Mohd Hazim Fadli Aminnuddin

i
SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF DOUBLE HOLES FILM

COOLING
MOHD HAZIM FADLI BIN AMINNUDDIN
A project report submitted in

fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the
Degree of Master of Mechanical Engineering
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Manufacture

University Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia
MARCH 2017
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Dedicated to my beloved parents, family, housemates, and foremost all my friends.

Live to eat or eat to live? You decide.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the name of Allah I shall begin.
Through the worst and the best out of me, He kept me going forward to achieve
what had been fated in this long journey. I shall not stop to reach out the true meaning
for the steps that I have taken from the very beginning.
With all my respect and sincerely gratitude to Dr. Mohammad Kamil Abdullah
for every words, wisdom, jokes, idea and everything that he thought me during my
whole thesis writing and experiment session. Throughout the year we had, so much
constraint we had been going through without a single hesitation in decision making.
Such a great supervisor.
Special thanks to my beloved housemate Haswira for everything that we had

fought and shared before. For every knowledge and ideas, thank you for such
memories.
Thanks to all my fellow friends and also staff at Faculty of Mechanical

and Manufacture UTHM for all of the support. The friendship, collegiality and support
provided by them will not be forgotten. Good comes from God, flawed comes from
my own. God bless all of you. Thank you.
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ABSTRACT
In the modern gas turbine, film cooling has been widely used to provide thermal
protection for the external surface of the gas turbine blades. Numerous number of
geometrical arrangement film cooling have been presented for the past 50 years. The
main inspiration of the presented geometrical arrangements film cooling are to
minimize the effect of lift off phenomena caused by the formation of the Counter
Rotating Vortex Pair (CRVP) which commonly discovered in the Single Cylindrical
Hole (SCH) arrangement. In order to reduce the CRVP effects, tremendous efforts
from the past researchers have been made including the introduction of the Double
Cylindrical Hole (DCH). The present study has made use this DCH along with the
employment of several geometrical arrangements including pitch distance (POD),
length between holes in streamwise direction (LoD), compound angle and upstream
ramp. The evaluation of these parameters involved three different blowing ratios, M
and two value of the turbulence intensities, Tu. The diameter of the cooling holes in
the present study is 4.75mm which taken based on the previous study. The present
study has been divided into two major studies namely experimental study and
simulation study. The purpose of the experimental study is to validate the present
simulation study which making use of an open end wind tunnel. As the validation
process shows a good agreement results, 14 more models have been built and tested
using simulation study which the total cases considered are 105. As for the result, all
the considered cases of DCH shows improvement in comparison with SCH. Each of
the considered geometries and flow parameters have their own effects on the film
cooling effectiveness which will be elaborate in details in the further chapter. As
conclusion, the simulation is having good agreement with the present experimental
study and the previous study which is essential to confirm the reliability of the study.
Meanwhile, all DCH shows improvement in term of film cooling effectiveness on each
of blowing ratio value.
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ABSTRAK
Dalam turbin gas moden, filem penyejukan telah digunakan secara meluas untuk
memberi perlindungan haba untuk permukaan luar bilah turbin gas. Banyak susunan
filem penyejukan dan geometri telah dikemukakan untuk 50 tahun yang lalu. Inspirasi
utama dalam memperkenalkan geometri filem penyejukan adalah untuk
mengurangkan kesan kenaikan jet yang disebabkan oleh pembentukan Counter
Rotating Vortex Pair (CRVP) daripada filem penyejukan silinder tunggal (SCH).
Dalam usaha untuk mengurangkan kesan CRVP, banyak usaha dari pengkaji yang
terdahulu telah dibuat termasuk pengenalan tentang dua filem penyejukan silinder
(DCH). Kajian ini telah menggunakan DCH bersama-sama dengan beberapa susunan
dan geometri termasuk jarak melintang (POD), panjang antara lubang dari arah
menegak (LoD), sudut kompaun dan tanjak awal sebelum lubang penyejukan. Bagi
parameter aliran, tiga nisbah tiupan yang berbeza, M dan dua nilai kadar pergolakan,
Tu telah dipertimbangkan. Diameter lubang penyejukan dalam kajian ini adalah
4.75mm yang diambil berdasarkan kajian sebelumnya. Kajian ini telah dibahagikan
kepada dua kajian utama; kajian eksperimen dan kajian simulasi. Setelah proses
pengesahan menunjukkan hasil yang boleh diterima, 14 model yang berbeza telah
dibina dan diuji menggunakan kajian simulasi dan jumlah kes yang dipertimbangkan
adalah 105. Untuk hasil kajian, semua kes DCH yang dipertimbangkan telah
menunjukkan peningkatan dalam keberkesanan filem penyejukan berbanding dengan
kes SCH . Setiap geometri dan parameter aliran mempunyai kesan tersendiri pada
keberkesanan filem penyejukan yang akan diterangkan dengan lebih terperinci dalam
bab-bab yang selanjutnya. Kesimpulannya, hasil kajian simulasi ini mempunyai hasil
yang baik setelah dibandingkan dengan hasil kajian eksperimen ini dan ianya penting
dalam pengesahan kebolehpercayaan kajian. Sementara itu, semua DCH menunjukkan
peningkatan dari segi filem penyejukan keberkesanan pada setiap meniup nilai nisbah.
vii
CONTENTS
TITLE i
DECLARATION ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv
ABSTRACT v
ABSTRAK vi
CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES ix
LIST OF FIGURES x
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xvii
LIST OF APPENDICES xviii
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Background of Study 5
1.3 Problem Statement 5
1.4 Importance of Research 6
1.5 Objectives 6
1.6 Scope of studies 6
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 8
2.1 Introduction 8
2.2 Film cooling and counter rotating vortex pair
concepts 9
2.3 Previous Research 11
2.3.1 Early development of cooling holes 11
2.3.2 Upstream ramp effects 13
2.3.3 Advanced film cooling 14
2.3.4 Flow parameter of cooling holes 15
2.3.4.1 Influence of blowing ratios 15
viii
2.3.4.2 Influence of turbulence intensity 17

