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Thermal Simulation of Solar Distiller Units: Study of Heat & Mass Transfer

Thesis · March 2017

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.32876.77448

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 Thermal Simulation of Solar Distiller Units: Study of
Heat & Mass Transfer
Hrishi Jain (131786)
Md. Nabeel Faruqui (131795)
Nishant Kumar (131799)

Project Report submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Bachelor of technology
In
Mechanical Engineering

Under the Guidance of

Dr. Dhananjay R. Mishra

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Jaypee University of Engineering & Technology
A.B. Road, Raghogarh, Guna - 473226 M.P. (India)

May 2017
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the work titled THERMAL SIMULATION OF SOLAR

DISTILLAR UNITS: STUDY OF HEAT & MASS TRANSFER submitted by Hrishi Jain
(131786), Md. Nabeel Faruqui (131795) and Nishant Kumar (131799) in partial fulfillment
for the award of degree of Bachelor of Technology of Jaypee University of Engineering &
Technology, Guna has been carried out under my supervision at JUET, Guna campus. This
work has not been submitted partially or wholly to any other University or Institute for the
award of this or any other degree.

Signature of Supervisor . .

Name of Supervisor Dr. Dhananjay R. Mishra

Designation Assistant Professor (SG)

Date 29/05/2017

I
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to express our sincere gratitude to our supervisor Dr. Dhananjay R. Mishra
for providing us with invaluable guidance, comments and suggestions throughout the course
of the project.

Also we wish to express our sincere gratitude to the entire staff of Mechanical Engineering
Department for providing us with the opportunity to complete our project successfully.

Hrishi Jain (131786)

Md. Nabeel Faruqui (131795)

Nishant Kumar (131799)

II
 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The past few decades have seen outstanding improvement in Solar Still design and use due to
low cost and easy handling. It gives us pure distilled water at very cheap rate.

This project is an attempt to compare the theoretical and experimental data such that, our
result and data can be used by anyone to get an exact idea of how one can build an optimum
solar still. This project is focused on the simulation of solar still by using ANSYS FLUENT
software to find out the heat and mass transfer rate.

The project report also presents the review of various research papers mainly based on
mathematical expression used to calculate the convective and evaporative heat transfer
coefficient and the mass transfer rate. The objective to this project was to perform a CFD
simulation of single slope solar still and to compare the theoretical and experimental data for
optimum results.

III
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE
CERTIFICATE I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT II
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY III
LIST OF FIGURES V
CHAPTER

1. Introduction

1.1 Basic Principle of Solar Still 3

1.2 Principle of Solar Still 3

2. Theoretical Background

2.1 Radiative Heat Transfer Coefficient 5

2.2 Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient 5

2.3 Evaporative Heat Transfer Coefficient 6

2.4 Theoretical Amount of Condensate 6

2.5 Fraction of Heat Transfer 6

3. Thermal Simulation of Single Slope Solar Still

3.1 Modelling 8

3.2 Meshing 9

4. Influencing Input Parameters for Thermal Simulation Method

4.1 Simulation 16

4.2 Result 18

5. Conclusion and Future Scope

References

IV
 LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURES PAGE
1.1 Cross-sectional view of symmetric arrangement and various energy transfers 4
3.1 Snapshot of Mesh ISO of Single Slope Solar Still 8
3.2 Snapshot of Side View of Single Slope Solar Still 9
3.3 Snapshot of Mesh Closed View of Single Slope Solar Still 10
3.4 Snapshot of Back Plate and Absorber Plate of Single Slope Solar Still 11
4.1 Snapshot of Input Parameters of Single Slope Solar Still 12
4.2 Snapshot of Energy Equation of Single Slope Solar Still 13
4.3 Snapshot of Viscous Model of Single Slope Solar Still 13
4.4 Snapshot of Rosseland Model of Single Slope Solar Still 14
4.5 Snapshot of Boundary Conditions of Single Slope Solar Still 15
4.6 Snapshot of Glass Collector of Single Slope Solar Still 16
4.7 Snapshot of Vapour Fraction of Single Slope Solar Still 16
4.8 Variation of Temperature of Water and Glass with respect to Time 17
4.9 Variation of Temperature of Glass Actual and Glass with respect to Time 18

