The term social criticism often refers to a mode of criticism that locates the reasons for malicious

conditions in a society considered to be in a flawed social structure. It may also refer to people adhering
to a social critic's aim at practical solutions by way of specific measures either for consensual reform or
powerful revolution.

Contents [hide]

1 European roots

2 Protest experience with political theories

3 Academic forms

4 In literature and music

5 References

European roots[edit]

Religious persecution was common in Europe and the reason for many a physical or mental exodus
within the continent. From such experience resulted one of the first documents of social criticism: the
Testament of Jean Meslier.

Protest experience with political theories[edit]

Repression experienced by a minority often leads to protest. Without sufficient resolution of the
dispute, a social criticism can be formulated, often covered by political groups (political monopoly). For
protesting people within a social movement, it is often frustrating to experience failure of the
movement and its own agenda.

The positivism dispute between critical rationalism, e.g. between Karl Popper and the Frankfurt School,
is the academic form of the same discrepancy. This dispute deals with the question of whether research
in the social sciences should be "neutral" or consciously adopt a partisan view.

Academic forms[edit]

Academic works of social criticism can belong to social philosophy, political economy, sociology, social
psychology, psychoanalysis but also cultural studies and other disciplines or reject academic forms of
discourse.
In literature and music[edit]

See also: Literary criticism

Social criticism can also be expressed in a fictional form, e.g. in a revolutionary novel like The Iron Heel
by Jack London or in dystopian novels like Aldous Huxley's Brave New World (1932) or George Orwell's
Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949) or Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451 (1953), or Rafael Grugman's
Nontraditional Love (2008), children's books or films.

Fictional literature can have a significant social impact. For example, the 1852 novel Uncle Tom's Cabin,
by Harriet Beecher Stowe furthered the anti-slavery movement in the United States, and the 1885 novel
Ramona, by Helen Hunt Jackson, brought about changes in laws regarding Native Americans. Similarly,
Upton Sinclair's 1906 novel The Jungle helped create new laws related to public health and food
handling, and Arthur Morrison's 1896 novel A Child of the Jago caused England to change its housing
laws. George Orwell and Charles Dickens wrote Animal Farm and A Tale of Two Cities, respectively, to
express their disillusionment with society and human nature. Animal Farm, written in 1944, is a book
that tells the animal fable of a farm in which the farm animals revolt against their human masters. It is
an example of social criticism in literature in which Orwell satirized the events in Russia after the
Bolshevik Revolution. He anthropomorphises the animals, and alludes each one to a counterpart in
Russian history. A Tale of Two Cities also typifies this kind of literature. Besides the central theme of
love, is another prevalent theme, that of a revolution gone bad. He shows us that, unfortunately, human
nature causes us to be vengeful and, for some of us, overly ambitious. Both these books are similar in
that both describe how, even with the best of intentions, our ambitions get the best of us. Both authors
also demonstrate that violence and the Machiavellian attitude of "the ends justifying the means" are
deplorable. They also express their authors' disenchantment with the state of evolution of human
nature.

According to Frederick Douglass, "Where justice is denied, where poverty is enforced, where ignorance
prevails, and where any one class is made to feel that society is an organized conspiracy to oppress, rob
and degrade them, neither persons nor property will be safe."[1]

They seem to be saying, that even when we begin with honourable intentions, there will be some of us
who will let their base instincts take control. Orwell, in Animal Farm portrays this nature by parodying
events in real history. Given the right conditions, those events could happen anywhere – a leader
becoming overly ambitious, to the point of harming his people for more power. In A Tale of Two Cities,
Dickens examines the inner soul, and shares with us how people are driven to the valley of human
emotions, where desperation and anger reign, and what could happen afterwards if we let these
emotions build up inside. Every human being is capable of becoming a ruthless, opportunistic being like
Napoleon or Madame Defarge, if placed in the right place, at the right time.

