to the intersection with line r = 2.1, and then horizontally.
Read the design base thickness b = 42.1 in. (1.07 m). This base
thickness will limit frost penetration into the subgrade (Fig. 11-
3) to about s = 10.7 in. (272 mm).
Reduced Subgrade Strength Method
Freezing winter temperatures followed by a spring warm-up
period and thawing may create conditions responsible for a sig-
nificant loss of strength (stiffness) in base and subgrade layers.
During the critical thaw period, loads must be reduced from
those normally allowed, or the pavement structure must be
designed so as to support these loads. The use of seasonal load
limits is not acceptable for some important roads or airfields.
The reduced subgrade strength method recognizes that for
broad classes of base and soil materials, there are minimum val-
ues that can serve as a lower bound. For most of the year, the
soil will be much stronger. The method can be used for both
flexible and rigid pavements wherever the subgrade is reason-
ably uniform or can be made reasonably uniform using appro-
priate subgrade preparation. When a thickness determined by
the reduced subgrade strength method exceeds that determined
for the limited subgrade frost penetration method, the smaller
design can be used, provided that it is at least equal to the thick-
ness required for nonfrost conditions. This design procedure
usually requires less pavement thickness as compared with the
limited subgrade frost penetration method (Departments of
the Army and Air Force USA 1985).
For flexible pavement design and conditions that do not
involve frost action, either the California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
design procedure or the resilient modulus based elastic layer
method (Departments of the Army and Air Force USA 1987)
are suitable. The elastic layer method, described under the
mechanistic model, is still under development and includes
285
TABLE 11-1 Thawed Subgrade Soil Support Indices for
Flexible Pavement Design
Soil frost groupa Soil support index
F1, S1 9.0
F2, S2 6.5
F3, F4 3.5
a
See Fig. 2-14 and Table 2-7.
Source: After Departments of the Army and Air Force USA 1985.
seasonal frost effects. This section will describe how seasonal
frost effects are included in the CBR design procedures used for
nonfrost areas.
Three soil groups (Table 11-1), based on their frost suscepti-
bility classification, are used for the CBR design procedure. Soil
support index values are used as if they were CBR values that
these soils would be expected to retain in service during the
spring thaw. They represent weighted average values for an
annual cycle and are approximately 10 to 15 percent of CBR
values for the no-freeze condition. When the reduced subgrade
strength method is used for F4 subgrade soils (Table 2-7), rig-
orous control of subgrade preparation must be required so as
to minimize significant differential heaving and cracking of the
surface layer.
For rigid pavements and frost conditions, design procedures
of the Departments of the Army and Air Force allow use of
either the older modulus of reaction method (Departments of
the Army and Air Force USA 1977) or the elastic layered
method (Departments of the Army and Air Force USA 1987).
As for flexible pavements, the elastic layered method has not
been approved for frost conditions. For rigid pavements and
frost conditions, the design criteria use the modulus of reaction
(k) as a measure of the support provided by the subgrade.
Because the base thickness affects the subgrade modulus, this is
accounted for in Fig. 11-5 as an input variable. A minimum
base thickness of 4 in. (100 mm) is specified to ensure adequate
protection for marginal conditions and to provide needed
drainage. This base layer must meet the requirements for free-
draining materials as well as filter criteria.
AASHTO Guidelines
Frost heave is treated in terms of the differential effects on the
longitudinal profile of the road surface (AASHTO 1993a). If
experience indicates that frost heave will occur (relatively) uni-
formly along the length of the roadway with little effect on road
roughness and loss of serviceability, this model should be
applied. This design model should also be applied if it is antici-
pated that an improved drainage system and/or use of frost
control procedures (e.g., placement of non-frost-susceptible
material) will eliminate the potential for frost heaving. For the
latter case, the frost heave rate must be low or approach zero.
AASHTO (1993a) allows considerable latitude for each design
agency to use local experience with soil types in their design for
frost heave prevention.
286 FROZEN GROUND ENGINEERING
FIGURE 11-5 Frost-area index of reaction for highway pave-
ment design.
Source: Reproduced from Departments of the Army and Air Force USA 1985.
Frost heave rate defines the increase in frost heave roughness
(mm per day), which depends on the type of roadbed material
and its content of fine-grained material. AASHTO (1993a) uses
the frost susceptibility chart (Fig. 2-14) to estimate the rate of
heave. The maximum potential serviceability loss due to frost
heave depends on the quality of drainage and the depth of frost
penetration. The distinction between levels of drainage quality
(Table 11-2) is left to the engineer to identify for each project.
The maximum potential serviceability loss due to heave
depends on the drainage quality and frost depth penetration
(Fig. 11-6). The relationships in Fig. 11-6 may also be used to
identify the quality of drainage (or thickness of non-frost-sus-
ceptible material) needed to control the maximum serviceabil-
ity loss. Note that the graph represents more of a qualitative
than quantitative relationship between the three factors.
Frost heave probability is based on the engineer’s estimate of
the percentage of the project area that will experience frost
heave. Past experience along with information on the frost sus-
ceptibility of roadbed materials, drainage quality, number of
freeze-thaw cycles during the year, and frost depth penetration
should be considered. With the three frost factors (frost heave
rate, drainage, and frost depth) defined, the serviceability loss
can be obtained from Fig. 11-7. The time t used with Fig. 11-7
should equal the analysis period. The frost heave serviceability
loss PSIPH should be combined with swelling serviceability loss
PSISW (if applicable) to give a curve for total cumulative envi-
ronmental serviceability loss PSISW,PH versus time (Fig. 11-8).
TABLE 11-2 Drainage Quality Factors
Drainage quality Water removed within
Excellent 1/2 day
Good 1 day
Fair 1 week
Poor 1 month
Very poor (Never removed)
Source: AASHTO 1993a.
This curve is used as a component in the AASHTO (1993a)
design procedure for pavement structures.
Base Course Composition
A base course is the layer or material below the pavement wear-
ing surface, and the subbase is the layer of material between the
base and subgrade. Base courses are constructed of stone frag-
ments, slag, soil-aggregate mixtures, or granular materials and
may be treated with asphalt, Portland cement, lime, or lime-
cement-flyash (LCF) additives. For asphalt pavements, the base
course lies close to the surface; hence, it must posses high resis-
tance to deformation to withstand the high pressures imposed
on it. A subbase can be of lower quality. Base courses are used
under rigid pavements to (1) prevent pumping, (2) protect
against frost action, (3) provide drainage, (4) increase struc-
tural capacity, and (5) expedite construction. Under asphalt
concrete pavements, base courses and subbases provide added
stiffness and resistance to fatigue, as well as relatively thick lay-
ers to distribute load through a finite thickness of materials.
For both flexible and rigid pavement structures under which
subgrade freezing will occur, unbound base materials must be
free draining. Base materials bound with some type of cement-
ing material are a special topic and are not considered in this
introduction. Gradations for free-draining, rapid-draining,
and open-graded base materials are given in Table 11-3. The
open-graded base is desirable when the pavement is permeable,
or where large runoff quantities occur (a spring melt of snow
banks along pavement sides). The bottom 4 in. (100 mm) of a
granular base is designated as free draining and non-frost-sus-
ceptible. This granular material should be designed as a filter
between the subgrade soil and overlying base course material.
The intent is to prevent subgrade soil from working up into
coarse overlying material under the kneading action of traffic
during the frost melting period. Gravelly sand or sand (frost
group S1 or S2, Table 2-7) processed to a proper gradation is
most commonly used as filter material. The following criteria
(U.S. Army 1979) will provide the desired gradation:
D15(filter)/D15 (subsoil) £ 5 (11.1-3)
D15(filter)/D85 (subsoil) ≥ 5 (11.1-4)
The filter requirement can also be satisfied using a filter cloth
manufactured from nylon, polyester, or polypropylene, accord-
ing to specified characteristics.
 PAVEMENT STRUCTURES 287

FIGURE 11-6 Graph for estimating maximum serviceability loss due to frost penetration
and drainage quality.
Source: Reproduced with permission from AASHTO 1993a. Copyright 1993 American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials.

