9781133109280_App_D1.

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Appendix D.1 ■ Review of Algebra, Geometry, and Trigonometry D1

D Properties and Measurement

D.1 Review of Algebra, Geometry, and

Trigonometry
■ Algebra
■ Properties of Logarithms
■ Geometry
■ Plane Analytic Geometry
■ Solid Analytic Geometry
■ Trigonometry
■ Library of Functions

Algebra
Operations with Exponents
xn
1. x nx m  x nm 2.  x nm 3. 共xy兲 n  x ny n
xm

冢xy冣
n
xn
4.  5. 共x n兲 m  x nm 6. x n   共x n兲
yn
7. cx n  c共x n兲 8. x n  x共n 兲
m m

Exponents and Radicals (n and m are positive integers)

1. x n  x  x  x . . . x 2. x 0  1, x  0
n factors
1
3. xn  n , x  0 n x  a
*4. 冪 x  an
x
6. x m兾n  共x1兾n兲m  共冪 x兲
m
5. x1兾n  冪n
x n

x m兾n
 共x 兲  冪x m
m 1兾n n

2 x  冪x
7. 冪

Operations with Fractions

ad  bc
1.
a c
 
b d b d
a d
冢 冣  dc 冢bb冣  ad 
bd bd
bc

bd
ad  bc
a
2.  
c
b d b d
a d
冢 冣  dc 冢bb冣  ad 
bd bd
bc

bd

3. 冢 冣冢 冣
a c
b d

ac
bd

4.
a兾b
c兾d
 冢 冣冢 冣  adbc
a d
b c
5.
ab b
ac

c
ab  ac a共b  c兲 b  c
a兾b a兾b
c

c兾1
 冢ab冣冢1c 冣  bca ad

ad

d

* If n is even, the principal nth root is defined to be positive.

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D2 Appendix D ■ Properties and Measurement

Quadratic Formula
b ± 冪b2  4ac
ax 2  bx  c  0 x
2a

Factors and Special Products

1. x 2  a2  共x  a兲共x  a兲
2. x3  a3  共x  a兲共x 2  ax  a2兲
3. x3  a3  共x  a兲共x 2  ax  a2兲
4. x 4  a 4  共x  a兲共x  a兲共x 2  a2兲

Factoring by Grouping
acx3  adx 2  bcx  bd  ax 2共cx  d兲  b共cx  d兲  共ax2  b兲共cx  d兲

Binomial Theorem
1. 共x  a兲2  x 2  2ax  a2
2. 共x  a兲2  x 2  2ax  a2
3. 共x  a兲3  x3  3ax 2  3a2x  a3
4. 共x  a兲3  x3  3ax 2  3a2x  a3
5. 共x  a兲4  x 4  4ax3  6a2x 2  4a3x  a4
6. 共x  a兲4  x 4  4ax3  6a2x 2  4a3x  a4
n共n  1兲 2 n2 n共n  1兲共n  2兲 3 n3 . . .
7. 共x  a兲n  x n  nax n1  ax  ax   nan1x  an
2! 3!
n共n  1兲 2 n2 n共n  1兲共n  2兲 3 n3 . . .
8. 共x  a兲n  x n  nax n1  ax  ax  ± nan1x  an
2! 3!

Miscellaneous
1. If ab  0, then a  0 or b  0.
2. If ac  bc and c  0, then a  b.
3. Factorial: 0!  1, 1!  1, 2!  2  1, 3!  3  2  1, 4!  4  3  2  1, etc.

Sequences
1. Arithmetic: a, a  b, a  2b, a  3b, a  4b, a  5b, . . .
2. Geometric: ar 0, ar1, ar 2, ar 3, ar 4, ar 5, . . .
a共1  r n1兲
ar 0  ar1  ar 2  ar 3  . . .  ar n 
1r
1 1 1 1 1 1
3. General harmonic: , , , , , ,. . .
a a  b a  2b a  3b a  4b a  5b
1 1 1 1 1
4. Harmonic: , , , , , . . .
1 2 3 4 5
1 1 1 1 1
5. p-Sequence: p , p , p , p , p , . . .
1 2 3 4 5
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Appendix D.1 ■ Review of Algebra, Geometry, and Trigonometry D3