Musical expressions of social criticism are very frequent in punk and rap music, examples being "Pretty
Vacant" by Sex Pistols and "Brenda's Got a Baby" by 2Pac. Heavy metal bands such as Black Sabbath,
Metallica and Megadeth also use social criticism extensively, particularly in their earlier works

Social Criticism in Literature

Many authors receive their inspiration for writing their literature from outside sources. The idea for a
story could come from family, personal experiences, history, or even their own creativity. For authors
that choose to write a book based on historical events, the inspiration might come from their particular
viewpoint on the event that they want to dramatize. George Orwell and Charles Dickens wrote Animal
Farm and A Tale of Two Cities, respectively, to express their disillusionment with society and human
nature. Animal Farm, written in 1944, is a book that tells the animal fable of a farm in which the farm
animals revolt against their human masters. It is an example of social criticism in literature in which
Orwell satirized the events in Russia after the Bolshevik Revolution. He anthropomorphises the animals,
and alludes each one to a counterpart in Russian history. A Tale of Two Cities also typifies this kind of
literature. Besides the central theme of love, is another prevalent theme, that of a revolution gone bad.
He shows us that, unfortunately, human nature causes us to be vengeful and, for some of us, overly
ambitious. Both these books are similar in that both describe how, even with the best of intentions, our
ambitions get the best of us. Both authors also demonstrate that violence and the Machiavellian
attitude of "the ends justifying the means" are deplorable. George Orwell wrote Animal Farm, ". . . to
discredit the Soviet system by showing its inhumanity and its back-sliding from ideals [he] valued . .
."(Gardner, 106) Orwell noted that " there exists in Englandalmost no literature of disillusionment with
the Soviet Union.' Instead, that country is viewed either with ignorant disapproval' or with uncritical
admiration.'"(Gardner, 96) The basic synopsis is this: Old Major, an old boar in Manor Farm, tells the
other animals of his dream of "animalism": " . . . Only get rid of Man, and the produce of our labour
would be our own. Almost overnight we would become rich and free.'" (Orwell, 10) The other animals
take this utopian idea to heart, and one day actually do revolt and drive the humans out. Two pigs
emerge as leaders: Napoleon and Snowball. They constantly argued, but one day, due to a difference
over plans to build a windmill, Napoleon exiled Snowball. Almost immediately, Napoleon established a
totalitarian government. Soon, the pigs began to get special favours, until finally, they were
indistinguishable from humans to the other animals. Immediately the reader can begin to draw parallels
between the book's characters and the government in 1917-44 Russia. For example, Old Major, who
invented the idea of "animalism," is seen as representing Karl Marx, the creator of communism.
Snowball represents Trotsky, a Russian leader after the revolution. He was driven out by Napoleon, who
represents Stalin, the most powerful figure in the country. Napoleon then proceeded to remove the
freedoms of the animals, and established a dictatorship, under the public veil of "animalism." Pigs
represent the ruling class because of their stereotype: dirty animals with insatiable appetites. Boxer, the
overworked, incredibly strong, dumb horse represents the common worker in Russia. The two
surrounding farms represent two of the countries on the global stage with Russia at the time, Germany
and England. Orwell begins his book by criticizing the capitalists and ruling elite, who are represented in
Animal Farm by Mr. Jones, the farmer. He is shown as a negligent drunk, who constantly starved his
animals. "His character is already established as self-indulgent and uncaring." (King, 8) Orwell shows us
how, "if only animals became aware of their strength, we should have no power over them, and that
men exploit animals in much the same way as the rich exploit the proletariat." (Gardner, 97) What was
established in Russia after the Bolshevik Revolution was not true communism ("animalism"), which
Orwell approved of, where the people owned all the factories and land. Rather, "state communism" was
established, where a central government owned them. Orwell thought that such a political system,
"state communism," was open to exploitation by its leaders. Napoleon, after gaining complete control,
did anything he wished - reserved the best for the pigs, and treated the animals cruelly. The animals
could not do anything, unless they again realized their strength in numbers against their own kind.
Unfortunately, they were too stupid to realize this and accepted the "status quo." It began when the