Subgrade Preparation
TABLE 11-3 Gradations for Free-Draining, Rapid-Draining, and
To minimize differential frost heave, subgrades in which freez- Open-Graded Base Materials
ing will occur must be prepared so as to achieve a high degree Percentage passing U.S. Standard Sieve
of uniformity of soil conditions. In fill sections, the least frost-
Sieve size Free-draining Rapid-draining Open-graded
susceptible soils are to be placed in the upper portion of the
subgrade by temporarily stockpiling the better materials, cross (1) (2) (3) (4)
hauling, and selective grading. If the upper layers of fill contain 37.5 mm (1.5 in.) 70–100 100 100
frost-susceptible soils, the completed section must be subjected 25 mm (1 in.) 45–80 70–100 100
to the subgrade preparation procedures required for cut sec- 19 mm (3/4 in.) 55–100 90–100
tions. In cut sections, the subgrade must be scarified and exca- 13 mm (1/2 in.) 60 40–80 40–80
vated to a prescribed depth, then the excavated materials must
9.5 mm (3/8 in.) 30–65 30–50
be windrowed and bladed successively until thoroughly
blended, relaid, and compacted. Stones exposed during sub- 4.8 mm (No. 4) 20–50 10–50 0–5
grade preparation, larger than 6 in. (150 mm), should be 2.4 mm (No. 8) 0–25 0–2
removed to the full depth to which subgrade preparation is 2.0 mm (No. 10) 16–40
required. The depth of subgrade preparation (Departments of 1.2 mm (No. 16) 0–5
the Army and Air Force USA 1985), measured downward from 0.42 mm (No. 40) 5–25
the top of the subgrade, shall be the lesser of (1) 24 in. (60
0.15 mm (No. 100) 0–10
mm); (2) two-thirds of the frost penetration given by Fig. 11-4,
less the actual combined thickness of the surface layer, base, 0.075 mm (No. 200) 0–2
and subbase courses; or (3) 72 in. (1.8 m), less the actual com- Note: Empty cells mean not applicable.
bined thickness of the surface layer, base, and subbase. The pre- Sources: Allen 1991; U.S. Army 1989.
pared subgrade must meet applicable compaction require-
288 FROZEN GROUND ENGINEERING

FIGURE 11-7 Chart for estimating serviceability loss due to frost heave.
Notes: Nomograph solves: DPSIFM = 0.01 · PF · DPSIMAX[1 – e–(02 × f·t)]. Example: t = 15 years; f = 5 mm/day; P = 30%; and PSIMAX = 2.0.
Solution: DPSIFH = 0.47.
Source: Reproduced with permission from AASHTO 1993a. Copyright 1993 American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials.

ments (Departments of the Army and Air Force USA 1978),
which can vary, depending on soil type and traffic types.
Exceptions to the basic requirements for subgrade prepara-
tion (Departments of the Army and Air Force USA 1985)
include subgrades (1) known to be non-frost-susceptible to the
depth prescribed for subgrade preparation and (2) known to
contain no frost-susceptible layers or lenses. No preparation for
control of frost heaving is needed for this case. Exception (2)
includes fine-grained subgrades containing moisture well in
excess of the optimum for compaction, with no feasible means
of drainage. When these fine-grained subgrades exist at the site,
frost protection can be achieved with non-frost-susceptible fill
material. The grade can be raised by an amount equal to the
depth of subgrade preparation or by undercutting and replac-
ing the wet, fine-grained subgrade to the same depth with non-
frost-susceptible material. To prevent boulder heaves from
damaging the pavement, all stones larger than 150 mm (6 in.)
should be removed from the subgrade materials to the depth
that may experience freezing. At transitions from cut to fill,
abrupt changes in soil conditions must not be permitted
(Departments of the Army and Air Force USA 1985). The sub-
grade in cut sections should be removed and backfilled with
material, as is shown in Fig. 11-9.
Drains, culverts, or utility ducts placed below the pavement
structure on frost-susceptible subgrades frequently experience
differental heaving. When possible, the placement of these
facilities beneath pavements should be avoided. The practice of
constructing the pavement structure followed by excavating
through the base and subbase to place drains, culverts, and the
like creates a discontinuity. It is very difficult to compact mate-
 PAVEMENT STRUCTURES
FIGURE 11-8 An example of cumulative serviceability loss due to frost heave and
swelling for a specific location.
Source: Reproduced with permission from AASHTO 1993a. Copyright 1993 American Association of 9.1 and 11.5, respectively. Two principal con-
State Highway and Transportation Officials.
FIGURE 11-9 Tapered transition used where embankment material differs from
natural subgrade soils in cut.
Source: Reproduced from Departments of the Army and Air Force USA 1985.
rials in a trench to the same degree as the adjacent materials.
Fine-grained soils incorporated into the materials during the
process of excavation and backfilling during trench construc-
tion will worsen the frost heave. These problems can be avoided
or minimized using the “correct” method shown in Fig. 11-10
for drains. Details shown for culverts and ducts in Fig. 11-11
will help avoid differential heaving. All drains or similar fea-
tures should be placed first and the base and subbase materials
289
constructed over them with no break. This
procedure will give maximum uniformity
for structural support and will reduce the
potential for differential heave.
A poor experience record with combina-
tion drains intercepting both surface and
subsurface water (Departments of the Army
and Air Force USA 1985) indicates that filter
material should not be continuous to the
surface, as is shown in the “incorrect” col-
umn of Fig. 11-10. This detail allows winter
thaw water accumulating at the pavement
edge to drain into the base course. In addi-
tion, the filter is a poor surface layer and is
subject to clogging. More space between the
drain and the pavement allows for easier
repair. A geotextile filter between the adja-
cent soil and granular filter materials (Fig.
11-10) will prevent movement of fine mate-
rials into the filter.
11.2 Permafrost Areas
In permafrost areas, design considerations
for pavement structures include frost action
(heave and thaw weakening), permafrost
degradation (thaw settlement), drainage
(including icings), and thermal contraction
cracking (pavements and earth materials).
The latter two items are discussed in sections
cepts important in the design and construc-
tion of pavement structures on permafrost
include (1) the “active” approach, where
preservation of permafrost is not possible or
practicable and the consequences are allowed
for in design; and (2) the “passive” approach,
where the roadbed is constructed with the
intent of preserving the permafrost. Both
approaches may be employed on any appre-
ciable length of highway crossing highly vari-
able terrain. The design must be based on the
optimum utilization of available materials,
with consideration given to their construc-
tion quality and the cost of alternate sources.
Most highways in Canadian permafrost areas
have a gravel surface (Argue et al. 1981). It is
usual practice to wait several years after con-
struction of the main gravel-surfaced embankment before plac-
ing a pavement, so that major changes in the ground thermal
regime, settlement, and heave have time to occur.
Thaw Protection
Construction of an unsurfaced road causes a radical change in
the heat exchange at the ground surface and consequently in
290 FROZEN GROUND ENGINEERING

FIGURE 11-10 Subdrain details for cold regions.

Source: Reproduced from Department of the Army and Air Force USA 1985.

FIGURE 11-11 Transitions for culverts beneath pavements.