V
 NOMENCLATURE
• he - evaporative heat transfer coefficient
• hcv - convective heat transfer coefficient
• hfg - heat of evaporation
• Cpa - specific heat capacity of air
• Ra - Rayleigh number
• R - gas constant
• Po - Total pressure
• Pvs - Pressure of water vapour at the liquid surface
• Pvg - Pressure of water vapour at the condensing surface
• mw - mass flow rate
• hcv - Convective heat transfer
• α - absorptivity
• Q - heat transfer
• I(t) - solar flux on an inclined collector
• hfg - enthalpy of evaporation at Tw
• cp - specific heat

• q rw - radiative heat transfer

• q cw - convective heat loss

VI
 Chapter 1

Introduction

Availability of fresh, clean water is still challenging to the many parts of the world.

Distillation is one of the many processes available for obtaining fresh water from salty,
brackish or contaminated water. Sunlight has an advantage of the zero fuel cost but requires
large space area for the power generation. Despite a common belief, it is not necessary to boil
water to distil it. Simply elevating its temperature below the boiling point adequately
increases the evaporation rate. In fact, although vigorous boiling accelerates the distillation
process, it can also force unwanted residue into the distillate defeating purification.
Furthermore, to boil water with sunlight requires a more costly apparatus than the distiller
units which operates at below boiling temperature. Generally, bulky and costly setups are
required to generate high temperature. For people concerned with the quality of their
municipally supplied drinking water and unhappy with other methods of purification
available to them. In recent years, various studies (i.e. experimental and theoretical) have
conducted on different configurations of solar stills to enhance the performance and
productivity. Sampath Kumar and his associates reported a detailed review of various
designs of active solar distillation [1]. In active mode, water in the basin was heated directly
or indirectly (hot water available from solar collector or industries) for climatic conditions
such as solar radiation, wind velocity, and ambient temperature has a direct effect on
productivity. Although the initial water temperature and insulation thickness have direct
effects, but the cover angle has an inverse effect in summer and direct effect in winter. A
mathematical model to predict the effect of climatic condition and design parameters on the
performance of a solar still were reported [2]. Better efficiency was obtained at the maximum
temperature difference between water and glass cover [3]. Tiwari et al. [4] reported a
comparative performance of three different designs of single basin solar stills. The better
yield obtained using a single-slope, solar still made of fiber reinforcement plastic (FRP) than
the double slope in winter, but in summer, the reverse results appeared. Al-Hayek and Badran
[5] observed that using mirrors in asymmetric greenhouse type solar still, yield was recorded
20% higher than that of the symmetric greenhouse types. Mishra and Tiwari [6] reported the
effect of coal powder and blackened metal chip on the single basin passive solar still were
blanked metal chip containing in basin area of conventional solar still gives higher yield as
compared to the still containing coal powder with the same height of 2.5cm. Mutasher et al.

1
[7] reports the enhancement in clean water productivity by using a combination of sun
tracking system with solar still. Esfahani et al.[8] used thermoelectric technology to improve
the productivity of solar stills. In addition to experimental researchers, there are many studies,
which use mathematical modeling to estimate the productivity of solar stills.

Experimental study of a solar still with sponge cubes in basin reported by Bassam et al. [9].
The basin water depth has a significant effect on the productivity of the basin. Investigations
show that the water depth is inversely proportional to the productivity of still [10–12]
Variation of the convective heat transfer coefficient and thermal modeling of solar stills have
studied by many authors where the water depth parameter was incorporated as a major
parameter that affects the still performance. The effect of using black rubber and black gravel
for augmenting the productivity of the solar still is performed [10,11,13–15], these studies
shows that black rubber, black gravel and floating perforated black aluminum plate in the
solar still increases the solar still productivity by 20%, 19%, and 15%, respectively. Some
authors worked on improving the performance of solar desalination systems by using
modifications in the solar desalination systems [16]. The effect of water depth on heat and
mass transfer in a passive solar still in summer climatic conditions has been studied [10]. In
order to improve the performance of conventional solar stills, several other designs have been
developed and proposed with their significance, such as the double-basin type [9,17], multi-
basin type [18,19], a wick basin type [20] and a multi-wick single slope solar still [21].
Integration of solar still in a multi-source and the multi-use environmental type was also
studied [22]. The external reflector was inclined slightly forward to make the reflected sun
rays hit the basin liner of the still effectively and daily productivity of a basin type still can be
increased about 70% to 100% with a very simple modification using internal and external
reflectors [23]. The experimental results and the theoretical predictions are in good
agreement, especially on clear days [24]. The water collection area was improved by
connecting the stepped trays of 12 numbers, Different water depths of 2 cm, 3 cm, 4 cm were
used in the conventional basin while a constant 2 cm water depth was maintained in the
stepped tray type basin and Maximum productivity of 1.468 kg/m2 was recorded for 2 cm
water depth and lowest production of 1.150 kg/m2is obtained for 4 cm water depth [25].
Sponges are added to improve the capillary action [9]. For 2 cm water depth with wick and
sponge combination, the maximum output of 1.305 kg/m2was obtained [26]. The lowest
productivity was recorded for 4 cm water depth with sponge's combination (1.280 kg/m2).
Packing materials such as wooden chips, sand, coal, coconut coir, were added in the inclined