milk and apples were appropriated to the pigs, and continued to when the pigs could drink and sleep on
beds, until finally the pigs were the "human masters" to the rest of the animals. Orwell criticized
Germany, representing it as Pinchfield Farm, which betrayed Animal Farm by paying for lumber with
counterfeit money. In real life, this represents the Soviet-Germany non-aggression pact during World
War II which Germany eventually broke. Eventually, towards the end of the story, the term, "absolute
power corrupts absolutely," is proven, as the pigs, who retained all the privileges for themselves, have
evolved into a different caste from the other animals. Orwell's implication is that "real" communism
cannot exist in the countries which claim to be communist. The ruling class - politicians - own everything
and ironically are therefore in total control. A Tale of Two Cities is a love story which chronicles the lives
of Charles Darnay, a Frenchman who renounced his link with the aristocracy, and Sydney Carton, a
wastrel who lived in England. Both these characters fall in love with Lucie Manette, the daughter of Dr.
Alexandre Manette, unjustly imprisoned in France for 17 years. Though Lucie marries Darnay, Carton still
loves her and in the end, gives his life to save Darnay for her. Dickens, who was fascinated with French
history, especially the French Revolution, begins by criticizing the aristocrats' treatment of the poor
people of France. In the seventh chapter of book two, the Monsieur the Marquis had accidentally driven
his carriage over a young child, killing him. Instead of worrying about the child's welfare, the Monsieur's
reaction was to worry about his horses: "One or the other of you is for ever in the way. How do I know
what injury you have done to my horses."(Dickens, 111) He deemed their lives inferior and insignificant,
as illustrated when he threw a gold coin to the child's devastated father as compensation. The Monsieur
the Marquis revealed his true sentiments to his nephew: "Repression is the only lasting philosophy. . .
fear and slavery, my friend, will keep the dogs obedient to the whip. . ."(Dickens, 123) Dickens makes it
abundantly obvious that the aristocrats are to meet doom, with symbolic references to fate and death.
For instance, as the Monsieur the Marquis rides through the country, a glowing red sunset appeared
over him, signifying his bloody death. In the words of the author, ". . . the sun and the Marquis going
down together. . ."(Dickens, 114) Madame Defarge's knitting is also a symbol of impending doom, as she
records the names of all those who are to die when the revolution takes place. Dickens also expresses
his disillusionment with some of the outcomes of the French Revolution. He believed that the people did
not just liberate themselves, but also took vengeance towards the aristocracy. This is confirmed in the
conversation between the revolutionaries: " Well, well, but one must stop somewhere. After all, the
question is still where?' At extermination,' said madame."(Dickens, 341) Madame Defarge embodies this
attitude, as she wants to have Charles Darnay killed, not because he has done something wrong, but
because he is related to the Evr,monde family, which killed her relative. Though "Dickens seems almost
to regard violence as the one way to bring about social change,"(Lucas,288) he then began to denounce
the actions taken by some of the revolutionaries. The citizens let their righteous cause turn into
vengefulness. Even servants and maids to the aristocrats were beheaded, although they had not really
done anything wrong. Animal Farm and A Tale of Two Cities were written to express their authors'
disenchantment with the state of evolution of human nature. They seem to be saying, that even when
we begin with honourable intentions, there will be some of us who will let their base instincts take
control. Orwell, in Animal Farm portrays this nature by parodying events in real history. Given the right
conditions, those events could happen anywhere - a leader becoming overly ambitious, to the point of
harming his people for morepower. In A Tale of Two Cities, Dickens examines the inner soul, and shares
with us how people are driven to the valley of human emotions, where desperation and anger reign, and
what could happen afterwards if we let these emotions build up inside. Every human being is capable of
becoming a ruthless, opportunistic being like Napoleon or Madame Defarge, if placed in the right place,
at the right time. -- King, Martin. Students' Guide to Animal Farm. Scotland: Tynron Press, 1989. Lucas,
John. The Melancholy Man: A Study of Dickens' Novels. London: N.P., N.D. Orwell, George. Animal Farm.
London: Penguin Books, 1985. Shelden, Michael. Orwell: The Authorised Biography. London: Mandarin
Paperbacks, 1992.