Source: Reproduced from Departments of the Army and Air Force USA 1985.
 PAVEMENT STRUCTURES
the previously existing ground thermal regime (Berg and
Quinn 1977). In winter, the road embankment and ground
below are generally cooler than the adjacent snow-covered
natural ground, because the snow cover is usually removed or
compacted by traffic. Its insulating effect is therefore lost or
greatly reduced. The snow removed is usually deposited on the
side slopes to a greater depth than on nearby undisturbed ter-
rain. This snow provides greater insulation and may cause a
somewhat warmer ground thermal regime under the side
slopes as compared with the road and adjacent undisturbed
terrain. This leads to embankment instability and longitudinal
cracking of the roadway surface as a result of thaw and consol-
idation at the toe of the slope (Fig. 9-25). Designs for uninsu-
lated and insulated highway embankments on permafrost are
illustrated in Fig. 9-5. Information on insulation design
requirements and construction methods is presented in Sec-
tion 11.3.
In deep, ice-rich permafrost, the only satisfactory long-term
solution is the “passive” approach. For the uninsulated case,
this is done by placing a layer of non-frost-susceptible material
over the permafrost to a depth sufficient to retain the active
zone within the overlay. In cold permafrost areas (mean ground
temperature close to –11 °C), a non-frost-susceptible gravel or
sand layer thickness of about 1.5 m is usually adequate to pre-
vent thawing of the underlying permafrost (Berg and Quinn
1977). Computational methods for estimating the thaw depth
of frozen ground are described in Section 3.2, and frost pene-
tration depths in terms of the air freezing index for common
pavement structures are given in Fig. 11-4. Hennion and
Lobacz (1973) used the Berggren analysis method to develop
the graphical solutions for thaw depth in pavement structures
presented in Fig. 11-12. The input includes pavement type, air-
thawing index, soil data, and the average wind velocity. The
thawing index is modified by an n-factor to adjust for the
amount of solar energy absorbed by the surface material. The
n-factor is about 2.0 for asphalt concrete and about 1.5 for
Portland cement concrete. When the pavement is surfaced with
FIGURE 11-12 Relationship between air-thawing index and
thaw depth in granular soil beneath pavements.
Source: Reproduced with permission from Hennion and Lobacz 1973. Copy-
right 1973 National Academies Press.
291
materials of high albedo (high reflectivity to solar radiation),
the n-factor for asphalt concrete is reduced to about 1.5. With
this technique, the surface material (white paint) will wear off
under heavy traffic and painted areas may have a lower coeffi-
cient of friction.
■ EXAMPLE 11.2-1: Site conditions include an air-thaw index
of 555 °C · days and an average wind velocity of 2.4 + m/s.
Determine the thaw depth below an asphalt concrete pavement
placed on granular soils with a density of 2.16 Mg/m3 at a water
content close to 7%.
Solution: Using Fig. 11-12, enter the chart with the air-thaw
index of 555 °C · days. Move horizontally to the line (asphalt
concrete) representing a wind velocity of 2.4+ m/s. Next drop
vertically to the granular soil line corresponding to a density of
2.16 Mg/m3 with a water content of 7%. Now move horizon-
tally to the left and read a thaw depth close to 2.3 m.
Comment: The chart provides a quick estimate of thaw
depth. More accurate values can be computed using methods
described in Section 3.2.
Reduced Subgrade Strength Method
Over warm and discontinuous permafrost, it is appropriate to
design pavement structures on the basis of reduced subgrade
strength in the active layer. The limited subgrade thaw penetra-
tion is not practical because it results in excessive thickness
requirements. Thickness of the pavement and non-frost-sus-
ceptible base are determined using thawed soil support index
values in the same manner as for seasonal frost (Section 11.1).
Large differential surface movements are to be anticipated
because the design thickness will not prevent seasonal frost
heave or degradation. The amount, type, and distribution of ice
in the thaw zone resulting from construction serves as an indi-
cator of problem areas. Possible solutions include excavation
prior to construction and replacement with non-frost-suscepti-
ble materials. If ground ice is not abundant and the soil is rea-
sonably uniform, an acceptable solution may involve pavement
construction with a plan for resurfacing after pavement distor-
tions have stabilized. Placement of a pavement will change the
surface albedo and also the thermal regime. Experience (Argue
et al. 1981) has shown that renewed permafrost degradation
will then occur. Additional fill or insulation can be used to
ensure satisfactory performance of the pavement.
Unsurfaced Roads
Unsurfaced roads provide a more economical use of resources
for the low traffic frequency common to permafrost areas.
These roads are unsurfaced in that they do not have an upper
layer of asphalt or Portland cement concrete. The upper surface
material is typically an unbound gravel or crushed rock (Crory
1991). Roads on permafrost are constructed by advancing the
fill, by end dumping directly on the tundra (in tundra-covered
areas), or by burying the organic mat that serves as an insulat-
ing layer (Crory 1991). Care is taken not to further disturb this
vegetative subgrade or the vegetation on the sides of the road.
292 FROZEN GROUND ENGINEERING
Cut sections or ditches are avoided whenever possible (see Sec-
tion 9.1). Roads may be constructed in the winter or summer;
however, all equipment is required to work from the new
embankment. Although oversized material and quarried mate-
rial may be used in the base, the top course is usually select
material that can be readily graded and compacted. Most road-
ways experience substantial settlements during construction
and subsequent summers, requiring regrading and occasionally
additional gravel.
An unsurfaced road is designed to have a thickness of non-
frost-susceptible materials (1 to 2 m) which will limit the depth
of thaw to acceptable levels and alleviate problems caused by
thawing of permafrost (Nixon 1979). The elevated road surface
will minimize snow accumulation and removal problems in the
winter. Fills are commonly used to build up low spots in order
to maintain a minimum thickness, without cuts on adjacent
higher ground. If thawing is permitted to the bottom of the
gravel fill, the design thickness should be based on the reduced
subgrade strength. Aggregate surfaces may develop a “wash-
board” or “corrugated” surface at locations where vehicles
must apply extra torque to climb a grade or to brake. If water is
allowed to stand on the surface, traffic will splash this water
away, along with fines in the surface layer. Replacement of the
fines and grading are required to prevent formation of larger
potholes. In dry weather, dust raised by vehicles can be con-
trolled by surface treatments. Guidance for the selection of
materials for the surface course is provided by the gradations
given in Table 11-4.
Depending on subsoil and ground ice conditions, thawing
will result in differential settlements. These differential settle-
ments tend to reduce with time as the depths of seasonal
freezing and thawing stabilize after a number of years. Long-
term problems tend to persist due to frost action in the active
layer and deepening of the active layer in the discontinuous
permafrost zone. These effects result in costly annual highway
maintenance programs. Depending on the proximity to a bor-
row source, gravel availability access, magnitude of the
project, and other economic factors, the use of insulation
(Sections 9.1 and 11.3) provides an alternative to the use of
thicker embankments.
TABLE 11-4 Recommended Gradation of Soil Aggregates for
Surface Courses
Percentage passing U.S. Standard Sieve
gradation
Sieve size C D E F
50 mm (1 in.) 100 100 100 100
25 mm (3/8 in.) 50–85 60–100
9.5 mm (No. 4) 35–65 50–85 55–100 70–100
2.00 mm (No. 10) 25–50 40–70 40–100 55–100
0.43 mm (No. 40) 15–30 25–45 20–50 30–70
0.075 mm (No. 200) 5–15 5–20 6–20 8–25
Note: Empty cells mean not applicable.
Source: AASHTO 1993b.
11.3 Highway Insulation
An insulated pavement system comprises conventional surface
and base layers above an insulating material of suitable thickness
used to restrict or prevent the advance of freezing temperatures
into a frost-susceptible subgrade. Depending on proximity to a
borrow source, gravel availability, access, magnitude of the
project, and other economic factors, the use of insulation pro-
vides an alternative to the use of thicker embankments. The
design of insulated pavements requires consideration of both
thermal and structural factors. An additional layer of granular
material can be placed between the insulation and the subgrade
to contain a portion of the frost zone. Design involves determi-
nation of the minimum thickness of pavement and base
required above the relatively weak insulation for the distribution
of surface traffic loads and the required insulation thickness.
Construction methods involving insulation utilize conventional
road-building equipment and placement techniques. The differ-
ential icing phenomenon—which may occur over both conven-
tional and insulated highways—is described in this section. A
discussion of the use of insulation to minimize or alleviate dif-
ferential heaving at a culvert or other drainage structures cross-
ing the roadway pavement completes the section.
Design Requirements
Insulation materials used for roads and airfields should not
absorb water in quantities that change its thermal and mechan-
ical properties significantly over the required service life. Labo-
ratory and field tests (Departments of the Army and Air Force
USA 1985) have shown that extruded polystyrene meets these
conditions. The thickness of pavement and base materials
above the insulation must be sufficient to reduce loads on the
insulation to not more than one-third the compressive strength
of the insulating material (Departments of the Army and Air
Force USA 1985). A stress analysis may be carried out once the
design wheel loading characteristics have been established.
Nixon (1979) reported that it is usually sufficient to calculate
the elastic stress distribution beneath the wheel load using the
Boussinesq theory. The wheel loading is replaced by a circular
flexible loading and the stress distribution with depth calcu-
lated. On the basis of the theoretical vertical stress increment
induced by a circular load intensity (p), the required thickness
of pavement and base (Z) to limit stress in the insulation to sa
(Nixon 1979) is
1
Ï ÊW ˆ ¸2
Ô Ô
ÁË pp ˜¯
Z = ÔÌ - 23
Ô
˝ (11.3-1)
Ô È1 - Ê sa ˆ ˘ - 1 Ô
Ô Í ÁË p ˜¯ ˙ Ô
ÓÎ ˚ ˛
where p is tire inflation pressure, W is design wheel load, and sa
is the allowable pressure for a specified insulation type and
number of vehicle passes. An example of the required depth of
cover as a function of wheel load and tire pressure, assuming
that the allowable stress in the insulation is 200 or 120 kPa, is
 PAVEMENT STRUCTURES 293

shown in Fig. 11-13. Insulation types with different compres-

sive strengths are listed in Table 3-9.
The design freezing index has been defined in Section 3.1.
For paved surfaces kept free from snow and ice, an n-factor of
0.75 is recommended (Departments of the Army and Air Force
USA 1985). The surface temperature amplitude As is obtained
from Fig. 11-14 using the freezing index and the mean annual
soil temperature. Compute vo = (mean annual soil tempera-
ture) – 32 °F. Using the ratio vo /As and the thickness of pave-
ment and base, obtain from Fig. 11-15 the thickness of
extruded polystyrene insulation needed to prevent subgrade
freezing. If the required thickness is less than about 2 to 3 in., it
usually will be economical to adopt for design the thickness
given by Fig. 11-15 and to place the insulation directly on the
subgrade. If more than 2 to 3 in. of insulation are required; it
usually will be economical to use a lesser thickness of insulation
underlain by subbase material (S1 or S2 soil, Table 2-7). Esch
(1996) noted that insulation should never be placed directly on
the permafrost surface. Alternative combinations of insulation
thickness and granular material (base and subbase) to com-
pletely contain the zone of freezing can be determined from
Fig. 11-16. The thickness of subbase needed to contain the zone
of freezing is the total depth of frost penetration less the total
thickness of pavement, base, and insulation.
FIGURE 11-13 Granular cover requirements for protection of
insulation under different wheel loads
Construction Method Source: Reproduced with permission from Nixon 1979. Copyright 1979 Cana-
dian Geotechnical Journal.
Insulated pavement construction can utilize conventional road-
building equipment and techniques. The subgrade should be
shaped and compacted in accordance with normal specifica-