Series
1
 1  共x  1兲  共x  1兲2  共x  1兲3  共x  1兲4  . . .  共1兲n共x  1兲n  . . . , 0 < x < 2
x
1
 1  x  x 2  x3  x 4  x 5  . . .  共1兲nx n  . . . , 1 < x < 1
1x
共x  1兲2 共x  1兲3 共x  1兲4 . . . 共1兲n1共x  1兲n . . .
ln x  共x  1兲       , 0 < x 2
2 3 4 n
x2 x3 x4 x5 xn
ex  1  x      . . .   . . . ,  < x < 
2! 3! 4! 5! n!
x3 x 5 x7
sin x  x     . . . ,  < x < 
3! 5! 7!
x2 x 4 x6 . . .
cos x  1     ,  < x < 
2! 4! 6!
k共k  1兲x 2 k共k  1兲共k  2兲x3 k共k  1兲共k  2兲共k  3兲x 4 . . .
共1  x兲k  1  kx     , 1 < x < 1*
2! 3! 4!
k共k  1兲x 2 k共k  1兲共k  2兲x3 k共k  1兲共k  2兲共k  3兲x 4 . . .
共1  x兲k  1  kx     , 1 < x < 1*
2! 3! 4!

Properties of Logarithms

Inverse Properties
1. ln e x  x
2. eln x  x

Properties of Logarithms
1. ln 1  0
2. ln e  1
3. ln xy  ln x  ln y
x
4. ln  ln x  ln y
y
5. ln x y  y ln x
ln x
6. loga x 
ln a

*The convergence at x  ± 1 depends on the value of k.

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D4 Appendix D ■ Properties and Measurement

Geometry
Triangles
1. General triangle
β h
Sum of angles
    180 α θ
b
1 1
Area  (base)(height)  bh
2 2
2. Similar triangles
β β
a A a
 A
b B
α
b α
B

3. Right triangle
α c
c2  a2  b2 (Pythagorean Theorem) a

Sum of acute angles

   90 β
b

4. Equilateral triangle
60°
s s
冪3s h
Height  h 
2 60° 60°
s
冪3s2
Area 
4
5. Isosceles right triangle
45°
s2
Area  s
2

45°
s

Quadrilaterals (Four-Sided Figures)

1. Rectangle 2. Square
Area  共length兲共width兲  lw Area  共side兲2  s2

3. Parallelogram 4. Trapezoid
1
Area  bh Area  h共a  b兲
2
a

h
h b
a
b
b h
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Appendix D.1 ■ Review of Algebra, Geometry, and Trigonometry D5

Circles and Ellipses

1. Circle 2. Sector of circle 共 in radians兲
r 2
Area  r 2 Area 
2
Circumference  2 r s  r

s
r
θ
r

3. Circular ring 4. Ellipse

Area   共R 2  r 2兲 Area   ab

冪a  b2
2
Circumference ⬇ 2
r 2
R
b
a

Solid Figures
1. Cone 共A  area of base兲
Ah h
Volume 
3 A

2. Right circular cone

 r 2h h
Volume  r
3
Lateral surface area   r冪r 2  h2

3. Frustum of right circular cone r

共
 rR  兲h
r2 R2 s
Volume  h
3 R
Lateral surface area  s共R  r兲

4. Right circular cylinder r

Volume  r 2h
h
Lateral surface area  2rh

5. Sphere
4
Volume   r 3 r
3
Surface area  4 r 2
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D6 Appendix D ■ Properties and Measurement

Plane Analytic Geometry

Distance Between 冇x1, y1冈 and 冇x2, y2冈
d  冪共x2  x1兲2  共 y2  y1兲2

Midpoint Between 冇x1, y1冈 and 冇x2, y2冈

x1  x2 y1  y2
Midpoint  冢 2
,
2 冣
Slope of Line Passing Through 冇x1, y1冈 and 冇x2, y2冈
y2  y1
m
x2  x1

Slopes of Parallel Lines

m1  m2

Slopes of Perpendicular Lines

1
m1  
m2

Equations of Lines
Point-slope form: y  y1  m共x  x1兲 General form: Ax  By  C  0
Vertical line: x  a Horizontal line: y  b
Slope-intercept form: y  mx  b

Equations of Circles 关Center: 冇h, k冈, Radius: r兴

Standard form: 共x  h兲2  共 y  k兲2  r 2
General form: Ax 2  Ay 2  Dx  Ey  F  0

Equations of Parabolas 关Vertex: 冇h, k冈兴

Axis: Axis
x=h
Directrix
Vertex
Focus: p<0
(h, k + p)
Focus

p>0

Vertex: Directrix:
(h, k) y=k−p

共x  h兲2  4p共 y  k兲
(a) Vertical axis: p > 0 (b) Vertical axis: p < 0

Directrix: Directrix
x=h−p
Vertex

Focus
Axis
Focus: (h + p, k)
Axis:
y=k
Vertex: (h, k)
p<0
p>0

共 y  k兲2  4p共x  h兲
(c) Horizontal axis: p > 0 (d) Horizontal axis: p < 0
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Appendix D.1 ■ Review of Algebra, Geometry, and Trigonometry D7