wages, a march for equality or something in that area. Social Justice is achieved bystrength in numbers,
and being relentless to achieve their cause.The concept is distinct from those justices in law, which may
not be considered moral in practice. Opposition to social injustice is increasingly a platform of emerging
political parties. Social injustice arises when equality treated unequally. The problem of the
socialinjustice is phenomena of life that deals with condition of the society that perceivedunfairness or
the situation that peoples do not getting their due. Each time someonecheats you out of what you
deserve, there has been injustice. Other people can treat youunjustly. But at least your tormentors
normally are working in their own self-interest.They are not pretending to be fair, or to be working on
your behalf. When your owngovernment acts unjustly, it is all the more galling. The Injustice Line will
focus mainlyon injustices committed by the government, especially those arising from the courtsystem.
The condition above is appearing the problem of the social injustice.Meanwhile, in the literary works the
author may take a certain world which thenrepresents his ideas. An author, in his works can present a
portrait of social, politic andeconomy during a particular time. When the literary work indicates a
reflection or portrait, the characters in a fiction often indicated or reflect the presence of the similar
social attitude to that in the society during their time. The portrait represented in a literarywork show
the relation between the social reality and the literature itself. Then, the author purposes it as real
illustration or merely a caricature.Literature is reflection of social realities and condition of social being
in the society. Itmeans that literature cannot be free from the social issue around the society. In
edition,literature is closely related to the sociology science that reflects the phenomenahappening in the
society.“Literature and sociology are not wholly distinct disciplines but on contrary, complementeach
other in our understanding of society”.(Laurenson and Swingewood, 1972: 20)Social and individual
justice have some similar components, however they have aspectsthat vary. Charles Dickens exemplifies
both of these types of justice thoroughly in hisnovel A Tale of Two Cities.Dickens, who had great
sympathy for poor people, having known great poverty himself as a child, was naturally drawn towards
the

French Revolution

, as a subject for a novel.In this novel he depicts with tremendous power and realism the sufferings of
the poor,and the way in which aristocrats oppressed and abused them. He shows, with greatinsight,
how ordinary men and women were driven by their suffering to becomeimplacable murderers of the
aristocracy.A Tale of Two Cities is a part of

historical novel

, the background of the novel is FrenchRevolution. This novel narrates aspect of major historical event
the French Revolutionthe story focused on the effect of political upheaval more than on character
development.

A Tale of Two Cities related to the class struggle because those who feel the negativeeffects of social
injustice begin to struggle against it. Dickens maintains a complex perspective on the French Revolution
because although he did not particularlysympathize with the gruesome and often irrational results, he
certainly sympathized withthe unrest of the lower orders of society. Dickens vividly paints the
aristocraticmaltreatment of the lower classes, such as when Monseigneur only briefly stops to toss acoin
toward the father of a child whom he has just run over. Because the situation inFrance was so dire,
Dickens portrays the plight of the working class in England as rather difficult, though slightly less difficult
than in other works such as Hard Times or Oliver Twist, which also emphasize social injustice.There is
the element of the individual as well as the group seeking equality as the book goes through the
rebellious times of the French Revolution. The French Revolution trulyis the axis to which the justice in
the book revolves. The peasants are in their constantstruggle to overthrow the French government and
seek the Guillotine as a measure of compensation. The peasant overthrow of the Bastille and the
general French Revolutionare the main examples of social justice. The general public felt they had been
wronged bythe aristocracy and therefore attacked them relentlessly.However, in this book there are
better examples of justice achieved against or for anindividual. The same day that the Bastille was taken
the wealthy

Foulon

was also killed.As the reader, we see the initial reason that Foulon is targeted when

Defarge

asks therevolutionaries:“Does everybody here recall old Foulon, who told the famished people that they
mighteat grass and who died, and went to Hell?”(Dickens 202)After this we see the fate that happened
to old Foulon. After Foulon died“his head wassoon upon a pike, with grass enough in the mouth for all
Saint Antoine to dance at thesight of”(Dickens 204). This is a prime example of justice because they got
Foulon back with what he threatened to get them with. He threatened the people to eat grass, and
theykilled him and stuffed grass in his mouth. This is the epitome of an eye for an eye,revolution style.