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 19
3.1 Introduction 19
3.2 Flow chart 20
3.3 Simulation study 22
3.3.1 Computational domain 22
3.2.2 Mesh dependency test 23
3.2.3 Boundary condition and simulation setup 26
3.2.4 Performances indicator 30
3.4 Experimental study 32
CHAPTER 4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 38
4.1 Introduction 38
4.2 Mesh dependency test 39
4.3 CFD results validation 41
4.4 Effects of turbulence intensities on film cooling
effectiveness 45
4.5 Effects of pitch distance on film cooling
effectiveness 53
4.6 Effects of length between holes (LoD) on film
cooling effectiveness 60
4.7 Effects of compound angle on film cooling
effectiveness 67
4.8 Effect of turbulence intensities on film cooling
effectiveness 74
4.9 Area averaged effectiveness vs total pressure loss
coefficient 83
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 88
5.1 Conclusion 88
5.2 Recommendation for Future Work 89
REFERENCES 91
APPENDIX 94
ix
LIST OF TABLES
3.1 Flow parameters details 27

3.2 Single cylindrical hole (SCH) coolant mass 28
flow rate
3.3 Double cylindrical hole (DCH) coolant mass 28
flow rate
3.4 Details of simulation setup 29
3.5 Parameter and apparatus for experimental 36
measurement
4.1 The number of nodes and elements for coarse, 39
medium and fine mesh.
x
LIST OF FIGURES
1.1 Gas-turbine engine layout 2
1.2 T-s diagram and P-v diagram 2

1.3 The cooling air passages inside the blade and 4
the others internal cooling hole embedded in
turbine blades
1.4 Illustration of the geometrical parameters of 7
the present study
2.1 The chart of specific core power of gas turbine 9
2.2 Formation of the CRVP by the single 10
cylindrical cooling hole
2.3 Formation of vortices produced by the 10
combined hole
2.4 Cylindrical hole, Fan-shaped hole, and 12
Laidback fan-shaped hole details
2.5 Example of trenched film cooling hole 12
geometry
2.6 Test model schematic diagram 14
2.7 Single cylindrical hole arrangement, fan- 15
shaped laidback hole, and double cylindrical
holes
2.8 Graph of film cooling effectiveness, η versus 16
streamwise location, x/Ms0 for varying
blowing ratio
2.9 Comparison of blowing ratios on film cooling 16
effectiveness, η and streamwise location, x/d
xi
from the experimental result of Ligrani and

Lee
2.10 The vorticity contour produced for M = 1 and 17
M = 2 at plane y/D versus x/D
2.11 Influence of turbulence intensity on centerline 18
of film cooling effectiveness, η at different
streamwise location, x/D for M=0.5 and M=1.7
2.12 Film cooling effectiveness at low and high 18
turbulence at plane z/D versus x/D
3.1 The flowchart details 20
3.2 The flow of components in ANSYS CFX 22
3.3 Isometric view for SCH and DCH 23
3.4 Sample of computational domain 23
3.5(a) Upstream ramp dimension details; Rectangular 24
ramp
3.5(b) Upstream ramp dimension details; Triangular 24
ramp
3.6 Computational domain meshes 25
3.7 Inflation for DCH mesh at the cooling hole 25
3.8 Details of boundary conditions 26
3.9 Experimental layout 32
3.10 The dimension of the flat plate 35
3.11 The location of infrared thermography camera, 35
valves and flat plate
3.12(a) Valve 1 open and Valve 2 closed 34
3.12(b) Valve 1 closed and Valve 2 open 34
3.13 Graph of y/δ versus u/U∞ of the velocity profile 35
comparison
3.14 Contoured IR Thermography images imported 37
into the Excel grids
4.1 Mesh dependency test 40
4.2 Results of the present experiment of case 2D45 41
on different blowing ratios
xii
4.3 Laterally averaged film cooling effectiveness, 42

ƞlat.avg at different location, x/D comparison at
M = 0.5
M = 1.0
M = 1.5
4.6 All blowing ratio and turbulence intensities 45
for 2D45 at x/D and z/D plane
4.7 Temperature distribution contour at y/D and 46
z/D plane for turbulence intensities cases at
blowing ratio, M = 0.5
ƞlat.avg at different location, x/D for turbulence
intensities cases at M = 0.5
4.13 Type of the vortices formed 50
4.14 The isosurface of the vortices formed 51
4.15 Vorticity contour plot comparison at y/D and 51
z/D plane for turbulence intensities cases
xiii
4.16 Film cooling distribution PoD and compound 53

angle cases at M = 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 at x/D and
z/D plane
4.17 Temperature distribution contour for PoD 54
cases at blowing ratio, M = 0.5 at y/D and z/D
plane
plane
plane
4.20 Lateral average film cooling effectiveness, 56
ƞlat.avg at different location, x/D of PoD cases at
M = 0.5
M = 1.0
M = 1.5
4.23 Detachment and reattachment for 4D35 case 58
at M = 1.5
4.24 Vorticity contour plot for 2D35, 3D35 and 59
4D35 for all blowing ratios at x/D = 5 on y/D
and z/D plane
4.25 Film cooling effectiveness contour of LoD 60
cases on x/D and z/D plane at M = 0.5
4.26 Temperature distribution contour for LoD 61
cases at blowing ratio, M = 0.5 on y/D and z/D
plane
xiv

plane
plane
ƞlat.avg at different location, x/D for LoD cases
at M = 0.5
at M = 1.0
at M = 1.5
4.32 Vorticity contour plot comparison for LoD 66
cases on y/D and z/D plane
4.33 Film cooling distribution for case 3D35, 3D40 67
and 3D45 at M=0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 on x/D and z/D
plane
4.34 Temperature distribution contour for 68
compound angle cases at blowing ratio, M =
0.5 on y/D and z/D plane
ƞlat.avg at different location, x/D for compound
angle cases at M = 0.5
xv