Equations of Ellipses 关Center: 冇h, k冈兴

y y

(h, k)
(h, k) 2a
2b

2a x
x
2b

共x  h兲2 共 y  k兲2 共x  h兲2 共 y  k兲2

 1  1
a2 b2 b2 a2

Equations of Hyperbolas 关Center: 冇h, k冈兴

y y

(h, k + c)

(h − c, k) (h, k) (h + c, k)
(h, k)
x
x

(h, k − c)

共x  h兲2 共 y  k兲2 共 y  k兲2 共x  h兲2

 1  1
a2 b2 a2 b2

Solid Analytic Geometry

Distance Between 冇x1, y1, z1冈 and 冇x2 , y2 , z2冈
d  冪共x2  x1兲2  共 y2  y1兲2  共z2  z1兲2

Midpoint Between 冇x1, y1, z1冈 and 冇x2 , y2 , z2冈

x1  x2 y1  y2 z1  z2
Midpoint  冢 2
,
2
,
2 冣
Equation of Plane
Ax  By  Cz  D  0

Equation of Sphere 关Center: 冇h, k, l冈, Radius: r兴

共x  h兲2  共 y  k兲2  共z  l 兲2  r 2
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D8 Appendix D ■ Properties and Measurement

Trigonometry
Definitions of the Six Trigonometric Functions
Right triangle definition: 0 < < 兾2
opp hyp
sin  csc  se
nu

Opposite
hyp opp te
po
Hy
adj hyp
cos  sec 
hyp adj
opp adj θ
tan  cot 
adj opp Adjacent

Circular function definition: is any angle in standard position and 共x, y) is a

point on the terminal ray of the angle.
y r y
sin  csc 
r y r = x2 + y2
(x, y)
x r
cos  sec  r
r x y θ

y x
tan  cot  x
x
x y

Signs of the Trigonometric Functions by Quadrant

Quadrant sin cos tan cot sec csc

I      
II      
III      
IV      

Trigonometric Identities
Reciprocal identities
1 1 1
sin  cos  tan 
csc sec cot
1 1 1
csc  sec  cot 
sin cos tan
sin cos
tan  cot 
cos sin

Pythagorean identities
sin2  cos2  1 tan2  1  sec2 cot2  1  csc2

Reduction formulas
sin共 兲  sin cos共 兲  cos tan共 兲  tan
sin  sin共  兲 cos  cos共  兲 tan  tan共  兲
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Appendix D.1 ■ Review of Algebra, Geometry, and Trigonometry D9

Trigonometry (Continued)
Sum or difference of two angles
sin共 ± 兲  sin cos  ± cos sin 
cos共 ± 兲  cos cos   sin sin 
tan ± tan 
tan共 ± 兲 
1  tan tan 
sin共  兲 sin共  兲  sin2  sin2 
cos共  兲 cos共  兲  cos2  sin2 

Double-angle identities
sin 2  2 sin cos
cos 2  2 cos2  1  1  2 sin2
2 tan
tan 2 
1  tan2

Multiple-angle identities
sin 3  3 sin  4 sin3
cos 3  3 cos  4 cos3
3 tan  tan3
tan 3 
1  3 tan2
sin 4  4 sin cos  8 sin3 cos
cos 4  8 cos4  8 cos2  1
4 tan  4 tan3
tan 4 
1  6 tan2  tan4

Half-angle identities
1
sin2  共1  cos 2 兲
2
1
cos2  共1  cos 2 兲
2

Product identities
1 1
sin sin   cos共  兲  cos共  兲
2 2
1 1
cos cos   cos共  兲  cos共  兲
2 2
1 1
sin cos   sin共  兲  sin共  兲
2 2
1 1
cos sin   sin共  兲  sin共  兲
2 2
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D10 Appendix D ■ Properties and Measurement

Library of Functions
Algebraic Functions
y y y

2 4 2

1 3 1
x 2 x
− 2 −1 1 2 −2 1 2
−1 1 −1

−2 x −2
−2 −1 1 2

Linear or First-Degree Quadratic or Second-Degree Cubic or Third-Degree

Polynomial Polynomial Polynomial
f 共x兲  x f 共x兲  x 2 f 共x兲  x 3

y y y

4 2 3
2
3 1
1
2 x x
−2 1 2 −3 1 2 3
1 −1
x −2
− 2 −1 1 2

Fourth-Degree Polynomial Fifth-Degree Polynomial Rational Function

f 共x兲  x 4 f 共x兲  x 5 1
f 共x兲 
x

y y y

4 4 4

2 2 2

x x x
−2 4 6 −4 4 −4 −2 2 4
−2

−4

Rational Function Rational Function Rational Function

x1 5 x2  1
f 共x兲  f 共x兲  f 共x兲 
x2 x2  4 x

y y

4 2

3 1
2 x
−2 −1 1 2
1
x −2
1 2 3 4

Square Root Function Cube Root Function

f 共x兲  冪x f 共x兲  冪
3 x
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Appendix D.1 ■ Review of Algebra, Geometry, and Trigonometry D11

Library of Functions (Continued)

Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
y y y

x x x
1 2 3 4
−1

−2

Exponential Function Exponential Function Logarithmic Function

f 共x兲  a x, a > 1 f 共x兲  a x, 0 < a < 1 f 共x兲  ln x

Trigonometric Functions
y y y

2 2 4

1 2

x x x
π π 2π π π 2π −π π
2 −1 2
−2 −2

Sine Function Cosine Function Tangent Function

f 共x兲  sin x f 共x兲  cos x f 共x兲  tan x

y y y

4 4 4

2 2

x x x
−π π −π π −π −π π π
2 2 2

Cosecant Function Secant Function Cotangent Function

f 共x兲  csc x f 共x兲  sec x f 共x兲  cot x

Nonelementary Functions
y y y

4 2
4
3 1
2 x
x −2 −1 1 2
1 −2 2 4
x −2
−2 −1 1 2
Absolute Value Function Piecewise-Defined Function Step Function

f 共x兲  xⱍⱍ f 共x兲 

1  x,
冦 x < 1
冪x  1, x  1
f 共x兲  冀x冁
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D12 Appendix D ■ Properties and Measurement

D.2 Units of Measurements

■ Units of Measurement of Length
■ Units of Measurement of Area
■ Units of Measurement of Volume
■ Units of Measurement of Mass and Force
■ Units of Measurement of Temperature
■ Miscellaneous Units and Number Constants

Units of Measurement of Length

English System: Inch 冇in.冈, Foot 冇ft冈, Yard 冇yd冈, Mile 冇mi冈
1 mi ⫽ 5280 ft 1 mi ⫽ 1760 yd
1 yd ⫽ 3 ft 1 ft ⫽ 12 in.

Metric System: Millimeter 冇mm冈, Centimeter 冇cm冈, Meter 冇m冈, Kilometer 冇km冈
1 km ⫽ 1000 m 1 m ⫽ 100 cm
1 m ⫽ 1000 mm 1 cm ⫽ 10 mm

Conversion Factors 冇six significant figures冈

Metric to English English to Metric
1 mm ⬇ 0.0393701 in. 1 in. ⬇ 25.4000 mm
1 cm ⬇ 0.393701 in. 1 in. ⬇ 2.54000 cm
1 m ⬇ 3.28084 ft 1 ft ⬇ 0.304800 m
1 m ⬇ 1.09361 yd 1 yd ⬇ 0.914400 m
1 km ⬇ 0.621371 mi 1 mi ⬇ 1.60934 km

Miscellaneous
1 fathom ⫽ 6 ft
1 astronomical unit ⬇ 93,000,000 mi (average distance between earth and sun)
1 light-year ⬇ 5,880,000,000,000 mi (distance traveled by light in 1 year)

Units of Measurement of Area

English System: Square Inch 冇in.2 冈, Square Foot 冇ft 2 冈, Square Yard 冇yd2 冈,
Acre, Square Mile 冇mi 2 冈
1 mi2 ⫽ 640 acres 1 acre ⫽ 43,560 ft2
1 yd2 ⫽ 9 ft2 1 ft2 ⫽ 144 in.2

Metric System: Square Centimeter 冇cm2 冈, Square Meter 冇m2 冈,

Square Kilometer 冇km2 冈
1 km2 ⫽ 1,000,000 m2 1 m2 ⫽ 10,000 cm2
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Appendix D.2 ■ Units of Measurements D13

Units of Measurement of Area (Continued)