2
flat plate collector to increase the area of exposure [27]. Different packing material analyzed,
rock, sponge and wick combination gain the maximum productivity of 1.745 kg/m2and lowest
productivity is for sand and wick combination (1.200 kg/m2) [28]. The daily efficiency of
various combinations was calculated for the coconut coir and wick combination produced
16.36%, nearly 3% increase in efficiency when compared to be conventional still [29]. A
theoretical analysis was also performed and compared with experimental results, At
maximum deviation of less than 10% between theoretical and experimental analysis was
obtained [29]. A theoretical analysis of a tilted wick solar still with an external flat plate
reflector which was able to incline in forwards as well as backward according to the seasons
[30,31]. The analyses of observed data that the variation of the mean temperature of the earth
was explained by the variation of short-wave radiation, arriving at the surface of the Earth
[32]. In connection with this, the influence of long-term changes of radiation, caused by
variations of atmospheric transparency on the thermal regime reported [33]. A comparison
between fixed and the sun tracked solar stills showed that the use of sun tracking increased
the productivity for around 22%, due to the increase of overall efficiency by 2%, It was
concluded that the sun tracking was more effective than the system and it was capable of
enhancing the productivity [34]. Mathematical modeling of lond solar still reported by
Mishra et al.[39].Mishra and Tiwari [40- 43] also reported the way to utilize ground rnrgy for
enhancing the productivity of single slope solar still.

1.1 Basic principle of a solar still

The basic principle of distillation is simple and it replicates the way of nature made rain. Sun
energy increases the temperature of water, which causes the increase in the surface
evaporation rate, results in formation of water vapors and condensate at the inner cover of
glass as a cool surface. This process removes heavier metals, salts as well as microbiological
organisms from water and provides the purest form of water as rainwater.

1.2 Principles of solar still

Increasing the area of water in contact with the air to enhance the rate of water evaporation,
which can lead to the higher yield of the solar still. Basin area of the still painted with the
black color to maximize the coefficient of absorption of the basin. Evaporated water vapors
are trapped with the help glass cover, which should be several degrees at a lower temperature
than the water. Water from solar still should be quite pure. The slow process of distillation
allows a pure form of water to evaporate from the surface and condensate at the lower surface

3
of the inner glass surface. A careful design, constructional material, and operation of a solar
still will give pure water free from the harmful materials and cancer-causing substance,
colorless, odorless and unfortunately tasteless also, so it has recommended that to add a small
quantity of salt for the test to the distilled water obtained from the still. Various energy
transfer within the single slope solar still shown in Fig.1.1[35].

Fig. 1.1 Cross-sectional view of schematic arrangement and various energy transfers[35].
The objective of this study is to develop a 3D CFD model of Single slope Solar Still to
understand the evaporation and condensation phenomena in solar still. The model has been
developed with the help of ANSYS Workbench and then simulated with Fluent. Water
temperature and production rate of fresh water from the simulation results compared with
the actual results. Further comparison has been made between simulation result and
experimental results of water temperature, glass cover temperature. Parametric analyses
have been done to enhance the productivity of Solar Still. F R P m a t e r i a l were used in
basin to improve the heat and absorption capacity to increase the evaporation rate. We
also calculate the yield and to study the heat and mass transfer rate of the still.