4.40 Vorticity contour plot for 3D35, 3D40 and 73
3D45 for all blowing ratios at x/D = 5 on y/D
and z/D plane
4.41 Comparison of film cooling effectiveness 74
contour between 2D35 and 2D35 upstream
ramp cases.
4.42 Backflow velocity vector of case 2D35 Rec 75
Ramp at M = 1.5
4.43 Temperature distribution contour for upstream 76
ramp cases at blowing ratio, M = 0.5 on y/D
and z/D plane
and z/D plane
and z/D plane
4.46 Laterally averaged film cooling effectiveness 78
for upstream ramp cases M=0.5
4.49 Velocity profile of upstream ramp cases 80
located at x/D = -1 and z/D = 0 on blowing
ratio 0.5
xvi

located at x/D = 0 and z/D = 0 on blowing ratio
0.5
located at x/D = 1 and z/D = 0 on blowing ratio
0.5
4.52 Vorticity contour plot comparison for 81
upstream ramp cases on y/D and z/D plane at
different blowing ratio, M
4.53 Area averaged effectiveness for all cases 83
4.54 Total pressure loses graph for all cases 85
4.55 Normalize total pressure loss coefficient vs 86
normalize area averaged effectiveness at M =
0.5
1.0
1.5
xvii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREAVIATIONS
A - Area
CRVP - Counter Rotating Vortex Pair
D,d - Diameter
DCH - Double Cooling Holes
DR - Density Ratio
LoD - Distance between holes in streamwise direction
M - Blowing ratio
PoD - Pitch distance
RANS - Reynolds Averaged Navier Stokes
Re - Reynolds number
SCH - Single cooling hole
T - Temperature
Tjet - Coolant temperature
T∞ - Mainstream temperature
Taw - Surface temperature
Tu - Turbulence intensities
ujet - Coolant velocity
u∞ - Mainstream velocity
Ԑ - Dimensionless temperature
θ - Inclination angle
Ƞ - Film cooling effectiveness
α - Compound angle
ṁ - Mass flow rate
ρ - Density
ρjet - Coolant density
ρ∞ - Mainstream density
xviii
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX TITLE PAGE
A Gantt chart 87
B Cases matrix 88
C Computational domain 89
1
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1
1.1 Introduction
Gas turbine engine are widely used in land based power plant and aircraft making its
overall efficiency has been a key research topic in the turbo machinery industry. Gas
turbine generates power by the burning of gasoline, oil, or other fuel which produces
hot gases that will be expanded while producing work. At the early stage of its
introduction, gas turbines have been used mainly in the aviation industry to power the
aircraft. The history starts when Frank Whittle patented the first gas turbine which
involved a compressor unit with two axial stages, followed by a centrifugal stage, an
axial cannular combustor with fuel nozzle and two stages axial turbine in 1930 [1]. On
12 April 1937, Whittle has successfully tested the world’s first kerosene-fueled jet
engine known as Whittle Unit (W.U).
Nowadays, gas turbine has been widely used as power generating devices. In
practice, gas turbines operate in an open cycle and Figure 1.1 shows the major parts of
the gas turbine consists of compressor, combustor and turbine. During the operation
of gas turbines, the fresh air will first drawn into the compressor to increase the
pressure of the air before entering the combustion chamber where the air will be mixed
with the fuel and burned at constant pressure. The resulting high-temperature gases
will enter the turbine where it will be expanded to atmospheric pressure while
generating power through the turbine.
2
Figure 1.1: Gas-turbine engine layout. (Adapted from [2]).
Figure 1.2: T-s diagram and P-v diagram [3].
Figure 1.2 shows the temperature versus entropy, T-s and pressure versus volume,
P-v diagrams for gas turbine. Ideally, gas turbine operates in a Brayton’s cycle
involving four main process [3]. At stage 1-2, fresh ambient air will be drawn in by
the compressor and been compressed to a higher temperature and pressure before
entering the next stage of 2-3. In this stage, these high pressure air then are sent into a
combustion chamber along with the injected fuel, where it is burned at constant
pressure, Qin. Meanwhile in stage 3-4, the high temperature gas will flow through the
turbine resulting it to expand to the ambient pressure while producing power, Wout.
Finally at stage 4-1, the exhaust gases leave the turbine with constant pressure heat
rejection, Qout. The overall thermal efficiency of the Brayton’s cycle as in standard
assumption can be given by [3] is
3
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑡 𝑇4
ηth,Brayton = =1− (1.1)
𝑞𝑖𝑛 𝑇3
Equation 1.1 shows that the efficiency of the gas turbine is proportional
towards the turbine inlet temperature (TIT), T3, where higher TIT will produce higher
cycle efficiency, which has been the approach in development of the modern gas
turbine. In comparison with the early stage of gas turbine operation, the modern gas
turbines are now operating at temperature exceeding 1800 ̊C. This high TIT is
considered as a significant progress in comparison with the initial TIT of the Whittle’s
gas turbine which operating at 760 ̊C [4]. The improvement has been made possible
by the progress made in material development and the introduction of thermal cooling
system.
In the conventional jet engines, the limiting factor is on the performance of the
material used for hot section (e.g.: combustor and turbine). The need for better
materials spurred much research in the field of alloys and manufacturing techniques,
and resulted in a long list of new materials and methods that make modern gas turbines
possible. In the 1940s and 1950s, superalloys and vacuum induction melting which is
the new processing methods have been developed and greatly increased the turbine
blades temperature capabilities [5]. In modern turbine blade, the material that often
used is nickel-based superalloys that incorporate chromium, cobalt and rhenium.
Another major improvement to turbine blade material technology was the development
of thermal barrier coatings (TBC). As the temperature increases, these TBCs will
improvise the blade corrosion and oxidation resistance. The first TBCs applied was on
1970s using aluminide coating and in 1980s the coating has been improved into
ceramic coating [5]. These coatings improve the turbine blade temperature capabilities
nearly 90 ̊C and also doubling the life of the blades in some cases.
In the later year of gas turbine development, thermal cooling system has help
to further improve the overall efficiencies of gas turbines which is embedded in the
turbine blades. Thermal cooling systems are divided into two major categories which
are the internal cooling and the external cooling [6]. Both of these categories are related
towards each other. A cooler air which extracted from the compressor will first be
supplied for internal cooling of the blade. This cooled air will went through a flow
passage inside the blade while picking up heat during the process. This process also
4
known as the convection cooling. As the coolant pick-up the heat along the passages,
some of the coolant will be released through the film cooling. As for external cooling
in the gas turbine, several cooling techniques (impingement cooling, pin fin cooling,
rib turbulated cooling and tip cap cooling) have been applied and the present study is
focusing on the most common technique, film cooling.
Figure 1.3: The cooling air passages inside the blade and the others internal cooling
hole embedded in turbine blades. (Adapted from [7])
5
1.2 Background of study
The film cooling technique is achieved by allowing the coolant to be injected