Madame Defarge

is also trying to achieve justice throughout the novel. We find out near the end that she is the lost little
sister of the brother and sister that the

Evrémonde

brothers killed. Because of this she is determined to get revenge on

Darnay

the son of one of the brothers. Her doggedness in finding the rest of the race is evident when
shesays,“Tell wind and fire where to stop; not me!”(Dickens 312)The idea that the she is more
unstoppable than the inevitable elements is a scary thought,and shows the depth to which she seeks
this justice.

Another example showing the justice in the novel A Tale of Two Cities deals with thecharacter

Monsieur the Marquis

. In the chapter entitled “Monseigneur in Town”Monsieur the Marquis runs over and kills Gaspard’s
child, and feels no remorsewhatsoever about the incident. Later in the chapter “The Gorgon’s Head”
justice isachieved when Gaspard goes and kills Monsieur the Marquis. The death of the Marquiswas told
to us indirectly by Dickens when he described how“The Gorgon had surveyedthe building again in the
night, and had added one stone face wanting; the stone face for which it had waited through about two
hundred years”(116). The death of the Marquiswas the quid pro quo exchange between
Gaspard

and the Marquis. The Marquis took thelife of his child, and Gaspard took the life of the Marquis.But the
most glaring and shocking example of social injustice in those times is the prolonged imprisonment of

Dr. Manette. . The document in which Dr. Manette hasrecorded the circumstances under which he was
made a prisoner is hair-raising. It showshow much influence the members of aristocratic and titled
families wielded in those daysat the royal court and with the government ministers, and how ordinary
people werevictimized by them.

CONCLUSION

.Throughout the novel A Tale of Two Cities justice was served. Their actions may have been a little
severe, because of the fact that the only fair punishment at the time of theRevolution was death. The
nature of justice as exemplified in the novel shows how justice can take many forms. It can be to avenge
a family member, like in the case of Madame Defarge and Gaspard, or it could be to settle the score
regarding something saidor done. This proves that justice has changed throughout time, however, the
fundamentalaspects have remained the same, and the ultimate objective is to get back what you think is
right and just.

GREAT

Without doubt, Charles Dickens made use of the pen to depict social injustices in his society. Here are
some of the issues addressed with the theme of social injustice:

Child abuse

Just as in Oliver Twist Dickens writes about the orphans and the desolation of not having the love of a
mother. Both Pip and Biddy have lost their parents. Although they do have a relative to care for them,
both Pip's sister and Biddy's grandmother are cruel. Mrs. Joe is unkind, accusing Pip of always being
ungrateful, and at times she is abusive, striking blows on poor Pip with "Tickler." Biddy's grandmother
raises her also "by hand," and she makes the little girl work in her "little general shop" and is neglectful,

Her hair always wanted brushing, her hands always wanted washing, and her shoes always wanted
mending and pulling up at the heel.
Added to Pip's troubles, he has an Uncle Pumblechook who, along with Mrs. Joe, berates him, "Be
grateful, boy, to them which brought you up by hand," and batters him with numbers and feeds him
little the night before he goes to Satis House.

In Chapter 7, Joe explains to Pip why he never learned to read: his father was an alcoholic who beat him
and his mother and rarely worked; consequently Joe had to work as youth in order to support his family.

There is also the greed of parents who wish to profit from their children. Mrs. Joe is excited that Pip is
going to the house of the wealthy Miss Havisham, hoping for a monetary reward. Added to this is the
attitude of Mr. Jaggers that boys from the neighborhood "are a bad lot," an intimation that children are
not to be cherished, but punished and controlled instead.

The injustice of social class

During Pip's encounter with the convict in the graveyard, there is the early suggestion of the disparity in
justice for the social classes as Pip's convict, after having been apprehended by the soldiers, remarks
that the other convict is a "gentleman, if you please, this villain," intimating that he has received better
treatment previously than he.