Conversion Factors 冇six significant figures冈
Metric to English English to Metric
1 cm2 ⬇ 0.155000 in.2 1 in.2 ⬇ 6.45160 cm2
1 m2 ⬇ 10.7640 ft2 1 ft2 ⬇ 0.0929030 m2
1 m2 ⬇ 1.19599 yd2 1 yd2 ⬇ 0.836127 m2
1 km2 ⬇ 0.386102 mi2 1 mi2 ⬇ 2.58999 km2

Miscellaneous
1 square mile ⫽ 1 section ⫽ 4 quarters

Units of Measurement of Volume

English System: Cubic Inch 冇in.3 冈 , Cubic Foot 冇ft 3 冈 , Cubic Yard 冇yd 3 冈 ,
Fluid Ounce 冇fl oz冈 , Pint 冇pt冈 , Quart 冇qt冈 , Gallon 冇gal冈
1 yd3 ⫽ 27 ft3 1 ft3 ⫽ 1728 in.3
1 gal ⫽ 4 qt 1 qt ⫽ 2 pt
1 qt ⫽ 32 fl oz 1 pt ⫽ 16 fl oz
1 gal ⬇ 231 in.3 1 ft3 ⬇ 7.48052 gal

Metric System: Cubic Centimeter 冇cm 3 or cc冈 , Cubic Meter 冇m3 冈 ,

Milliliter 冇mL冈 , Liter
1 m3 ⫽ 1000 liters 1 liter ⫽ 1000 mL
1 cm3 ⫽ 1 cc ⫽ 1 mL

Conversion Factors 冇six significant figures冈

Metric to English English to Metric
1 ⬇ 0.0610237
cm3 in.3 1 in.3 ⬇ 16.3871 cm3
1 m ⬇ 35.3147 ft3
3 1 ft3 ⬇ 0.0283168 m3
1 m3 ⬇ 1.30795 yd3 1 yd3 ⬇ 0.764555 m3

Miscellaneous
1 gallon ⫽ 5 fifths 1 fifth ⬇ 0.757 liter
1 quart ⫽ 4 cups 1 cup ⫽ 16 tablespoons
1 tablespoon ⫽ 3 teaspoons
1 barrel 共bl兲 ⫽ 42 gallons 共petroleum兲
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D14 Appendix D ■ Properties and Measurement

Units of Measurement of Mass and Force

English System 冇Force or Weight冈 : Ounce 冇oz冈 , Pound 冇lb冈 , Ton
1 ton ⫽ 2000 lb 1 lb ⫽ 16 oz

Metric System 冇Mass冈 : Gram 冇g冈 , Kilogram 冇kg冈 , Metric Ton

1 metric ton ⫽ 1000 kg 1 kg ⫽ 1000 g

Conversion Factors 冇six significant figures at sea level冈

Metric to English English to Metric
1 g ⬇ 0.0352740 oz 1 oz ⬇ 28.3495 g
1 kg ⬇ 2.20462 lb 1 lb ⬇ 0.453592 kg
1 metric ton ⬇ 1.10231 ton 1 ton ⬇ 0.907185 metric ton

Units of Measurement of Temperature

Fahrenheit 冇⬚F冈, Celsius 冇⬚C冈 , Kelvin or Absolute 冇K冈
Celsius to Fahrenheit Fahrenheit to Celsius
9 5
F ⫽ C ⫹ 32 C ⫽ 共F ⫺ 32兲
5 9
Celsius to Kelvin Kelvin to Celsius
K ⫽ C ⫹ 273.15 C ⫽ K ⫺ 273.15
Freezing temperature for water ⫽ 32⬚F ⫽ 0⬚C
Boiling temperature for water ⫽ 212⬚F ⫽ 100⬚C
Absolute zero temperature ⫽ 0 K ⫽ ⫺273.15⬚C ⫽ ⫺459.67⬚F
共0 K is, by definition, the lowest possible temperature, at which there
is no molecular activity.兲

Miscellaneous Units and Number Constants

␲ ⬇ 3.1415926535 e ⬇ 2.7182818284
Equatorial radius of the earth ⬇ 3963.19 mi ⬇ 6378.137 km
Polar radius of the earth ⬇ 3949.90 mi ⬇ 6356.752 km
Acceleration due to gravity at sea level ⬇ 32.1740 ft兾sec2
Speed of sound at sea level (standard atmosphere) ⬇ 1116.45 ft兾sec
Speed of light in vacuum ⬇ 186,282 mi兾sec
Density of water: 1 ft3 ⬇ 62.425 lb