In the next chapter, various factors affecting the performance of the solar still including solar
intensity, ambient temperature, water glass temperature difference and free surface area of
water, absorber plate area, temperatures of inlet water, glass angle and depth of water have
been examined. On the basis of study of various research papers, a number of numerical
expressions were noted which were useful for the theoretical calculations including energy
balance equations and the expression to find the evaporative heat transfer coefficient,
convective heat transfer coefficient, the mass outflow and total condensation rate.

4
 Chapter 2

Theoretical Background

There are three modes possible for heat transfer from water surface to condensing cover these
are radiative, convective and evaporative heat transfer.
2.1 Radiative heat transfer coefficient

The rate of radiative heat transfer ( q rw ) from water surface to the condensing cover can be
obtained as[36];

q rw   T14  T2 4  (1)

Where, T1  (Tw  273) K , T2  (Tg  273) K ,


Eq. 1 can be rewritten as q rw  hrw (T1  T2 ) (2)

 (Tw  273)4  (Tg  273) 4 

h
Where, rw     (3)
 Tw  Tg 
1
1 1 
     1 and   5.67 108W / m2 K 4 radiative heat transfer coefficient can be
  w  g 
calculated.
2.2 Convective heat transfer coefficient
The convective heat transfer coefficient ( hcw ) can be obtain from
1

 ( Pw  Pg )  (Tw  273) 

3

hcw  0.884 (Tw  Tg )   (4)


  2.689 105  Pw  
The volume of Pw and Pg (for the range of temperature 10oC to 90oC) can be obtained at

water and inner condensing cover temperature from the relation considering Pw and Pg as a
function of temperature.
 5144 
P(T )  exp  25.317 
T  273 
(5)


5
The rate of convective heat loss q cw in W / m2  from water surface to the inner condensing


cover can be obtained.


qcw  hcw (Tw  Tg ) (6)

2.3 Evaporative heat transfer coefficient


The rate of evaporative heat loss q ew from water to inner condensing cover is given by

qew  0.0166  hcw   Pw  Pg  (7)

Eq.7 may be rearranged as,


qew  hew (Tw  Tg ) (8)

q ew
Or hew  (9)
Tw  Tg 
And this evaporative heat transfer coefficient can be rearranged as,

 Pw  Pg 
hew  0.016  hcw    (10)
 Tw  Tg 
Using Eqs. 1, 2 and 3, total heat transfer coefficient h1 can be written as,

h1  hrw  hcw  hew (11)

The rate of heat transfer from water surface to the inner condensing cover one can obtained
as,

q  h1 Tw  Tg  (12)

2.4 Theoretical Amount of Condensate

The yield in Kg can be calculated as

q  A  t
M ew  ew t (13)
L
Where L  3.1615  106 1  7.6160  104 Tw 

For temperature higher than 70℃, and

L  2.4935 106 1  9.4779 104 Tw  1.3132 107 Tw2  4.7974 109 Tw3 

6
for operating temperature less than 70℃ [36–38]. At is basin area of distiller unit , t = time
interval of the experiment .
2.5 Fraction of Heat Transfer
The fraction of heat transfer due to the radiation, convection, and radiation can be evaluated
as
  
q rw q cw q ew
Frw  
; Fcw  
; Few  
(14)
q q q

In the next chapter, each and every step of the simulation performed has been briefly explained
to provide a general idea. The modelling is shown in different views and the procedure of
modelling is also discussed. Along with modelling, meshing is also shown with proper element
size and name selection is also done in this step. The view of meshing is also discussed in the
following chapters.

7
 Chapter 3

Thermal Simulation of single slope solar still

3.1 Modeling

A model of solar still in the ANSYS design modular window was made as shown in Fig. 2.
The basic commands used in making this model are extrude, Boolean, cut etc.

Fig. 3.1 Snapshot of Mesh ISO of Single Slope Solar Still

8
And its side view is shown in Fig. 3.2,

Fig. 3.2 Snapshot of Side View of Single Slope Solar Still

3.2 Meshing

In order to analyze fluid flows, flow domains are split into smaller subdomains (made up of
geometric primitives like hexahedra and tetrahedral in 3D and quadrilaterals and triangles in
2D). The governing equations are then discretized and solved inside each of these
subdomains. Typically, one of three methods is used to solve the approximate version of the
system of equations: finite volumes, finite elements, or finite differences. The subdomains are
often called elements or cells, and the collection of all elements or cells is called a mesh or
grid. The process of obtaining an appropriate mesh (or grid) is termed mesh generation (or
grid generation), and has long been considered a bottleneck in the analysis process due to the
lack of a fully automatic mesh generation procedure.