FIGURE 11-14 Equivalent sinusoidal surface temperature amplitude A and initial temperature differ-
ence vo.
Source: Reproduced from Departments of the Army and Air Force USA 1985.
294 FROZEN GROUND ENGINEERING
FIGURE 11-15 Thickness of extruded polystyrene insulation to
prevent freezing.
Notes: Design curves based on the following properties: pavement, same ther-
mal properties as upper base; base, gd = 135 pcf and w = 7%; extruded polysty-
rene insulation, gd = 2.0 pcf and k = 0.21 Btu in./ft2 · hr · °F.
Source: Reproduced from Departments of the Army and Air Force USA 1985.
tions prior to placement of insulation. On this subgrade sur-
face, insulation boards with the desired thickness are placed in
a staggered fashion, with the long axis parallel to the road cen-
terline. To keep fill below the insulation layer as dry as possible,
a slight crown is built in and the insulation is covered with an
impermeable membrane. Where needed (e.g., wind blow-off
problem) these boards are pinned to the underlying soil with
wooden skewers (150 mm long by 6 mm diameter). In cases
where wooden skewers cannot penetrate to pin down the insu-
lation to an underlying frozen subbase, steel spikes of the same
length can be used. The thermal short created by the spikes will
cause no appreciable thawing in the subbase. Over an old pave-
ment, the insulation boards can be stuck down with an asphalt
emulsion tack coat. The first row of boards is aligned down the
road centerline using a stringline. The placement of boards
progresses from the center out and extends 1.2 m into the
shoulder. It is important to obtain tight joints and to stagger all
transverse joints.
When going from an insulated to an uninsulated pavement
section, a transition zone is required to provide a gradual
change in subgrade thermal properties. This zone consists of a
step-down pattern of insulation thicknesses to allow subgrade
heat loss at each end of the insulated section. The insulation
thickness reduction in these zones should be 25 mm, and each
step-down is carried for about 5 m. For illustration, an insu-
lated pavement employing a 75-mm-thick layer would have
two insulation step-downs in each of its transition zones. The
insulation would be reduced to 50 mm over the first 5 m, and
then to 25 mm for the next 5 m.
For flexible pavement sections, the insulation is covered by
end dumping, spreading, and compacting granular material to
a thickness of 150 to 200 mm. Coarse aggregates cause no
appreciable damage to the high-strength insulation surface.
When granular material is compacted to the required density,
subsequent lifts of granular materials and asphalt concrete can
be placed in the normal manner. Care should be taken to pre-
vent vehicles and heavy equipment from bearing directly on the
insulation because damage can result. For rigid pavement sec-
tions, concrete slabs can be poured directly on the insulation.
To reduce the probability of surface icing, a base course is often
placed on top of the insulation before the concrete slab is
poured. The phenomenon of surface icing is described in the
next section.
In some cases, old roads that have been seriously damaged
by frost action can be reconstructed, as is illustrated in Fig.
11-17. An insulated flexible or rigid overlay is more economi-
cal than an entirely new pavement. In some cases, the appro-
priate thickness of insulation can be placed directly onto the
existing pavement and kept in place either by adhesive bond-
ing to the pavement or placement of granular material on the
insulation boards immediately after installation. Insulation
will limit the excavation depth and prevent future frost
problems.
Differential Icing
When fall air temperatures drop below freezing, heat move-
ment toward the surface over insulated pavement sections is
reduced as compared with adjacent uninsulated pavement sec-
tions. This reduction in air temperatures, in combination with
high humidity and low wind velocities, can lead to ice forma-
tion along with hoarfrost on the pavement surface. This phe-
nomenon is called differential icing and can present an
extremely hazardous road condition. This icing condition will
also occur over conventional pavements with no insulation,
bridges, or overpasses for certain meteorological conditions
and thermal properties of the highway section. No practical
basis has been established by which quantitative frequency pre-
dictions can be made.
The difference in total time of below-freezing surface tem-
peratures between insulated and uninsulated pavements is
proportional to the depth and thickness of insulation. Placing
the insulation at a greater depth will allow for a thicker cover
to act as a heat sink above the insulation (Dow Chemial Com-
pany, 2003). The Alaska Department of Transportation and
Public Facilities uses a minimum burial depth of 900 mm for
roadways and avoids the use of insulation around sharp curves
or steep grades (Esch 1996). Placement of thinner insulation
layers will allow more heat movement through the insulation
during critical periods (Dow Chemical Company, 2003). Sev-
eral pavement structures in Fig. 11-18 illustrate their suscepti-
bility to the occurrence of icing. Other design considerations
should include continuing insulated pavement sections at rail-
road crossings or at intersections and at the top of a hill. Tran-
sitions in insulation thickness at starting and stopping points
may be required to avoid abrupt heaves in the uninsulated
pavement.
 PAVEMENT STRUCTURES 295

FIGURE 11-16 Effect of thickness of insulation and base on frost penetration: (a) 9-in. base course; (b) 21-in. base course;
(c) 33-in. base course; (d) 45-in. base course.
Notes: Pavement: 3 in. asphalt concrete.
Base course: gd = 135 pcf and w = 5%.
Insulation: Extruded polystyrene, gd = 2 pcf and k = 0.21 Btu in./ft2 · hr · °F (0.0303 W/m · K).
Underlying granular material: solid lines, gd = 115 pcf and w = 12%; dashed lines, gd = 135 pcf and w = 5%.
Surface transfer coefficient = 0.75.
Source: Reproduced from Departments of the Army and Air Force USA 1985.
296 FROZEN GROUND ENGINEERING

FIGURE 11-17 Steps 1 to 8 in pavement reconstruction process, in which insulation is used to prevent subgrade freezing.
Source: Reproduced with permission from Refsdal 1976. Copyright 1976 Norwegian Public Roads Administration/NTNF.

FIGURE 11-18 Ranking of several road pavements as to their susceptibility to icing conditions.
Source: Reproduced with permission from Refsdal 1976. Copyright 1976 Norwegian Public Roads Administration/NTNF.

Culverts
Culverts placed under pavements on frost-susceptible sub-
grades frequently experience differential heaving (Fig. 11-19).
Cold air blowing through a culvert during the winter season
will freeze soil next to a culvert. Differential heave at the pave-
ment surface can occur in two ways. Water flow will introduce
heat, thereby preventing soil freezing below the culvert. This
will reduce the surface heave directly above the culvert, as is
shown in Fig. 11-20. A dry culvert will allow greater frost pene-
tration, resulting in a larger differential heave (bump) at the
pavement surface (Fig. 11-20). Differential heave at a culvert, or
any other drainage structure crossing the roadway, can be min-
imized or alleviated by use of non-frost-susceptible granular
materials, as is illustrated in Fig. 11-21. The thickness of the
granular frost protection layers (hf ) is defined in Table 11-5 in
FIGURE 11-19 Frost heave at a culvert.
terms of the culvert diameter (d) and the maximum frost depth
Source: Courtesy of E. J. Chamberlain, U.S. Army, Cold Regions Research and
(h10) every ten years. Engineering Laboratory.
Where insufficient cover is available to prevent the freezing
of frost-susceptible soils, insulation can be used to limit frost
penetration, as is shown in Fig. 11-21. Insulation board dimen- culvert and the heaving forces can vary depending on the
sions (b1 or b2) are defined on Fig. 11-21 in terms of the culvert geometry, soil types, hydraulic conditions, and the local micro-
diameter (d), granular frost protection layer (hf ), and the sand climatological conditions.
bedding thickness above (h1) and below (h2) the culvert. Board Differential frost heave may occur irrespective of whether
thickness must be sufficient to limit frost penetration for the the culverts are water bearing or dry during the winter. Tapered
local design freezing index. Frost penetration outward from a transition zones should be provided, as is specified in Fig.
 PAVEMENT STRUCTURES 297

FIGURE 11-20 Differential frost heave caused by culverts: (a)

water bearing culvert in winter period; (b) Dry culvert in the
winter period.
Source: Reproduced with permission from Pedersen 1976. Copyright 1976 Nor-
wegian Public Roads Administration/NTNF.

TABLE 11-5 Required Frost Protection Layer for Culverts

Inner diameter or FIGURE 11-21 Frost protection of culvert inlets and outlets.
maximum height Thickness of granular Source: Reproduced from Road Construction 1980.
(width), m · hf frost protection layer Comments
Culverts
d < 0.1 m hf = 0 11.4 Load Restrictions
0.5 £ d £ 1.0 hf = (0.3) d · h10 h10 = maximum frost
depth every 10 winters Pavement structures, subject to moderate or severe seasonal
1.0 < d hf = (0.3 + 0.1d)h10 freezing, can be susceptible to heaving during freezing and
Underpass weakening during the spring thaw. With limited drainage and
the presence of water in amounts greater than assumed for
d hf = (0.3 + 0.1d)h100
design, loss of strength (or stiffness) may occur in the base and
Source: Road Construction, 1980 Public Roads Administration, Oslo, Norway. subgrade layers, allowing damage unless vehicle loads are
reduced. Load restrictions during this critical period are used
to maintain the design life and general serviceability of the
pavement structure. Mahoney, Rutherford, and Hicks (1986)
11-22. Sand/gravel or insulation boards may be used to create reported that load restrictions are normally applied to asphalt
the transition zones. Insulation board thickness should be concrete and/or aggregate surfaced roads. Most Portland
reduced in steps down to 20 mm. Nordal and Refsdal (1989) cement concrete pavements reportedly have adequate structure
reported that a checkerboard pattern, leaving uncovered areas to withstand the critical thaw period. Four questions for the
in between the boards, has given unsatisfactory results. They engineer include: (1) Which pavements require load restric-
recommended a transition length of 10 to 20 m, depending on tions? (2) When should load restrictions be put in place? (3)
board thickness, on each side of the culvert. Sufficient pave- What magnitude of load reduction is needed? (4) How long
ment thickness should be provided to prevent possible differ- should load restrictions be in place? These questions are
ential icing above the insulation. addressed in the following pages.
298 FROZEN GROUND ENGINEERING

FIGURE 11-22 Precautions to reduce differential frost heave above culverts.