Pip's visit to Satis House is one of exploitation by the upper class as Miss Havisham wants to use Pip for
Estella's training in misandry. Estella insults Pip by calling him "a common laboring boy" and laughing at
his coarse hat and crude boots.

After he returns home, Pip is afraid to tell Mrs. Joe and Uncle Pumblechook the truth about the dusty
house where all clocks are stopped and the bizarre Miss Havisham in a yellowed wedding dress because
he knows that they would never believe such a story about an aristocrat. So, he fabricates a tall tale
about sitting in a black velvet carriage and eating cake on golden plates.

Sources:

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As a declared social reformer, Charles Dickens includes extravagant didacticism in his novel Great
Expectations, and one of his main topics is social injustice. Having had a father who was sent to debtor's
prison and having spent time there himself as the family was allowed to visit, Dickens grew to perceive
Victorian society itself as a prison in which the poor were victimized by cruel laws and a partial justice
system that incarcerated the poor and meted another justice to those of wealth and social class.

This theme of social injustice is played out with the characters of Mr. Jaggers and Magwitch. Mr. Jaggers,
an unconscionable barrister who defends whoever has enough money to pay him and ignores others
illustrates the maxim stated by famed defense attorney Johnnie Cochran who once declared, "The color
of justice is green." These actions are illustrated in Chapter 20 after Pip has arrived in London and
various persons charged with crimes approach Mr. Jaggers as he traverses the street to Pip; Jaggers
addresses those who follow him. When two men ask him about their case, he tells them not to think
because he does the thinking. Then, he asks them, "Have you paid Wemmick?" (his clerk) Those who
have not paid him he peremptorily dismisses.

Much later in the novel, after Pip is visited by Magwitch, the convict so touched by Pip's kindness that he
becomes the secret benefactor for Pip in his venture to become a gentleman. Pip learns the old convict's
history, a story that captures the poignancy of the plight of the orphaned and poor as well as the
egregious acts of injustice doled out by the Victorian courts. Magwitch relates to Pip his experiences of
working for the gentleman Compeyson, and how he was exploited by him. When he first began
committing petty crimes for Compeyson, Magwitch was punished sometimes when Compeyson was not:

"The time wi' Compeyson was a'most as hard a time as ever I had; that said, all's said. Did I tell you as I
was tried, alone, for misdemeanour, while with Compeyson?"

After some time, Compeyson was finally tried along with Magwitch, but Compeyson demanded separate
trials and received one. Magwitch sold whatever he could to afford Jaggers as his defense attorney.
During the trial of Compeyson, his advocate constantly pointed in his defense of his client to Magwitch
as the more culpable:

"'My lord and gentlemen, here you has afore you, side by side, two persons as your eyes can separate
wide; one, the younger, well brought up, who will be spoke to as such; one, the elder, ill brought up,
who will be spoke to as such; one, the younger, seldom if ever seen in these here transactions, and
onl.... Can you doubt, if there is but one in it, which is the one, and, if there is two in it, which is much
the worst one?' And such-like."

At the end of the trial, Compeyson, the gentleman who devised all the schemes but has witnesses who
attest to his belonging to certain societies and his proper association with people of good name, is given
a lesser sentence than poor Magwitch.

"And when the verdict come, warn't it Compeyson as was recommended to mercy on account of good
character and bad company, and giving up all the information he could agen me, and warn't it me as got
never a word but Guilty?"

Magwitch becomes symbolic of the poor, barred from hope in life by irons and chains, in despair of
rising from his social realm with no prospect of justice by the prison of society which locks people in
their class positions. As an example, when Magwitch is dying, Pip is informed that because his
benefactor is a convict the Crown will claim all the money that Magwitch has intended for him.

Of course, the theme of social injustice is also illustrated with the unkindness of Estella toward Pip,
whom she derogates as a "common laboring boy" as well as the haughtiness of the relatives of Miss
Havisham, who display the ostracism of the poor by the rich as they disdainfully regard Pip in his
reduced circumstances. But, after he comes into money, they act differently toward him. Then, too,
Miss Havisham initially treats Pip as a mere training object on whom Estella can practice Miss
Havisham's misandry.

Sources: