1.

0 Introduction

A pipe is a closed conduit or medium which carries fluid. Piping networks are used extensively to
carry all types of fluids from one place to another. In order to design a piping network and to determine the
required pumping capacity, engineers must be able to identify the losses that will occur in the system.

Fluid flow in the direction of decreasing pressure and the decrease in pressure due to the frictional
losses in a pipe network system. It is essential to know the total head loss in a pipe network so that a pump
with a suitable power can be employed upstream to overcome the friction and to have the flow of the
fluid. The resistance may due to the friction on the internal surface of pipe, sudden contraction or expansion,
fittings used in plumbing, elbows, valve, junctions, all cause head losses (Rick, S., 2017).

For a selected diameter and length of pipe, pressure losses are experienced due to friction effects, a
function of the Reynolds Number. The Reynolds number is a dimensionless number that defined the ratio
of inertial forces to viscous forces and is a convenient parameter for predicting if a flow condition will
be laminar or turbulent. It can be interpreted that when the viscous forces are dominant, they are sufficient
enough to keep all the fluid particles in line, then the flow is laminar. Even very low Re indicates viscous
creeping motion, where inertia effects are negligible. When the inertial forces dominate over the viscous
forces or when the fluid is flowing faster and Re is larger, then the flow is turbulent (Nuclear Power For
Everybody, n.d.).

Flow in a pipe can be grouped into two which are laminar and turbulent flows. Laminar flow is a
type of fluid flow which the fluid travels in a smooth or regular path. Laminar flow is also known as
streamline flow because velocity and pressure in the fluid are constant. Turbulent flow is an irregular flow
which is characterised by whirlpool regions. The velocities of this type of fluid are not constant at every
point. The main differences between laminar and turbulent flow are laminar flow is smooth while turbulent
flow is not. Shear stress in laminar flow is dependent on viscosity and it is independent on density whereas
shear stress in turbulent flow is dependent on the density (Cengel, Y. A. and Cimbala, J.M. ,2014).

Figure 1: Type of Water Flows in pipe.

1
 The Fluid Friction Measurements unit (Figure 1) provides facilities for the detailed study of fluid
friction head losses which occur when an incompressible fluid flows through pipes, fittings and flow
metering devices. A wide range of measurements, demonstrations and training exercises are possible with
this equipment such as confirming the relationship between head loss due to fluid friction and velocity for
flow of water, determining the head loss associated with flow through a variety of standard pipe fittings,
and the relationship between pipe friction coefficients and Reynolds' number for flow through a pipe with
roughened bore. (Pipe Friction Loss, 2015).

Figure 2: Fluid Friction Measurements Apparatus.

In this experiment, the head loss and friction factor through 10 mm and 17 mm smooth bore pipe
and 17 mm roughened bore pipe will be determined experimentally and will be compared with prediction
made using the Darcy – Weisbach Equation.

2.0 Objective
The purpose of this experiment is:
 To obtain the relationship between Reynold number, frictional factor and losses in pipe.
 To determine the relationship between head loss due to fluid friction and velocity for flow of
water through bore pipes.

2
3.0 Theory

3.1 Bernoulli’s equation

Bernoulli’s equation relates pressure, velocity and elevation between any two points in the
flow. Head loss is added because the fluid flow will be effect by the friction due to the pipe
wall. The head loss will increase when the fluid flow through fittings (elbows or bends) due to the
friction effect that caused by the viscosity. Therefore, Bernoulli’s equation can be expressed into:
𝐏𝟏 𝒗𝟐𝟏 𝐏𝟐 𝒗𝟐𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐 + 𝐡𝐋 [𝟏]
𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈 𝝆𝒈 𝟐𝒈
where:

hL = head loss (m)

3.2 Reynold Number

Reynolds number is the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces. Reynolds number is a parameter to predict
the flow which is laminar or turbulent. From the ratio, when the viscous forces are dominant, they are
sufficient enough to keep all the fluid particles in line. Therefore, the flow is laminar. When the inertial
forces dominate over the viscous forces, then the flow is turbulent. Reynolds number is a dimensionless
number comprised of the physical characteristics of the flow.

𝜌𝑣𝐷
Re = 𝜇
[2]

where:

Re = Reynolds’s number

ρ = the density of the fluid (kg/m3)

v = the velocity of the fluid (m/s)

D = the "characteristic length “or diameter of the fluid flow (m)

μ = the viscosity of the fluid (kg/ms)

Under most practical conditions, the flow in circular pipe is laminar for Re ≤ 2300, turbulent for Re ≥ 4000
and transitional is in between.

3
3.3 Laminar Flow

For a fully developed laminar flow, the friction factor can obtain from:

Figure 3: Friction Factor for Fully Developed Laminar Flow In Pipe Of Various Cross Sections

Based on the nature of the flow in this experiment, friction factor can be estimated using the following
correlations:
Since the pipe has a circle cross sections, therefore,
Laminar flow f = 64 / Re [3]

3.4 Turbulent Flow

For a fully developed turbulent flow, the friction factor of the commercial pipe can be calculated using an
empiricism equation which is known as the Colebrook-White formula:

1 ∈/𝐷 2.51
Turbulent flow √𝑓
= - 2.0 log ( 3.7 + Re √f ) (Colebrook equation) [4]

where:

Re = Reynolds’s number

∈ = absolute roughness of the pipe wall

4
3.5 Darcy friction factor
Friction losses are a complex function of the system geometry, the fluid properties and the flow rate in the
system. By observation, the head loss is roughly proportional to the square of the flow rate in most
engineering flows (fully developed, turbulent pipe flow). The total head loss can be expressed in:
ℎ𝐿 = ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 + ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 [5]
In typical system with long pipes, the losses due to the fittings , valves, bends, elbows, tees, inlets, exits ,
expansions, and contraction are considered as minor head loss while the losses due to the pipe wall
considered as major head loss.
𝑣2
ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 =𝐾𝐿 2𝑔
[6]

𝐿 𝑣2
ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 = f 𝐷 2𝑔 [7]

where:

hL = head loss (m)

𝐾𝐿 = loss coefficient of fittings

f = friction factor

L = length of pipe work (m)

D = inner diameter of pipe work (m)

v = velocity of fluid (m/s)

g = acceleration due to gravity

In this experiment, since there is no fittings used for the pipe, therefore, the total head loss due to the pipe
wall can be calculated by using the Darcy-Weisbach equation.

𝐿 𝑣2
hL = f 𝐷 2𝑔 [8]

5
4.0 Methodology
Equipment
The following equipment was used in the experiment:
 Hydraulic bench FM 110 for steady water supply with a flow control valve (Figure 1)
 Fluid Friction Apparatus FM 110 (Figure 2)
 Smooth and roughened bore pipes of various diameters (Figure 3)
 Water Manometer (Figure 4)
 Stopwatch

Figure 4: Hydraulic Bench FM 110

Figure 5: Fluid Friction Apparatus FM 110

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 10 mm smooth
bore pipe

17 mm smooth
bore pipe

17 mm roughened
bore pipe

Figure 6: Smooth and roughened bore pipes of various diameters

Figure 7: Water Manometer

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 The unit structure of fluid friction apparatus essentially consists of:
[7]

[1]

[8]
[2]
[9]

[3]

[4] [10]
[5] [11]
[6] [12]
Figure 8: Unit Structure of Fluid Friction Apparatus

1) Smooth Bore Pipe (6mm,10mm,17mm) 7) Sudden Enlargement and Contraction

2) Artificial Roughen Pipe (17mm) 8) Inline Y - Strainer
3) Differential Pressure 9) Various Pipe Fittings
4) Gate Valve 10) Pitot Static Tube
5) Globe Valve 11) Venturi Meter
6) Outlet Control Valve 12) Orifice Meter

In this experiment, only three types of pipe are used, which are Smooth Bore Pipe with 10 mm and 17
mm and 17 mm Artificial Roughen Pipe.

Straight pipe Section Diameter D , mm Length L, mm

1 10 mm smooth 10 1080
2 17 mm smooth 17 1080
3 17 mm rough 17 1080
Table 1: Straight Pipe Dimension

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5.0 Procedure

1.The valve of the 10 mm smooth pipe was opened.

2. The water level in the manometer was adjusted to make sure both side were at same level.

3. The control valve at the Hydraulic Bench was opened to the label "speed 1".

4. The readings of water levels in the manometer ,H1 and H2 were taken.

5. The volumetric tank was filled with 5L of water.

6.The time taken to fill up the tank with 5L of water was recorded.

7.Step 1 to 7 were repeated by opening the control valve to "speed 2" and "speed 3".

8. Step 1 to 8 was repeated by using 17 mm smooth pipe and 17 mm roughened pipe.

9. All the data was recorded for 3 sets.

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 6.0 Result

6.1 Data
Time
taken Average Pipe
Average Theoretical
to fill Time Flowrate, H1 H2 Head Velocity, Reynolds Friction Type of
Pipe Speed Experiment Head Head Loss,
5L of Taken , Q ,m3/h (mm) (mm) Loss ,mm V ,m/s No. ,Re Coefficient, Flow
Loss ,mm mm
water, s f
s
1 155 482.0 520.0 38
1 2 171 182.67 0.0985 485.0 515.0 30 34.0 0.35 3899.26 0.0404 27.0 Transition
3 222 485.0 519.0 34
10 mm 1 85 460.0 570.0 110
smooth 2 2 53 82.33 0.2186 445.0 612.0 167 113.0 0.77 8650.99 0.0323 106.3 Turbulent
pipe 3 109 477.0 539.0 62
1 44 413.0 710.0 297
3 2 57 52.33 0.3439 434.0 663.0 229 218.7 1.22 13610.15 0.0287 233.7 Turbulent
3 56 453.0 583.0 130

Table 2: Data Collection for 10 mm smooth pipe

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 Time
taken Average Pipe
Average Theoretical
to fill Time Flowrate, H1 H2 Head Velocity, Reynolds Friction Type of
Pipe Speed Experiment Head Head Loss,
5L of Taken , Q ,m3/h (mm) (mm) Loss ,mm V ,m/s No., Re Coefficient, Flow
Loss ,mm mm
water, s f
s
1 69 496.0 510.0 14
1 2 83 82.33 0.2186 495.0 505.0 10 10.0 0.27 5088.81 0.0373 8.6 Turbulent
3 95 499.0 505.0 6
17 mm 1 41 497.0 515.0 18
smooth 2 2 51 47.33 0.3803 499.0 515.0 16 17.7 0.47 8851.67 0.0320 22.4 Turbulent
pipe 3 50 495.0 514.0 19
1 22 455.0 530.0 75
3 2 23 23.00 0.7826 455.0 525.0 70 71.0 0.96 18216.48 0.0267 79.3 Turbulent
3 24 458.0 526.0 68
Table 3: Data Collection for 17 mm smooth pipe

Time
taken Average Pipe
Average Theoretical
to fill Time Flowrate, H1 H2 Head Velocity, Reynolds Friction Type of
Pipe Speed Experiment Head Head Loss,
5L of Taken , Q ,m3/h (mm) (mm) Loss ,mm V ,m/s No. , Re Coefficient, Flow
Loss ,mm mm
water, s f
s
1 96 440.0 565.0 125
1 2 84 85.67 0.2101 448.0 560.0 112 116.3 0.26 4890.81 0.0378 8.1 Turbulent
3 77 448.0 560.0 112
17 mm 1 49 375.0 655.0 280
roughened 2 2 46 49.67 0.3624 380.0 640.0 260 272.3 0.44 8435.82 0.0325 20.7 Turbulent
pipe 3 54 373.0 650.0 277
1 37 334 695 361
3 2 34 37.33 0.4821 305.0 730.0 425 363.7 0.59 11222.65 0.0302 34.0 Turbulent
3 41 360.0 665.0 305
Table 4: Data Collection for 17 mm roughened pipe

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 Average
Pipe Speed Head Velocity,V ,m/s Log H Log V
Loss ,mm

1 34.0 0.35 1.53 -0.46

10 mm
2 113.0 0.77 2.05 -0.11
smooth pipe
3 218.7 1.22 2.34 0.09
1 10.0 0.27 1.00 -0.57
17 mm
2 17.7 0.47 1.25 -0.33
smooth pipe
3 71.0 0.96 1.85 -0.02
17 mm 1 116.3 0.26 2.07 -0.59
roughened 2 272.3 0.44 2.44 -0.36
pipe 3 363.7 0.59 2.56 -0.23
Table 5: Data Collection for Log H and Log of all pipes

Pipe 10mm Smooth (Pipe 1) 17mm Smooth (Pipe 2) 17mm Rough (Pipe 3)
Speed 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Percentage
-25.9 -6.3 6.4 -15.7 21.3 10.4 -1337.8 -1215.9 -968.5
Error,%

Table 6: Data Collection For Error Analysis For Head Loss

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 6.2 Graph

HEAD LOSS VERSUS FLOWRATE FOR DIFFERENT

DIAMETER OF SMOOTH PIPE
10 mm smooth pipe 17 mm smooth pipe

250.0

200.0
HEAD LOSS, MM

150.0

100.0

50.0

0.0
0.0000 0.1000 0.2000 0.3000 0.4000 0.5000 0.6000 0.7000 0.8000 0.9000
FLOWRATE, M3/H

Graph 1: Head Loss versus Flowrate for different diameter of smooth pipe

The graph 1 shows the comparison of head loss versus flowrate for different diameter of smooth
pipe. From speed 1 to 3 of control valve, the graph shows that 10 mm smooth pipe has a greater head loss
than 17 mm smooth pipe. When the inside diameter is made larger, the flow area of the water inside the
pipe will increases and the velocity of the water is reduced. When the velocity is reduced there is lower
head loss due to friction from the wall inside the pipe. On the other hand, if the inside diameter of the pipe
is reduced, the flow area decreases, the velocity of the liquid increases and the head loss due to friction
increases. Thus, the pipe with smaller diameter will experienced more head loss compared to bigger one.

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 HEAD LOSS VERSUS FLOWRATE FOR DIFFERENT
ROUGHNESS OF 17 MM PIPE
17 mm smooth pipe 17 mm roughened pipe

400.0
350.0
HEAD LOSS, MM

300.0
250.0
200.0
150.0
100.0
50.0
0.0
0.0000 0.1000 0.2000 0.3000 0.4000 0.5000 0.6000 0.7000 0.8000 0.9000
FLOWRATE, M3/H

Graph 2: Head Loss versus Flowrate for different roughness of same diameter of pipe

The graph 2 shows the comparison of Head Loss versus Flowrate for different roughness of same
diameter of pipe. From speed 1 to 3 of control valve, the graph shows that roughened pipe has a greater
head loss than smooth pipe. As the roughness of the inside pipe wall increases, the thickness of the
slow and non-moving boundary layer of liquid will also increase. The resulting reduction in flow area
of water will increases the velocity of the liquid and increases the head loss due to friction. Thus, the
pipe will rough wall will experience more head loss compared to the smooth one.

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 Log H versus Log V for 10 mm smooth pipe
2.50

2.00

y = 1.473 x+ 2.21 1.50

Log H

1.00

0.50

0.00
-0.50 -0.40 -0.30 -0.20 -0.10 0.00 0.10 0.20
Log V

Graph 3: Log H versus Log V for 10 mm smooth pipe

From graph 3, we can conclude that the head loss increase as the velocity of water increase. A gradient of
1.473 and y-intercept of 2.21 are obtained from the graph above. When the velocity of the liquid increases
at the same rate, the friction or resistance from the pipe wall to flow will also increases. Since the head loss
is related to the square of the velocity , thus, the increase in loss is very quick.