Notes: h10 = frost depth sand/gravel; T = back fill of original materials; hf , see table 11-5; and l =
10–20 m
Source: Reproduced with permission from Pedersen 1976. Copyright 1976 Norwegian Public Roads
Administration/NTNF.

FIGURE 11-23 Seasonal pavement surface deflections illustrating the large

decrease in strength (stiffness) during the spring thaw.
Source: Reproduced from Mahoney, Rutherford, and Hicks 1986.

Which Pavements
Site-specific conditions will determine whether load restric-
tions are needed. Pavement structures with non-frost-suscepti-
ble base and subgrade materials will not be susceptible to heav-
ing and thaw weakening. Methods defined in Section 2.4 can be
used to determine the frost susceptibility. These criteria will
also apply if the local frost depth does not penetrate into frost-
susceptible materials. Calculation of the frost depth based on
local weather conditions and pavement materials can be made
as described in Sections 3.1 and 3.2. An agency may use a pro-
cedure to reduce frost heave such as replacement or placing
frost-susceptible materials below the frost line. Site-specific
drainage, including the presence of a high water table and poor
drainage from side ditches, can be significant in assessing
whether frost action with thaw weakening will be a problem.
Water may infiltrate through a porous pavement or shoulder,
causing a loss in strength of the various pavement layers. A
pavement in a cold but dry location may not require load
restrictions.
Pavement surface deflections, which depend on the stiffness
of the base and subgrade materials, provide a measure of thaw
weakening. Mahoney, Rutherford, and Hicks (1986) reported
that surface deflections 45 to 50% higher during the spring
thaw as compared with summer values indicate a need for load
restrictions. Surface deflections can be measured with equip-
ment such as the Benkelman beam, Dynaflect, or the Falling
Weight Deflectometer (Rwebangira et al. 1987). Figure 11-23
shows a rapid increase in surface deflections during the spring
thaw followed by a return to summer values during the drain-
 PAVEMENT STRUCTURES 299

age of excess water. The pavement surface deflection criterion is

not absolute because a relatively “thin” (or “weak”) pavement
structure may have high summer deflections. Thus, an increase
in deflections less than 45 to 50% of summer values may indi-
cate the need for load restrictions. Local experience relating to
observed moisture movement through surface cracks (or
pumping) would also indicate a need for load restrictions.

When to Apply
Several criteria have been used for deciding when load restric-
tions are needed. Load restrictions should be applied when
spring thaw surface deflections are greater than 45 to 50% of
summer deflections (Mahoney, Rutherford, and Hicks 1986).
This approach has the disadvantage that pavement deflection
readings must be taken on site for the roads in question. The
increase in pavement deflections should begin to occur when
the thaw depth enters frost-susceptible materials. Several meth-
ods are available to show when this occurs. Temperature mea-
surements (McBane and Hanek 1986; Barcomb 1989), using
either thermocouples or thermistors embedded in the pave-
ment structure, will give the location of the 0 °C isotherm.
FIGURE 11-24 Thaw depth versus air thaw index for a thin
Temperature sensors and measuring equipment are described pavement structure on silty sand.
in Section 10.2. The frost tube (Rickard and Brown 1972; Notes: Asphalt concrete, w = 0%; rd = 2.2 Mg/m3; gravel, w = 4%; rd = 2.0 Mg/
Yesiller, Benson, and Bosscher 1996) provides an alternative to m3; and silty sand, w = 15%; rd = 1.75 Mg/m3.
temperature measurements for locating the frozen–unfrozen
interface. The Wisconsin frost tubes (Martinelli 1977) consisted
of a 38-mm-diameter outer tube permanently installed to act as TABLE 11-6 Material and Thermal Properties for Example
a sheath for an inner pipe. The clear 25-mm-diameter remov- 11.4-1
able inner pipe is the frost tube. The inner pipe, filled with a Property Asphalt Gravel Silty
mixture of coarse-grained material, water, and colored dye, concrete base sand
changes color on freezing and returns to its original color when Layer thickness, d (mm) 50 150
it thaws. Martinelli stated that color changes in the dye corre- Water content, w (%) 0 4 15
lated well with freezing of pore water in soils with no contami- 3
Dry density, rd (kg/m ) 2,200 2,000 1,750
nation adjacent to the frost tube. Again, on-site readings are
required to determine when thawing has reached a given depth. ku (W/m · °C) 2.1 2.2
A relatively inexpensive method uses the daily cumulative kf (W/m · °C) 1.9 3.05
air thawing index along with a plot of air thaw index versus Average thermal conductivity, kavg 1.4 2.0 2.6
thaw depth (Fig. 11-24). The thaw depth of 20 cm corresponds [(ku + kf )/2] (W/m · °C)
to an air thaw index of about 5 °C · days. Load restrictions cvu (MJ/m3 · °C) 1.76 2.34
would be needed at this point for the pavement structure cvf (MJ/m3 · °C) 1.59 1.80
shown in Fig. 11-24. This air thaw index versus depth curve has
Average volumetric heat capacity, cavg 1.87 1.67 2.07
been prepared for a specific pavement structure and location [(cvu + cvf )/2] (MJ/m3 · °C)
and is based on melting at 0 °C (32 °F). Methods described in
Volumetric latent heat, L (MJ/m3) 0 26.7 87.6
Section 3.2 are used to calculate the thaw depth in Example
11.4-1. Note: Empty cells mean not applicable.

■ EXAMPLE 11.4-1: Calculate values for the air thaw index

corresponding to thaw depths of 200, 400, 600, and 1,000 mm,
for the thin pavement structure illustrated in Fig. 11-24. Mate-
rial properties and temperature information are given in Table
11-6. Mean annual air temperature, Tm = 8.6 °C; thaw index, Iat
= 3,903 °C days with thaw period t = 258 days; and an average
wind velocity during the summer of 12 km/h.
Solution: For computation, the pavement structure and sub-
grade soils are divided into five layers, as is shown in Table 11-7.
Depths (Sd) are listed in row 4. Dry density (rd), average volu-
metric heat capacity (cavg), average thermal conductivity (kavg),
and volumetric latent heat (L) from Table 11-6 are listed in
rows 1 and 5–7 for each layer. The terms L and c– (rows 10 and
13) represent average values for each depth (Sd) of thaw pene-
tration. The thermal ratio a = vo /vs = 0.28, where vo = 8.6 °C =
Tm and vs = nt · Iat /t = 2(3,903 °C · days)/258 days = 30.2 °C. The
n-factor (nt = 2.0) is obtained from Figure 3-3. The fusion
parameter, m= c–/L, is calculated for each depth in Table 11-7,
row 14. The correction coefficient l (row 15) is obtained from
300 FROZEN GROUND ENGINEERING

TABLE 11-7 Calculations for Example 11.4-1 TABLE 11-8 Guidelines Showing When to Apply Load
Restrictions
Layer
Parameter 1 2 3 4 5 Pavement structure
(1) rd (Mg/m ) 3
2.20 2.0 1.75 1.75 1.75 Property Thin Thick
(2) w (%) 0 4 15 15 15 BST/asphalt concrete thickness 2 (50) More than
[inches (mm)] or less 2 (50)
(3) d (mm) 50 150 200 200 400
Base course thickness 6 (150) More than
(4) Sd (mm) 50 200 400 600 1,000
[inches (mm)] or less 6 (150)
(5) cavg (MJ/m3 · °C) 1.87 1.67 2.07 2.07 2.07
Thawing index [°F days (°C days)]
(6) kavg (W/m · °C) 1.40 2.0 2.60 2.60 2.60
Shoulda 10 (6) 25 (14)
(7) L (MJ/m3) 0 26.7 87.6 87.6 87.6
2 Mustb 40 (22) 50 (28)
(8) L · d (MJ/m ) 0 4.00 17.52 17.52 35.04
a
(9) SL · d (MJ/m2) 0 4.00 21.52 39.04 74.08 The “should” load restriction application corresponds with thaw to the bot-
3 tom of the base course.
(10) L (MJ/m ) 20.0 53.8 65.1 74.1 b
The “must” load restriction corresponds with thaw to approximately 4 inches
2
(11) c · d (MJ/m · °C) 0.0935 0.2505 0.4140 0.4140 0.8280 (100 mm) below the bottom of the base course.
Source: After Mahoney, Rutherford, and Hicks 1986.
(12) Sc · d (MJ/ m2 · °C) 0.0935 0.3440 0.7580 1.1720 2.0000
(13) c– (MJ/m2 · °C) 1.72 1.895 1.953 2.000
(14) m 2.60 1.07 0.91 0.82 Similar calculations by Mahoney et al. (1985) show the
(15) l 0.57 0.67 0.76 0.77 importance of using representative water contents and densities
(16) l2 0.33 0.45 0.58 0.59 in obtaining thermal properties for a given pavement structure.
2
(17) Rn (m · °C/W) 0.0357 0.0750 0.0769 0.0769 0.1538 Note that the calculation method used in Example 11.4-1 does
not account for thawing from below; hence, the computed
(18) SR (m2 · °C/W) 0 0.036 0.111 0.188 0.265
indices would not be representative for the lower portion of the
(19) SR + Rn /2 0.0179 0.0735 0.1495 0.2265 0.3419
frozen layer. General guidelines recommended by Mahoney,
(m2 · °C/W)
Rutherford, and Hicks (1986) as to when load restrictions
(20) nt · Iat (°C · days) 10.3 67.4 79.2 235.00 “should” (or “must”) be applied during the normal start of
(21) Snt · Iat (°C · days) 10.3 77.6 156.9 391.9 spring thawing (late February to April) for a –1.67 °C (29 °F)
(22) SIat (°C · days) 5.2 38.8 78.4 195.9 melting point and given range of pavement thickness are listed
Note: a = vo /vs ; m = vs c–/L; Rn = dn /kn ; nt = 2.0. Empty cells mean not applicable.
in Table 11-8. Yesiller, Benson, and Bosscher (1996) have
reported that, in some cases, frost tubes showed the start of
thawing as much as 2 months before application of the “must”
load restriction in Table 11-8.
Figure 3-6 using a and m for each depth. To compute the thaw
index required to penetrate to a depth X = (d1 + d2 + … + dn),
Magnitude of Load Reduction
rewrite Eq. (3.2-4) so that the partial index required to pene-
trate the nth layer is In a survey of current practice in the United States and Canada,
Mahoney, Rutherford, and Hicks (1986) reported that the min-
Ln dn Ê Rn ˆ imum load reduction level should be 20% of the design load
ni Iat = Á SR + ˜¯ (11.4-1)
l2 Ë 2 capacity. Load reductions greater than 60% were not warranted
on the basis of potential pavement damage. They also stated
where Rn = dn /kn is the thermal resistance of layer n, SR = (R1 + that a load reduction of 40 to 50% accommodates a wide range
R2 + … + Rn–1) is the total thermal resistance above the nth of pavement conditions. Pavement cross-sections to which load
layer, and other terms are as previously defined. Using Eq. restrictions were applied generally included asphalt concrete
(11.4-1), the surface thaw index (nt Iat ) for layer 3 (200 to 400 surfaces of 40 to 125 mm with aggregate bases of 100 to 450
mm depth) is mm. Their study (Mahoney, Rutherford, and Hicks 1986)
showed an approximate increase in pavement life with greater
17.52 ¥ 106 (J/m2 ) È 0.1459(s ◊ m2 ◊∞C/J) ˘ load reduction, as is summarized in Table 11-9. Pavement
nt Iat = Í ˙
0.45 Î 24 (hr/day ) 3, 600 (s/hr) ˚ response criteria used in developing the percentage load reduc-
= 67.5 ∞C ◊ days tions for complete thaw in Table 11-9 included maximum pave-
ment surface deflection, tensile strain in the pavement surface
A summation to the 400-mm depth gives Snt Iat = 67.4 + 10.3 = layer, base vertical strain, and subgrade vertical strain (Rwe-
77.6 °C · days, which represents the surface thaw index. Convert bangira et al. 1987). Mahoney, Rutherford, and Hicks (1986)
this value to the air thaw index, SIat = Snt Iat /nt = 77.6/2 = 38.8 cautioned that higher levels of load reduction are needed for
°C · days. Air thaw indices for all depths are summarized in row thin or generally weak pavement structures during the spring
22 of Table 11-7. thaw period to prevent significant damage.
 PAVEMENT STRUCTURES
TABLE 11-9 Load Reduction Correlation with Pavement Life
Increase
Load reduction (%)a Pavement life increase (%)
20 b 62
30 78
40 88
50 95
a
Thin or generally weak pavement structures may require higher levels of load
reduction to prevent significant damage during the spring thaw period.
b
Percentage reduction from design load capacity.
Source: After Mahoney, Rutherford, and Hicks 1986.
Duration of Load Restrictions
General practice by many highway agencies in the United States
and Canada approximates the end of load restrictions with
complete thawing (Mahoney, Rutherford, and Hicks 1986).
With the arrival of warmer air temperatures, thawing will pro-
ceed from the top downward and from the bottom upward.
During a sudden spring thaw, warm pavement temperatures
will cause melting almost entirely from the surface downward.
Extremely poor drainage conditions are associated with the lat-
ter case because frozen soil beneath the thawed layer will tem-
porarily trap water released by the melting ice. Only lateral and
surface drainage paths are available. Greater pavement damage
can occur during this period if no load restrictions are in place.
Thawing of ice will normally occur at 0 ∞C. If deicing materi-
als (CaCl, etc.) on the pavement surface enter the base and sub-
grade materials, the melting point of ice will be lowered (see Sec-
tion 2.3). Ice lenses would tend to prevent movement of these
solutions into the subgrade soils. Mahoney, Rutherford, and
Hicks (1986) assumed a melting temperature of –1.7 °C (29 °F)
and used this temperature in calculating the thawing index. The
larger thaw index would mean that complete thawing would
occur sooner. With more water from melting ice lenses, some
dilution of the deicing materials would occur and the melting
temperature would tend to return to 0 °C. The limiting condition
would correspond to a melting temperature of 0 °C , and the use
of this temperature would help ensure that load restrictions were
not removed too early. Mahoney, Ruthford, and Hicks (1986)
estimated the thaw index (Iat) corresponding to complete thaw-
ing in terms of the annual freezing index (Iaf ) as
Iat = 4.154 + 0.259 Iaf (11.4-2)
Yesiller, Benson, and Bosscher (1996) reported that the end of
thaw shown by frost tubes was up to a month earlier when com-
pared with the thawing index computed using Equation (11.4-2).
Methods for calculation of complete thawing (Section 3.2
and Example 11.4-1) do not apply because thawing from below
is not accounted for. Scrivner et al. (1969) have suggested that
drainage conditions in the pavement structure and hydraulic
conductivity of the subgrade determine the end of the critical
period. Surface deflection measurements will show when an
acceptable strength (or stiffness) has returned to the pavement
structure (Fig. 11-23). Again, this approach has the disadvan-
301
tage that deflection measurements must be taken on site for the
roads in question. Location of the thaw line, both top and bot-
tom of the frozen soil, can be determined using a frost tube
(Rickard and Brown 1972; Yesiller, Benson, and Bosscher 1996)
for soils with a thawing temperature at or close to 0 ∞C. Consid-
eration must be given to lower thaw temperatures when the
base and subgrade materials are contaminated by deicing mate-
rials used on the pavement surface.
11.5 Special Problems
Longitudinal and thermal cracking of pavement structures, use
of membrane-encapsulated soil layers for minimizing frost
action effects, and the presence of ice-rich permafrost under
highway or airport pavements require special design tech-
niques. These topics are addressed in this section.
Longitudinal Cracking
Longitudinal cracking of pavement structures over relatively
warm permafrost occurs in embankment fill sections (Fig. 9-
25). These cracks extend for relatively long distances parallel to
the traveled roadway centerline. They are indicative of progres-
sive degradation of permafrost under the pavement shoulders
(Esch 1988). Once begun, these cracks tend to widen, the slope
settles, and ultimately the embankment and pavement struc-
ture become unserviceable. Disturbance of the natural ground
cover and the changed albedo represented by the fill material
result in higher average temperatures beneath the side slopes.
For warm permafrost temperatures, the increase will be enough
to initiate thawing (Esch 1988). To compound the problem,
snow removed from the roadway during the winter ends up on
the sideslope, producing a thicker insulating layer over the side-
slope and toe of the embankment. Cold winter air is prevented
from cooling and reinforcing the permafrost under this portion
of the embankment.
For ice-rich permafrost, the embankment sideslope gradu-
ally settles into the thawed thermokarst forming at the toe of
the slope. Standing water that may accumulate in the depres-
sions caused by subsidence will increase the rate of permafrost
degradation. Once longitudinal cracks have formed, the road-
way and pavement structure cannot be repaired unless the
thawing can be prevented. Repair of the roadway with asphalt
paving material provides only a temporary solution. The prob-
lem is lessened by using flatter side slopes or by placing side
berms. A design using insulation combined with a side berm is
illustrated in Fig. 9-5b. Esch (1988) stated that the greatest
reduction in thawing and movement was achieved using solar
screens and snow sheds on the sideslopes.
In seasonal frost areas, longitudinal crack formation in
pavement structures results from differential frost heave
between the center portion of the roadway and the shoulders
(Fig. 11-25). Cracking is severe only if the subgrade soils are
susceptible to frost. Snow removal from the roadway with
placement on the shoulders provides insulation, less freezing,
and less heave. The cold, brittle asphalt pavement cracks when
302 FROZEN GROUND ENGINEERING

FIGURE 11-25 Longitudinal frost cracks due to thermal shielding of road edges by snow.
Source: Reproduced with permission from Nordal and Refsdal 1989. Copyright 1989 VTT.

it is unable to accommodate the distortion. In new construc-

tion, longitudinal cracking can be avoided by providing wide
shoulders, use of non-frost-susceptible materials, and the pave-
ment design methods described in this chapter. For existing
roads, differential heave can be reduced by keeping shoulder
areas as free of snow as possible. Cracks that do form should be
sealed in the spring.

Thermal Cracking of Asphalt Concrete Pavements

Thermal contraction during cooling creates tensile stresses in
cold, relatively brittle asphalt concrete pavements. The pave-
ment is partially restrained by friction along the interface with
the supporting layer. Cracking tends to occur across the pave-
ment when thermal stresses in the asphalt concrete exceed the
tensile strength of the pavement layer. In fairly new pavements,
cracks may occur at a 30+ m spacing (Janoo et al. 1993). As the
pavement ages or more extreme temperature drops occur, the
crack spacing has been observed at 3 to 6 m. In cold regions,
the cracks may penetrate through the pavement and down into
the underlying materials. The ingress of water through the
cracks may cause a loss of bond between the asphalt and aggre-
gate particles (stripping), resulting in raveling of the lip of the
crack. Deicing solutions can enter these cracks and cause local-
ized thawing of the base and/or subgrade materials. Loose sur-
face particles tend to fall into and collect in the cracks, prevent- FIGURE 11-26 Typical deformation in an asphalt concrete
ing expansion of the pavement on warming. With reduced specimen caused by a drop in temperature.
space for expansion, adjacent material is forced upward, form- Source: Reproduced with permission from Janoo et al. 1993. Copyright 1993
ing a bump next to each crack. South China Press.

The magnitude of thermal contraction caused by a drop in

asphalt concrete temperature is illustrated in Fig. 11-26. For a
cooling rate of 5 °C/h, the coefficient of thermal contraction for
asphalt concrete varied from 18 × 10–6 to 29 × 10–6 per °C as
the temperature decreased from +10 °C to –40 °C. Similar
results were observed for cooling rates of 10 and 20 °C/h. A typ-
ical stress-temperature curve for asphalt concrete cooling at a
rate of 5 °C/h is shown in Fig. 11-27. Some stress relaxation
during loading will depend on the rate of cooling. The thermal
stress test (Janoo et al. 1993) simulates in situ conditions of
plane strain in the longitudinal direction of the asphalt con-
crete layer (elong = 0). The stress increases up to the pavement’s
tensile strength, at which fracture occurs.
The temperature at which cracking occurs in asphalt con-
crete pavements corresponds to the intersection of the tensile
strength and thermal stress curves in Fig. 11-28. Thermal
stresses can be estimated using the pseudo-elastic equation
(Hills and Brien 1966):
t
sx (t ) = Ú a(T ) S(Dt ,T ) dT (t ) (11.5-1)
to
where sx(t) = accumulated thermal stress, a(T ) = the coeffi-
cient of thermal contraction, S(Dt,T ) = asphalt mix stiffness,
dT(t) = the temperature drop (cooling rate), T = temperature,
 PAVEMENT STRUCTURES
FIGURE 11-27 Typical stress-temperature curve for an asphalt
concrete specimen.
Source: Reproduced with permission from Janoo et al. 1993. Copyright 1993
South China Press.
FIGURE 11-28 Prediction of fracture temperature in an
asphalt concrete pavement.
Source: Reproduced with permission from Janoo et al. 1993. Copyright 1993
South China Press.
303
and t = time. The data summarized in Fig. 11-26 suggest that
the coefficient of thermal contraction (a) will be relatively con-
stant during cooling. The stiffness (S) of the asphalt concrete
can be estimated from laboratory tests (Fig. 11-27). The tem-
perature drop (cooling rate) in the field will vary, depending on
the local climate.
Material properties that influence the initiation and fre-
quency of thermal cracking are asphalt grade, asphalt tempera-
ture susceptibility, aggregate type, pavement thickness, and
thermal cycling of the pavement structure due to daily high and
low temperatures (Janoo et al. 1993). To minimize low-temper-
ature contraction cracking, soft asphalts with a low tempera-
ture-susceptibility are specified (Departments of the Army and
Air Force USA 1985). A useful measure of temperature suscep-
tibility is the penetration-viscosity number (PVN), which can
be determined from the penetration at 25 °C (77 °F) and the
kinematic viscosity at 135 °C (275 °F), as is shown in Fig. 11-29.
The PVN is an empirical number and is valid only for steam-
and/or vacuum-reduced asphalts (Janoo 1990). Current Corps
of Engineers specifications require that the PVN be not lower
than –0.5 (Departments of the Army and Air Force USA 1985).
For very cold climates, special grades of asphalt cement with a
minimum PVN of –0.2 are to be used. The selection of asphalt
for pavements in cold regions is facilitated by the guide given in
Fig. 11-30. To minimize low-temperature cracking, a grade of
asphalt should be selected that lies to the right of the diagonal
line representing the lowest temperature expected during the
service life at 50 mm (2 in.) below the pavement surface.
Asphalt content should be set at a level above the optimum,
and the aggregate gradation may need a small adjustment to
accommodate the additional asphalt.
Membrane-Encapsulated Soil Layers (MESL)
Frost susceptible (fine-grained) soils exhibit high strength and
low deformability (high stiffness) when compacted at moisture
contents below optimum. If the moisture content should
increase after compaction, there is a significant loss of bearing
strength, especially if freezing and thawing occur. Membrane
encapsulation serves to retain the desirable strength properties
during freezing and thawing by preserving their moisture con-
tent at its initial low level. Soils must be placed and compacted
at several percentage points below the optimum moisture con-
tent (Departments of the Army and Air Force USA 1985).
Application of the MESL concept for construction purposes
requires that suitable soil (low moisture content) be available
within a reasonable haul distance or that the climate and rain-
fall be such that a reduction of soil moisture contents is eco-
nomically feasible.
The behavior of a silty clay based on compaction, California
Bearing Ratio (CBR), and freezing tests is illustrated in Figs.
11-31 and 11-32. N. Smith (1979) stated that this clay is highly
frost susceptible and showed considerable heave for an open-
system freezing test. Heave measurements made in a closed-sys-
tem freezing test, Fig. 11-32b, showed negligible heave up to a
saturation level of about 85%. The effect of moisture intrusion
into an MESL system on the CBR value for this clay is illus-
304 FROZEN GROUND ENGINEERING

FIGURE 11-29 Chart for determining temperature susceptibility (penetration-viscosity number, PVN)
of asphalt cement.
Source: Reproduced from Janoo 1990.

FIGURE 11-30 Guide for selection of asphalt for pavements in cold regions.
Source: Reproduced from Janoo 1990.