Access to a good software package and expertise in using this software are vital to the
success of a modelling effort. So an attempt was made to try meshing by first dividing this

9
model into 3 parts basin, collector & still. A cut cell type method was used which gave the
brick type 3D structure as element as shown in Fig. 3.3 and 3.4.For the basin of Single Slope
Solar Still, 1 cm element size was used, for still and collector also 1 cm element size was
used and for rest of the solar still, 1.2 cm size was used. The motive for using such element
size was to minimize computational time without compromising the actual results.

Fig. 3.3 Snapshot of Mesh Closed View of Single Slope Solar Still

10
 Fig. 3.4 Snapshot of back plate aw2d5nd absorber plate of Single Slope Solar Still

In the next chapter, the entire process of simulation of Single Slope Solar Still are explained.
The various models used are discussed along, with the image which clearly explains
everything. Also various boundary conditions are discussed which were used for getting
optimum results. Various graphs have been plotted for the clear understanding of the output
results obtained from simulation along with their comparison with the actual results obtained
from experiments.

11
 Chapter 4

Influencing input parameters for the Thermal Simulation Method

To perform this simulation, a series of steps which starts from the first step of launch of
ANSYS fluent window were followed systematically.

Figure 4.1 shows the window in which transient simulation and correct gravitation of the
model is specified from below.

Fig. 4.1 Snapshot of input parameters of Single Slope Solar Still

Under models option, 3 phases, liquid, vapour and air were declared. Then the energy
equation box was checked in order to use energy equation in the setup as shown in Fig. 4.2.

12
 Fig. 4.2 Snapshot of Energy Equation of Single Slope Solar Still

Now in viscous model, k-epsilon (2 equation) with RNG model was used as shown in Fig.
4.3 because it is assumed to be best for simulation of evaporation and condensation type
problems. Also, enhanced wall treatment with thermal effects was provided.

K-epsilon (k-ε) turbulence model is the most common model used in Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD) to simulate mean flow characteristics for turbulent flow conditions. It is a
two equation model which gives a general description of turbulence by means of
two transport equations (PDEs). The original impetus for the K-epsilon model was to
improve the mixing-length model, as well as to find an alternative to algebraically prescribing
turbulent length scales in moderate to high complexity flows.

 The first transported variable determines the energy in the turbulence and is
called turbulent kinetic energy (k).
 The second transported variable is the turbulent dissipation (ε) which determines the rate
of dissipation of the turbulent kinetic energy.

The exact k-ε equations contain many unknown and unmeasurable terms. For a much more
practical approach, the standard k-ε turbulence model is used which is based on our best
understanding of the relevant processes, thus minimizing unknowns and presenting a set of
equations which can be applied to a large number of turbulent applications.

 For turbulent kinetic energy k

13
  For dissipation e

Fig. 4.3 Snapshot of Viscous model of Single Slope Solar Still

Now, Rosseland model (Fig. 4.4) was used because of its simplicity to work with less
complications and less time. The main input on which maximum parameters depend is
radiation or irradiation. So radiation has been directed in piecewise linear manner.

14
 Fig. 4.4 Snapshot of Rosseland model of Single Slope Solar Still

Now for materials, in fluid, both water vapour and water liquid were provided, and in solid,
both glass and fibre reinforced plastic (FRP) were provided.

Now boundary conditions which are given according to the body as shown in Fig. 4.5.

15
 Fig. 4.5 Snapshot of Boundary Condition of Single Slope Solar Still

Now this included providing different physical conditions such as specifying black body to
absorber plate. Providing convection with the heat transfer coefficient 1.2 to all the walls of
solar still that basically is providing loss on different walls. In case of glass, in this step, its
absorptivity and transmissivity were specified. Also, convection from glass takes place, as a
result of which, convection was specified. After doing this, the basin requires to be patched.
Here patching basically means that the body which is acting as water must be specified.

Thermal analysis part is performed with the help of core i5, 5th generation system. Iterations
were performed, with step size of 150 sec.

4.1 Simulation

After providing the equations and model, contour for the temperature of glass was obtained
as shown in 4.6.

16
 Fig. 4.6 Snapshot of Glass collector of Single Slope Solar Still

And also at the end of simulation the vapour fraction was obtained as shown in Fig. 4.7.