out from the turbine blade's body through cooling holes. The injected coolant will form
a thin cool layer that covering the blade surface. Most of the available film cooling is
using a single hole cylindrical or shaped holes. A lot of researches have been done to
improve the performance of the film cooling [6]. The film cooling effectiveness
produced by a cylindrical hole is exposed to the Counter Rotating Vortex Pair (CRVP)
phenomena [7]. This CRVP will affect the film cooling effectiveness, which will
further discuss later on in this writing. The present research trend shows a lot of efforts
have been made on proposing new cooling hole geometry to reduce the formation of
CRVP effect which includes trenched hole and anti-vortex hole. Although the shaped
hole known to produce better film cooling effectiveness, single hole is still been used
extensively due to its manufacturability. Wright et al. [8] have proposed a new
geometry of film cooling known as double cylindrical hole. This geometry utilizes a
pair of cylindrical film cooling of approximately the same diameter. Effective
utilization of cylindrical hole arrangement will be able to reduce the manufacturing
cost associated with shaped hole.
1.3 Problem statements
Previous study of Wright et al. [8] reported that the effects of double film cooling hole
arrangement indicates an improvement on the film cooling effectiveness of the cooling
hole vicinity areas. However, due to the short distance between the two holes
considered; the film cooling effectiveness rapidly decays at further downstream of the
cooling hole. By varying the arrangements of double cylindrical holes in terms of
streamwise angles and spacing between the holes, better film cooling effectiveness
might be produced at further downstream. The present study intended to evaluate the
new cooling hole geometrical effects on the performances of the double cylindrical
hole arrangement.
6
1.4 Importance of research
The importance of the present research is to provide extended information on double

cylindrical hole film cooling effectiveness at various geometrical and flow parameters.
The study will also provides information on the flow field of the double cylindrical
hole which could be crucial for future study.
1.5 Objectives
The objectives of the study are:-

a) To validate the film cooling effectiveness prediction by the experimental.
b) To predict the film cooling effectiveness of DCH based on the effects of
various geometrical and flow parameters
c) To clarify the performance of upstream ramp in improving the film cooling
effectiveness
1.6 Scope of studies
This section will describe on the scope of the study involving the geometrical
parameters and flow parameters.
As shown in Figure 1.4, the scope for geometrical parameters of the present study
are;
a) Three compound angle, α are considered; α = 35°, 40° and 45°.
b) The pitch distance, PoD = 2D, 3D and 4D.
c) The distance between holes in streamwise direction, LoD = 1D, 2D and 3D.
d) Two types of upstream ramps; Triangular ramp and Rectangular ramp.
Meanwhile, the scope for flow parameters of the present study;

a) Three blowing ratios, M = 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5
b) Three turbulence intensities, Tu = 1%, 5% and 10%
c) Density ratio, DR = 1.1
7
Figure 1.4: Illustration of the geometrical parameters of the present

8
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Gas turbines are widely used as power generators in power plants and transportation.
Due to the huge demand for higher effectiveness gas turbines, the modern gas turbines
are now having a much higher inlet temperature in comparison with the one at its early
introduction. Figure 2.1 shows the chart of the specific core power as the turbine inlet
temperature increases. The figure indicates several stage of development of the gas
turbine. At the early stage, Whittle’s gas turbine (1937) has low turbine inlet
temperature which is around 600 °C. In order to increase the performances of gas
turbine, the turbine inlet temperature need to be increase. The researchers have been
focusing in the material development as to increases the inlet temperature. However at
some point, the even material can’t withstand to achieve for higher temperature as its
life decreasing by 50% with a 10˚C increase in temperatures above the design
operational limit [9]. To overcome this issue, researchers have introduced a new way
to increase the turbine rotor inlet temperature by implementing a cooling techniques
to the rotor blade which one of them is film cooling [10]. The cooling technique then
become a trend in order to achieve the ideal performance and numerous researches
have been conducted. Lately the researchers are focusing on the flow path of the
turbine, reducing the leakage, using advanced high temperature material and
improving the cooling techniques effectiveness in the pursue of increasing the ideal
performance of the gas turbine.
9
Figure 2.1: The chart of specific core power of gas turbine [9]
2.2 Film cooling and counter rotating vortex pair concepts
As being mentioned in the background of study, the excessive air from the compressor
have been made used as a coolant for turbine blade. This air is injected thorugh the
cooling hole on the turbine blades and form a thin cool layer on the blade’s surface.
Numurous study [10-17] have conducted to increase the effectiveness of this film
cooling. However, researchers have found a phenomena which effecting the film
cooling effectiveness which is known as counter rotating vortex pair (CRVP). Previous
researches indicate that the CRVP which is also known as kidney vortex commonly
formed at single film cooling hole arrangement [10-12]. Figure 2.2 shows the
formation of the CRVP along with others vortices as the coolant from the single
cylindrical cooling hole injected to the mainstream [10]. As the vortices formed, the
hot mainstream flow is pulled and accommodates the space underneath the coolant jet.
Eventually the coolant jet will detach from the surface of the blade, which means the
film cooling effectiveness will start to decrease and this phenomenon is called the Lift-
off phenomena. Numerous new geometrical arrangements have been introduced since
then as the idea is to mitigate the formation of CRVP and among of them is double
cylindrical film cooling hole arrangement or also known as coupling or combined hole.
Meanwhile, Figure 2.3 shows vortices formation using the combined film cooling hole
where it producing the ideal anti-kidney vortices which reducing the CRVP effects
which were tested by Han et al. [11]. This ideal anti-kidney vortices helps to increase
10
the effectiveness of the film cooling. In the present study, there are two single
cylindrical holes facing each other with specific angles, which will be discuss in detail
later in the methodology.
Figure 2.2: Formation of the CRVP by the single cylindrical cooling hole. [10]
Figure 2.3: Formation of vortices produced by the combined hole [11]

11
2.3 Previous research
2.3.1 Early development of cooling holes
For the last few decades, numerous studies on the effect of film cooling hole
geometrical parameters have been conducted. Kwak and Han [12] and Haven et al.
[13] have provided a comprehensive review of film cooling parameters including film
hole geometrical arrangements (shape, orientation angle, and spacing) and flow
conditions (mainstream turbulence intensity, blowing ratio, density ratio, and
momentum flux ratio). The film cooling protection offered by traditional, round
(cylindrical) film cooling holes is strongly affected by the injection angle of the hole
and the coolant-to-mainstream blowing ratio. Decreasing the injection angle of the
hole allows the coolant to remain attached to the film’s cooled surface while
minimizing interaction with the mainstream flow. In the early development of cooling
holes, Eckert et al. [14] experimentally tested the single cylindrical hole film cooling
on 1970. The result shows the flow behaviour of the film cooling where all the results
been analysed and compared. Although the results are promising, there is a lot of things
need to be done and understand. In 1974, Goldstein et al. [15] had experimentally
considered a film cooling with expanded exits. Their result showed that the momentum
of the coolant exiting the hole is reduced when the cross sectional area at the exit hole
is increased. As this coolant velocity is decreased, the coolant remains attached to the
surface even at higher blowing ratios. These enhanced performances were later
confirmed by Gritsch et al. [16]. Figure 2.4 shows three different cooling holes
arrangements that have been considered in the work of Gritsch et al.; cylindrical holes,
fan-shaped holes and laid back fan-shaped holes. The results show that the holes with
expanded exits have profoundly lower heat transfer coefficients at higher blowing
ratios compared to a cylindrical hole. Moreover, the laidback fan-shaped hole provides
better lateral spreading of the jet, which means a lower laterally averaged heat transfer
coefficient in comparison to the fan-shaped hole and single cylindrical hole.
12
Figure 2.4: Cylindrical hole, Fan-shaped hole, and Laidback fan-shaped hole. [15]
Islami et al. [17] have proposed a new arrangement of film cooling known as
a trenched hole. This study presents a comparative-numerical investigation of film
cooling from a row of simple and compound-angle holes injected at 35° on a flat plate
with four film cooling arrangements: (1) cylindrical film hole; (2) 15° forward diffused
film hole; (3) trenched cylindrical film hole; (4) trenched 15° forward-diffused film
hole. All the simulations are at a fixed density ratio of 1.6, blowing ratio of 1.25,
length-to-diameter L/D = 4 and pitch-to-diameter ratio of 3.0. The effect of length-to-
diameter ratio on film cooling has also been investigated using L/D in the range of 1
to 8. Computational solutions of the steady, Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes
equations were obtained by using a finite volume method.
Figure 2.5: Example of trenched film cooling hole geometry. [17]

13
It has been reported that the shape of the hole and the trenched holes can
significantly affect the film cooling flow over the protected surface. Figure 2.5 shows
the example of the trenched film cooling hole geometry. Furthermore, it has been
shown that the film cooling effectiveness produced by trenched shaped holes is higher
in comparison to the other arrangements, both in spanwise and streamwise especially
downstream of the injection. A trenched compound angle injection shaped hole also
produces much higher film cooling protection than the other investigated
arrangements. The length-to-diameter ratio of trenched holes was found to have a
significant effect on film cooling effectiveness and the spread of the coolant jets.
2.3.2 Upstream ramp effects
Besides changing the geometry of the exit holes, additional flow devices could also
help to improve the proposed cooling hole arrangement. Na and Shih [18] have tested
the cooling holes with the implementation of an upstream ramp, which is expected to
modify the mainstream flow profile and the interaction between mainstream and
coolant. The results show promising increases in terms of film cooling distribution and
also lateral film cooling effectiveness. This result has also been confirmed by Samad
and Halder [19] in their work. The effects of the upstream ramp have also been studied
by Barigozzi et al. [20], which is applied to cylindrical and fan-shaped film cooling.
The results show good improvement in terms of film cooling effectiveness for the
cylindrical hole and vice versa or the shaped hole. Meanwhile, in the study of Chen et
al. [21], the performances of upstream ramp were tested using infrared imaging
techniques. The results indicate that the film cooling characteristics further
downstream are influenced by the combination of blowing ratios and the height of the
ramp (angle) where the film cooling protection is more effective when using a large
ramp angle with a high blowing ratio. Figure 2.6 shows the schematic of the test model
for the study of Chen et al.
14
Figure 2.6: Test model schematic diagram. [21]
2.3.3 Advanced film cooling
Lately, advanced film cooling was introduced to overcome the effect of the CRVP.
One of the advance film cooling is an anti-vortex cooling hole. The anti-vortex cooling
hole consists of single holes accompanied by two sister holes which is proposed by
Dungel et al. [22]. The result indicates an improvement in terms of the film cooling
effectiveness compared to the single cylindrical hole while maintaining the value of
blowing ratio. It has been proven to reduce the secondary flow field effects better than
before, which also being agreed by Heidmann [23] and Schulz et al. [24]. Wright et al.
[8] had introduced a combined hole, double cylindrical film cooling arrangement as
an alternative to traditional cylindrical and fan-shaped, and laidback holes as shown in
Figure 2.7. This experimental investigation utilizes a Stereo-Particle Image
Velocimetry (S-PIV) to quantitatively assess the ability of the proposed, double
cylindrical hole geometry to weaken or mitigate the counter-rotating vortices formed
within the jet structure. The three-dimensional flow field measurements are combined
with surface film cooling effectiveness measurements obtained using Pressure
Sensitive Paint (PSP). The double cylindrical hole geometry consists of two compound
angle holes. The inclination of each hole is θ = 35°, and the compound angle of the
holes is β = ± 45° (with the holes angled toward one another). The simple angle
cylindrical and shaped holes both have an inclination angle of θ = 35°.
15
Figure 2.7: Single cylindrical hole arrangement, fan-shaped laidback hole, and
double cylindrical holes. [8]
2.3.4 Flow parameter of cooling holes
2.3.4.1 Influence of blowing ratios
Numerous studies of film cooling are using blowing ratio as one of the flow
parameters. Based on these studies, it is concluded that the film cooling effectiveness
decreases as the blowing ratio increases. This is due to the effects of film attachment
where on the higher blowing ratio, the film is detached from the blade surface. The
relation between blowing ratio and film cooling effectiveness have been verified by
Baldauf et al. [25]. Figure 2.8 shows a graph on the effects of blowing ratios on film
cooling effectiveness. Based on the figure, the graph clearly indicates the effectiveness
is decreasing as the blowing ratio increases even though the pattern of several blowing
ratio is not uniform.
16
Figure 2.8: Graph of film cooling effectiveness, η versus streamwise location, x/Ms0
for varying blowing ratio [25]
Figure 2.9: Comparison of blowing ratios on film cooling effectiveness, η and