trated in Fig. 11-31. The decrease in CBR is a result of moisture
redistribution during the freeze–thaw cycle, with lower
strengths (Fig. 11-32) at greater densities for the same water
content. More detailed relationships between compaction, den-
sity, CBR, and molding water contents for a lean clay are given
by Turnbull and Foster (1956). For the same moisture content,
overcompaction would increase the saturation level and
increase both heave and thaw weakening in an MESL system.
Any soil that is intended to be encapsulated should be thor-
oughly tested to determine classification index properties and
CBR–moisture–density relationships. Further testing should
include the effect of closed-system freezing on volume expan-
sion, moisture migration, and reduction of CBR or other mea-
sures of supporting capacity. On the basis of these tests, place-
ment moisture contents would be selected so as to limit adverse
frost effects.
 PAVEMENT STRUCTURES
FIGURE 11-31 Soil compaction and CBR curves for Elmendorf
AFB silty clay.
Source: Reproduced with permission from Quinn, Carbee, and Johnson 1973.
Copyright 1973 Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.
N. Smith (1979) reported that polyethylene (6 mil thick-
ness) has been used almost exclusively as the moisture barrier
on pavement subgrade soils. The Departments of the Army and
Air Force USA (1985) recommend that the membrane be field
treated with a cationic emulsified asphalt (grade CRS-2). To
provide added protection against possible bottom puncture
during construction, the subgrade surface was sprayed with a
hot (60 °C) asphalt emulsion at an application rate of 1.36
liters/m2 (N. Smith). After placement and compaction of the
fill on the membrane, the upper soil surface was sprayed with
more asphalt emulsion at the same rate. The membrane was
now folded over onto the fill, and the upper surface was
sprayed with a hot asphalt emulsion to provide added water-
tightness (N. Smith). Additional protection of this membrane
against puncture from paving materials was provided by a
305
cushion layer of clean sand. N. Smith reported that a gravel sur-
face layer of 20 to 30 cm was placed on top of the sand cushion.
Ice-Rich Permafrost
Roads in permafrost areas frequently cross terrain containing
ice wedges or other ice masses of limited extent. Construction
causes a change in the heat exchange at the surface and a
change in the previously existing ground thermal regime.
Warmer ground temperatures lead to degradation of the per-
mafrost and gradual melting of ground ice beneath the road.
The resulting differential settlements cause sharp dips in the
road surface and progressively widening longitudinal and ther-
mal cracks, which are expensive to repair. In some cases, a
“sinkhole” may appear in paved surfaces where previously an
ice mass existed. In unpaved roads that are routinely graded,
these problems may not become apparent because the evidence
is periodically obliterated. Thawing and settlement may con-
tinue for years until the ice has melted, thawing has stopped, or
road fill bridges the resulting void.
Crory (1991) described two approaches for the design of
roads in permafrost areas: (1) provide full thermal protection
to maintain the permafrost condition, or (2) provide for lim-
ited thaw penetration into the underlying subgrade. The per-
mafrost condition is maintained by placing a sufficient thick-
ness of gravel (typically 6 ft) such that the in situ frozen ground
is insulated by the gravel. Methods for computation of the
gravel layer thickness are presented in Chapter 3. Roadways are
constructed as fill sections, with the vegetative mat on the
ground surface left in place to initially serve as an insulator. The
vegetative mat is compressed by the gravel fill and with time
will lose much of its insulating characteristics. Deep fills are
used to build up low areas so as to avoid cuts on adjacent higher
ground. Temporary roads (3 to 4 ft thick) are designed to per-
mit a limited amount of thawing into the subgrade. This thaw
depth should be no more than the active layer thickness prior
to construction. Over areas containing massive ground ice,
temporary roads should be thicker; over areas containing
gravel, thinner. Ditches along the sides of the road should be
avoided.
Several different methods are reported by Esch (1996) for
preventing or minimizing problems related to ice rich perma-
frost. Reflective surfaces (paint coatings), insulation, prethawing
before construction (Chapter 9), and embankment berms have
been described in earlier sections. To counteract the winter time
insulating effects of snow cover, cold winter air can be intro-
duced into the embankment beneath the snow cover by install-
ing air duct systems buried in soil berms placed along the lower
slope areas. For design sections, inlet ends were open to the air
at a height just above the expected snow surface, the mid (heat
exchange) sections were buried at a depth of about 400 mm, and
3-m chimney stacks were used to create an updraft or chimney
effect. The ducts functioned by natural convection in winter,
refreezing the soils each year, thereby retarding progressive
thawing beneath the slopes. Esch (1996) reported that the ducts
functioned well the first few years and showed a clear benefit in
reducing thaw depths, particularly when used beneath a layer of
306 FROZEN GROUND ENGINEERING
FIGURE 11-32 Influence of molding water content and degree of satura-
tion on heave for Elmendorf AFB clay, with and without lime and closed
system freezing.
Source: Reproduced with permission from Quinn, Carbee, and Johnson 1973. Copyright 1973
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.
polystyrene insulation. Due to underdesign and settlement, the
ducts eventually became plugged with water.
Surface coverings (snow sheds) serve to prevent solar radia-
tion from reaching the soil surface in summer and the snow
from accumulating in winter. Data from experimental slopes at
the Bonanza Creek site (Esch 1996) showed dramatic results,
with the slopes actively refreezing and new permafrost created
at this warm permafrost site within two winters. Site tests dem-
onstrated that the mean slope surface temperatures were low-
ered by as much as 6 °C when properly designed slope cover-
ings were used. The temporary structures built of wood trusses
and plywood for the Bonanza Creek site study were expensive,
lacked durability, and presented safety hazards for vehicles acci-
dentally leaving the road. Innovative designs are
needed for different ways of shielding side slopes
from the warming effects of winter snow cover and
solar heating during the summer.
Preservation of permafrost using passive cooling
pipes (thermosiphons), utilizing the phase changes
of a single fluid or gas inside a pressurized tube,
have been shown to be effective on various projects
(Esch 1996). The favored thermosiphon designs for
cooling of embankment foundations involve pipes
buried in parallel trenches near the base of the
embankment. The pipes are inclined upward toward
the radiator section (Fig. 7-14). Experience with
thermosiphons installed along the Bethel Highway
(Esch 1996) demonstrated the merits of installing
factory assembled tested pipe units. High costs at
the Bethel site showed that this method of perma-
frost preservation is only suitable for severe problem
sites.
Geosynthetic reinforcement provides the poten-
tial for preventing longitudinal crack formation due
to permafrost thaw beneath embankment slopes
(Fig. 9-25). Experimental studies have suggested the
use of multiple-layer, geotextile-reinforced road
embankments constructed with soil and fabric layer
placement in the same wrap-up manner as fabric
reinforced retaining walls are constructed. Field
studies (Esch 1996) have shown only partial success
due to high fabric stretch and the typically loose and
wrinkled state of fabrics after placement, both con-
tributing to significant embankment movements
and adjustments from permafrost thawing over a
period of years. Esch reported that tensile reinforce-
ment of embankments to minimize crack formation
has not yet been implemented in practice.
Problems
11.1 A flexible pavement design by the limited sub-
grade frost penetration method is required for a road
with high traffic volumes. Based on expected traffic,
a minimum pavement thickness of 2.5 in. with a 4-
in. base course is required. The design air freezing
index is 700 °F · days (389 °C · days). The subgrade material is a
uniform sandy clay (soil group CL) with a medium to high
frost susceptibility (frost group F3). Other soil properties
include: water content (average) w = 20%, after drainage w ª
5%, and dry unit weight (average) = 135 lb/ft3 (21.2 kN/m3).
The base material is a crushed gravel (soil group GW) with 30%
passing a No. 10 sieve and 1% passing a No. 200 sieve. The aver-
age water content after drainage, w ª 5%. The highest ground-
water is about 4 ft (1.22 m) below the surface of the subgrade.
Local experience with existing pavements indicates that frost
heave has been relatively uniform.
(a) Determine the combined thickness of pavement and base
material required to prevent freezing of the subgrade, and
 PAVEMENT STRUCTURES
(b) determine the base thickness for the limited subgrade frost
penetration method (after Departments of the Army and Air
Force USA 1985).
11.2 For non-frost conditions, a flexible pavement consists of 2
in. asphalt concrete over a 15-in. base. This pavement must
support single-axle trucks with loads of 12,000 lbs on dual tires
(100 psi tire pressure). The design air freezing index is 2,800 °F
· days (1,556 °C · days) with a mean annual soil temperature
close to 46 °F (7.8 °C). Based on thermal properties of the base,
Fig. 11-4b gives a frost penetration of about 122 in. (3.1 m).
The limited subgrade frost penetration method (Fig. 11-3)
would require a combined pavement and base thickness of 71
in. (1.80 m) allowing subgrade freezing to a depth of about 17
in. (43.2 cm) (Departments of the Army and Air Force USA
1985). This thicker pavement would be cost prohibitive. An
alternate design incorporating polystyrene insulation is
needed. Soil and material properties include the following:
— Subgrade: Silty clay (CL), F4, known locally as highly frost-
susceptible material subject to marked differential heave.
Water content = 29%, plasticity index = 10.
— Base material: good quality base stabilized aggregate, 30%
passing No. 100 sieve, 1% passing No. 200 sieve, average
dry unit weight = 135 lb/ft3, average water content = 5%.
— Subbase: Coarse to fine silty sand (SP–SM), 11% passing
No. 200 sieve, 6% finer than 0.02 mm, frost classification
S2, meets filter criteria for material in contact with sub-
grade, average dry unit weight = 115 lb/ft3, average water
content = 12%.
307
(a) Determine the minimum cover (pavement and base)
needed to limit vertical stresses to 1/3 of the insulation com-
pressive strength (40 lb/in.2).
(b) What insulation thickness is required to prevent frost pen-
etration into the subgrade?
(c) Can less insulation be used if a layer of subbase material is
placed below the insulation? If so, determine an alternate thick-
ness of insulation and subbase.
11.3 Explain how the phenomenon called differential icing can
create extremely hazardous road conditions. To reduce or min-
imize this problem for insulated pavement sections, what
design considerations must the engineer account for?
11.4 How does your local city or county engineer decide when
to apply load restrictions in the spring so as to maintain the
design life and general serviceability of pavement structures in
your community? Arrange an interview with your local (or
hometown) engineer and prepare a 2-page report on the fol-
lowing questions:
(a) Which roads require load restrictions?
(b) When should vehicle load restrictions be applied?
(c) What magnitude of load reductions should be required?
(d) How long should load restrictions be in place?