Fig. 4.7 Snapshot of Vapour fraction of Single Slope Solar Still

17
4.2 Result

The variation of temperature between water and glass was plotted as shown in Fig. 4.8.

370
Temp of water Temp of glass
360

350
Temperature (k)

340

330

320

310

300

290

Time (h)

Fig. 4.8 Variation of temperature of water and glass with respect to time

The graph was obtained as expected. The temperature difference initially was less as it was
seen at around 7:00 AM the temperature of water was 322.201 K and the temperature of glass
was 313.35 K showing a difference of 8.84 K and percentage difference of 2.74 % with
respect to water .At 10:00 AM the temperature of water was recorded 338.419 K and the
temperature of glass was 318.948 K showing a difference of 19.47 K and percentage
difference of 5.75 % with respect to water. But from 11:00 AM it was found that temperature
of water was 351.518 K and the temperature of glass was 325.017 K making increase in
difference temperature with value around 26.501 K and percentage difference of 7.53 % with
respect to water. At 1:00 PM temperature of water was highest with 359.551 K and
temperature of glass was 330.555 K showing highest temperature difference of 28.996 K and
highest percentage difference of 8.064 % with respect to water. At 3:00 PM there was
decrease in temperature and it was found to be 351.326 K and temperature of glass was
328.826 K. At evening time 5:00 PM temperature of water was low around 328.634 K and
temperature of glass was 320.2729 K making a difference of 8.3611 K and percentage

18
difference of 2.54% with respect to water. This simulated model was in good agreement with
experimental result.

Another variation was plotted between temperature of glass actual and temperature of glass
simulated and the result obtained is as shown in Fig. 4.9:

340
Temp of glass Temp of glass simulation
330

320

310
Temperature

300

290

280

270

260

Time

Fig. 4.9 Variation of temperature of glass actual and glass simulation vs time

Now initially, the error is large as at 7:00 AM it shows temperature of glass by simulation to
be around 313.352 K instead of 284.1 K which was actual glass temperature. But at around
12:00 AM the simulated temperature was 328.628 K and actual glass temperature was 320.6
K which was roughly closer with difference of 8.028 K and close percentage difference of
2.44 % with respect glass simulated temperature. But at around 1:30 PM temperature of
simulation was 330.579 K which was nearly close to actual glass temperature of 327.4 K with
just difference of 3.179 K and nearly close percentage difference of 0.961% with respect to
glass simulated. And at 5:00 PM the temperature by simulation was 320.2729 K and actual
glass temperature was 314.7 K making difference of 5.5729 K and percentage difference of
1.74 % with respect to glass simulated. This shows that the simulation performed was in
agreement with the actual results.

19
 Chapter 5

Conclusion and Future Scope

The results obtained from simulation were found to be of correct order when compared with
the actual data. The difference in temperature of glass and water was found to be maximum at
1:00 PM with value of 28.996 K. This order of difference matches with the actual
experimental results. Also the temperature of glass obtained through CFD simulation was of
the same order that is at around 1:30 PM the temperature by simulation was 330.579 K which
was nearly close to the actual glass temperature. By the analysis performed, it was shown that
near actual results are obtained from these analyses. Although the results were not accurate
but they draw a clear picture of the trend that follows.

From the analysis performed, very close values of temperature of glass compared to actual
temperature of glass were obtained. Also, temperature of water obtained was very close.
These results and steps could be used to get an exact idea of how one can build an optimum
solar still.

The simulation was performed on small scale Single Slope Solar water still for experimental
purposes but this could be extended to more accurate results by refining mesh and including
higher level equations. This simulation was a step towards obtaining the near perfect result of
experiment.

The step and result obtained could be used in making a large scale desalination plant for
minimizing the need of potable water in the countries like India, Sri lanka and less developed
countries of Africa.

20
 References

[1] Sampathkumar K, Arjunan T V., Pitchandi P, Senthilkumar P. Active solar distillation-

A detailed review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2010;14:1503–26. doi:10.1016 .
[2] Jubran B a. Effect of climatic, design and operational parameters on the yield of a
simple solar still Al-Hinai, H. et al. Energy Conversion and Management, 2002, 43,
(13), 1639–1650. Fuel Energy Abstr 2003;44:87. doi:10.1016/S0140-6701(03)90659-
X.
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