streamwise location, x/d from the experimental result of Ligrani and Lee [26]
Meanwhile, Ligrani and Lee [26] has studied the effect of high blowing ratio
on the single row of compound angle film cooling holes and Figure 2.9 shows one of
the result obtained from the study. The figure indicates almost similar pattern to the
results of from Baldauf et al. [25] result where the effectiveness decreases as the
blowing ratio increases. However, the higher blowing ratio also shows reattachment
of the jet to the surface thus increasing the effectiveness at further downstream.
As has been well documented, the strength of the counter-rotating motion
increases with increasing blowing ratio. The counter-rotating vortices are known to
17
have a detrimental effect on the film-cooling performance. Study of Schulz et al. [24]
have shown that when the blowing ratio is high, the magnitude of the produced vortices
are also increases compared to the lower blowing ratios as shown in Figure 2.10. These
large and high center of vortices located at x/D = 3 indicates that the entrainment
phenomena where the mainstream flow tries to accommodate underneath the coolant
jet. This entrainment phenomena triggered the lift off of the coolant jet thus leaving
the surface.
Figure 2.10: The vorticity contour produced for M = 1 and M = 2 at plane y/D versus
x/D. [24]
2.3.4.2 Influence of turbulence intensity
Turbulence is known as fluctuation in air flow measured in terms of turbulence

intensity which usually scaled in units of percentage. Increasing turbulence intensity
generally results in decrease of centerline effectiveness at all downstream locations.
According to the study by Kadotani et al. [27], turbulence intensity is one of the
parameters that can influence the effectiveness of film cooling. Other research by
Launder and York [28] concluded that film cooling effectiveness will decreases as the
18
turbulence intensity increases. Some cases reported by Bons et al. [29] indicate that
the high turbulence intensity will significantly decrease the performance of film
cooling up to 70%. It is proved by Al-Hamadi et al. [30] which tested two values of
turbulence intensity on the centerline film cooling effectiveness; 0.43% and 5.70%.
Figure 2.11 shows the results of the turbulence intensity influence on centerline film
cooling effectiveness using blowing ratios.
Figure 2.11: Influence of turbulence intensity on centerline of film cooling

effectiveness, η at different streamwise location, x/D for M=0.5 and M=1.7 [27]
According to the results, the higher the turbulence intensity indicates lower
effectiveness regardless of a low or high blowing ratio. Another research from Schulz
et al. [24] found that at turbulence intensity equals to 0.7%, larger coverage of film
cooling effectiveness was observed in comparison to the turbulence intensity of 10%.
Figure 2.12 shows the film cooling effectiveness at low and high turbulence.
Figure 2.12: Film cooling effectiveness at low and high turbulence at plane z/D
versus x/D. [24]
19
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
In this chapter, the methodology of the present study will be discussed. The
methodology can be divided into two main parts; experimental and simulation study.
The simulation study was carried out using ANSYS CFX Ver. 15.0 software. This part
of the study will consider several computational domain for each geometrical
parameters with several boundary condition which will be further discussed in this
chapter. Meanwhile, in the experimental study, open end wind tunnel has been used to
run the experiment with the application of several boundary conditions. Only 1 case
(2D45) have been considered in the experimental study while 105 cases for the
simulation study. This chapter also covers in details on the design of all cases including
dimensions, measurement parameters, and the performances indicators for both
experiment and simulation arrangement of double cylindrical hole film cooling.
20
3.2 Flow chart
Figure 3.3 shows the flow chart of the present study detailing all the processes and
steps. In general, the flow of the present study can be divided into two parts;
experimental study and numerical study. Both of these parts take place simultaneously.
Details on the timeline of the present study is shown by the Gantt chart as in
APPENDIX A.
Figure 3.1: The flowchart details

21
In general, the present study is divided into three phases; preliminary study,
experimental and simulation study and extraction, and analysis study. The first phase
involves problem statement formulation, literature review and preliminary studies and
initial activities of both experimental and simulation study. The problem statement
have been identify by reviewing the previous studies. These information and data have
been analyzed and summarized in order to complete the preliminary study. The first
phase also covering the preparation for the both experimental and simulation studies.
The preparation for the experimental study inclusive of individual test of open end
wind tunnel, blower, fan, heater and the venturi meter. In simulation study, fifteen
model have been built based on the preliminary studies. These model then applied with
several boundary conditions, thus there are 105 cases have been considered in the
present simulation study. After the computational domain development, the considered
cases are tested with the mesh dependency test where the most accurate mesh will be
chosen.
Meanwhile, all the experimental work and simulation analysis have been done
in second phase. The flat plate for experimental work have been designed base on the
preliminary studies in the first phase. In experimental work, there are only one model
(2D45) that have been considered and tested with three different value of blowing
ratios. Then the thermal data gathered from both study, the experimental and
simulation will be analysed and evaluated.
Finally, in the third phase, the data from both experimental and numerical
studies have been validated. Several discussions we made between these results along
with the extensive explanation on the flow behavior on the numerical results. At the
end of this phase, all the data and results will be documented and the Gantt chart
associated with the present study can be found in Appendix A.
22
3.3 Simulation study
The present study involved two main studies; simulation and experimental. The
present numerical investigation were carried out through ANSYS CFX software which
commonly used to solve the fluid flow problem. The simulation procedure of ANSYS
CFX software involves five main sub-components as shown in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2: The flow of components in ANSYS CFX
3.3.1 Computational domain
Computational domain is a region where the fluids or any substances flow by and being
solved using equation of motion. In general, the present study involves of two
computational domains; Single Cylindrical Hole (SCH), and Double Cylindrical Hole
(DCH) as shown in Figure 3.3. Overall, 15 different computational domains have been
build according to the geometrical scopes as mentioned earlier in the previous chapter.
Diameter of the cooling hole is set to be at 4.75mm which will be the reference for
others geometrical parameter of the computational domain. Details of the
computational domains parameters are shown in Figure 3.3 and Figure 3.4.
Meanwhile, the other computational domains of DCH cases can be refer to
APPENDIX C. Out of all the aforementioned cases, DCH geometry with 2D space
between holes and spanwise angle of 45 ̊ case has been considered as a baseline case.
The name of the cases have been arranged with the value of the PoD followed by the
compound angle such as 2D45 means 2D PoD and 45 ̊ value of compound angle. The
origin (x,y,z = 0,0,0) of the computational domains has been set to be at the center
between the cooling holes. The upper part of the computational domain has been
23
extended to 10D and 30D in upstream and downstream direction respectively. On the
other hand, the lower part of the computational domain also known as the plenum has
a difference geometry for the SCH and DCH arrangements which is necessary to
accommodate the extra space required in the DCH arrangement.
Figure 3.3: Isometric view for SCH and DCH.
Figure 3.4: Sample of computational domain

24
Figure 3.5: Upstream ramp dimension details; a) Rectangular ramp and b) Triangular
ramp
In the case of upstream ramp with DCH, two different type of ramp have been
considered in the present study; triangular and rectangular ramps. The ramp has been
located upstream of the cooling holes at the distance of 2D from the origin. Both of
the considered ramp types share the same height at 0.25D and 2D base length as shown
in Figure 3.5.
Meanwhile, Figure 3.6 shows the computational domain with the implemented
mesh. The hybrid mesh has been applied for all considered simulation cases where this
mesh consists of unstructured mesh and structured mesh. Figure 3.7 shows the inflation
of the mesh at the critical region which is located at the cooling holes and the surface
of the coolant will be injected. 7 million elements has been applied for each cases
which will be discussed in details in the mesh dependency test section later in this
thesis.
91
REFERENCES
[1] Bill, G. and Patrick, S. (2006) The Development of Jet And Turbine Aero
Engines. 4th edition. ISBN 0 7509 4477 3, p.124.
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[3] Çengel, Y. A. and Michael A. B. (2011) Thermodynamics: An Engineering
Approach. 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 508-09.
[4] Bill, G. (2006) World Encyclopedia of Aero Engines. 5th edition. Sutton
Publishing, p.160.
[5] Koff, B. L. (2003) Gas Turbine Technology Overview - A Designer's
Perspective. AIAA/ICAS International Air and Space Symposium and
Exposition: The Next 100 Years. AIAA 2003-2722.
[6] Yahya, S. M. (2010) Turbines Compressors and Fans. New Delhi: Tata
McGraw-Hill Education, pp. 430–433.
[7] Han, J. C., Park, J. S., and Lie, C. K. (1984) Heat Transfer and pressure drop
in blade cooling channels with turbulence promoters. NASA CR-3837.
[8] Wright, L. M., McClain, S. T., Brown, C. P., and Harmon, W. V. (2013)
Assessment of a Double Hole Film Cooling Geometry Using S-PIV and PSP.
ASME Turbo Expo 2013: Turbine Technical Conference and Exposition, pp.
V03BT13A024-V03BT13A024.
[9] Saunter, M., Clouser, S., and Han, J. C. (1992) Determination of Surface Heat
Transfer and Film Cooling Effectiveness in Unsteady Wake Flow Conditions.
AGARD Conference Proceedings 527, pp. 6-1 to 6-12.
[10] Han, J. C., Dutta, S. and Ekkad, S. V. (2000) Gas Turbines Heat Transfer and
Cooling Technology. New York: Taylor and Francis, pp. 646.
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[11] Han, C., and Ren, J. (2012). Multi-parameter influence on combined-hole film
cooling system. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 55(15), 4232-
4240
[12] Kwak, J. S., and Han, J. C. (2002). Heat transfer coefficient and film-cooling
effectiveness on a gas turbine blade tip. ASME Turbo Expo 2002: Power for
Land, Sea, and Air, pp. 309-318.
[13] Haven, B. A., and Kurosaka, M. (1977) Improved Jet Coverage through Vortex
Cancellation. AIAA Journal. Vol.34, No. 11.
[14] Eckert, E. R. G., Eriksen, V. L., Goldstein, R. J., and Ramsey, J. W. (1970)
Film cooling following injection through inclined circular tubes.
[15] Goldstein, R. J., Eckert, E. R. G., and Burgrraff, F. (1974) Effects of Hole
Geometry and Density on Three-Dimensional Film Cooling. International J.
Heat and Mass Transfer. Vol. 17, pp. 595-607.
[16] Gritsch, M., Schulz A., and Wittig, S. (1998) Adiabatic Wall Effectiveness
Measurements of Film-Cooling Holes with Expanded Exits. ASME J.
Turbomachinery, Vol. 120, pp. 549-556.
[17] Islami, S. B., Tabrizi, S. A., Jubran, B. A., and Esmaeilzadeh, E. (2010).
Influence of trenched shaped holes on turbine blade leading edge film cooling.
Heat Transfer Engineering, 31(10), 889-906.
[18] Na, S., and Shih, T. I. (2007). Increasing adiabatic film-cooling effectiveness
by using an upstream ramp. Journal of heat transfer, 129(4), 464-471.
[19] Halder, P., and Samad, A. (2012). Enhancement of Film Cooling Effectiveness
Using Upstream Ramp. ASME 2012 Gas Turbine India Conference, pp. 551-
557.
[20] Barigozzi, G., Franchini, G., and Perdichizzi, A. (2007, January). The Effect of
an Upstream Ramp on Cylindrical and Fan-Shaped Hole Film Cooling: Part
I—Aerodynamic Results. ASME Turbo Expo 2007: Power for Land, Sea, and
Air, pp. 105-113.
[21] Chen, S. P., Chyu, M. K., and Shih, T. I. P. (2011). Effects of upstream ramp
on the performance of film cooling. International Journal of Thermal Sciences,
50(6), 1085-1094.
[22] Dhungel, S., Phillips, A., Ekkad, S.V., and Heidmann, J.D. (2007)
Experimental Investigation of a Novel Anti-Vortex Film Cooling Hole Design.
ASME Paper GT2007–27419.
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[23] Heidmann, J. D. (2008, January). A numerical study of anti-vortex film cooling

designs at high blowing ratio. ASME Turbo Expo 2008: Power for Land, Sea,
and Air, pp. 789-799.
[24] Schulz, S., Maier, S., and Bons, J. P. (2012, June). An experimental
Investigation of an Anti-Vortex Film Cooling Geometry Under Low and High
Turbulence Conditions. ASME Turbo Expo 2012: Turbine Technical
Conference and Exposition, pp. 1581-1593.
[25] Baldauf, S., Schulz, A., and Wittig, S. (2001). High-resolution measurements
of local effectiveness from discrete hole film cooling. Journal of
Turbomachinery, 123(4), 758-765.
[26] Ligrani, P. M., and Lee, J. S. (1996). Film cooling from a single row of
compound angle holes at high blowing ratios. International Journal of Rotating
Machinery, 2(4), 259-267.
[27] Kadotani, K., and Goldstein, R. J. (1979). On The Nature of Jets Entering A
Turbulent Flow: Part A—Jet–Mainstream Interaction. Journal of Engineering
for Gas Turbines and Power, 101(3), 459-465.
[28] Launder, B. E., and York, J. (1974). Discrete-hole cooling in the presence of
free stream turbulence and strong favourable pressure gradient. International
Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, 17(11), 1403-1409.
[29] Bons, J. P., MacArthur, C. D., and Rivir, R. B. (1996). The effect of high free-
stream turbulence on film cooling effectiveness. Journal of Turbomachinery,
118(4), 814-825.
[30] Al-Hamadi, A. K., Jubran, B. A., and Theodoridis, G. (1998). Turbulence
intensity effects on film cooling and heat transfer from compound angle holes
with particular application to gas turbine blades. Energy conversion and
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Appl. Math. Models, vol. 10, pp. 190-220.

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SIMULATION AND EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF DOUBLE HOLES FILM

MOHD HAZIM FADLI BIN AMINNUDDIN

A project report submitted in

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Manufacture

Dedicated to my beloved parents, family, housemates, and foremost all my friends.

In the name of Allah I shall begin.

Special thanks to my beloved housemate Haswira for everything that we had

Thanks to all my fellow friends and also staff at Faculty of Mechanical

2.3.4.2 Influence of turbulence intensity 17

3.1 Flow parameters details 27

1.1 Gas-turbine engine layout 2

1.2 T-s diagram and P-v diagram 2

from the experimental result of Ligrani and

4.3 Laterally averaged film cooling effectiveness, 42

4.16 Film cooling distribution PoD and compound 53

4.27 Temperature distribution contour for LoD 62

4.38 Laterally averaged film cooling effectiveness, 71

4.50 Velocity profile of upstream ramp cases 80

LIST OF SYMBOLS AND ABBREAVIATIONS

APPENDIX TITLE PAGE

Figure 1.1: Gas-turbine engine layout. (Adapted from [2]).

Figure 1.2: T-s diagram and P-v diagram [3].

1.2 Background of study

The film cooling technique is achieved by allowing the coolant to be injected

1.3 Problem statements

1.4 Importance of research

The importance of the present research is to provide extended information on double

The objectives of the study are:-

1.6 Scope of studies

Meanwhile, the scope for flow parameters of the present study;

Figure 1.4: Illustration of the geometrical parameters of the present

2.2 Film cooling and counter rotating vortex pair concepts

Figure 2.3: Formation of vortices produced by the combined hole [11]

2.3 Previous research

2.3.1 Early development of cooling holes

Figure 2.5: Example of trenched film cooling hole geometry. [17]

2.3.2 Upstream ramp effects

Figure 2.6: Test model schematic diagram. [21]

2.3.3 Advanced film cooling

2.3.4 Flow parameter of cooling holes

2.3.4.1 Influence of blowing ratios

Figure 2.9: Comparison of blowing ratios on film cooling effectiveness, η and

2.3.4.2 Influence of turbulence intensity

Turbulence is known as fluctuation in air flow measured in terms of turbulence

Figure 2.11: Influence of turbulence intensity on centerline of film cooling

3.2 Flow chart

Figure 3.1: The flowchart details

3.3 Simulation study

Figure 3.2: The flow of components in ANSYS CFX

3.3.1 Computational domain

Figure 3.3: Isometric view for SCH and DCH.

Figure 3.4: Sample of computational domain

[23] Heidmann, J. D. (2008, January). A numerical study of anti-vortex film cooling

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