Log H versus Log V for 17 mm smooth pipe

2.00
1.80
1.60
1.40
1.20
y = 1.545 x+ 1.881
Log H

1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
-0.60 -0.50 -0.40 -0.30 -0.20 -0.10 0.00
Log V

Graph 4: Log H versus Log V for 17 mm smooth pipe

From graph 4, we can conclude that the head loss increase as the velocity of water increase. A
gradient of 1.545and y-intercept of 1.881 are obtained from the graph above.

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 Log H versus Log V for 17mm roughened pipe
3.00

2.50

2.00
y = 1.361 x+ 2.873
Log H

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00
-0.70 -0.60 -0.50 -0.40 -0.30 -0.20 -0.10 0.00
Log V

Graph 5: Log H versus Log V for 17 mm roughened pipe

From graph 5, we can conclude that the head loss increase as the velocity of water increase. A
gradient of 1.361 and y-intercept of 2.873 are obtained from the graph above.

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 6.3 Calculation
6.3.1 For 10mm smooth pipe (speed 1),
Water is assumed at 25 ℃ (Room Temperature)
Therefore,
Dynamic Viscosity of Water : 0.000891 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑠
Density of water, 𝜌 : 998𝑘𝑔/𝑚3
Gravitational Acceleration, g : 9.81 𝑚/𝑠 2
Diameter of pipe,D : 0.01 m
Length of pipe L : 1.08 m
Roughness of Pipe (PVC) , 𝜀, m : 0.0015 × 10−3 𝑚
(From Table 7)

Table 7: Absolute Roughness Value for

Volume of water, L : 5L Commercial Pipe
Average time taken to fill 5L of water, t: 182.67 s

Volume of water 𝐿 0.005𝑚3

Flow rate of the water, Q: Average time taken to fill 5L of water = 𝑡 = 182.87 𝑠

= 0.0985 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔

𝜋𝑑 2 𝜋(0.010)2
The Cross Sectional Area of the pipe, A: =
4 4

= 0.00007855 𝒎𝟐

Flow rate of the nozzle 𝑄 0.0985 𝑚3 /𝑠

Velocity of the water, v: The Area of the nozzle
=𝐴= 0.00007855 𝑚2

= 0.35 𝒎/𝒔

𝑚
𝜌𝑣𝐷 998𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 × 0.35 ×0.01 𝑚
𝑠
Reynold Number , Re : =
𝜇 0.000891 𝑘𝑔/𝑚𝑠

= 3899.26
The flow in circular pipe is laminar for Re ≤ 2300, turbulent for Re ≥ 4000 and transitional is in
between.
Since 2300 ≤ Re ≤ 4000, thus it is a transition flow.

17
By using Colebrook equation,
0.0015 × 10−3 𝑚
1 0.01 2.51
= −2log( + )
√𝑓 3.7 3899.26√𝑓
f = 0.0404

6.3.2Theoretical Head Loss calculation,

By using Darcy – Weisbach Equation,

𝐿 𝑣2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓
𝐷 2𝑔

1.08 𝑚 0.352
= 0.0404 × ×
0.01 𝑚 2×9.81

Theoretical Head Loss, ℎ𝑓 = 𝟐𝟕 𝒎𝒎

6.3.3 Experimental Head Loss Calculation,

Average Water Manometer 𝐻1 = 484 mm
Average Water Manometer 𝐻2 = 518 mm

Experimental Head Loss, H = 𝐻2 - 𝐻1

= 518 mm – 484 mm
Experimental Head Loss, H =34 mm

Theoretical Head Loss− Experimental Head Loss

Percentage error, % = Theoretical Head Loss
× 100
27 mm− 34 mm
= 27 mm
× 100

= - 25.9%

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7.0 Discussion

Generally, in this experiment, the head loss is vary at different type of pipe used where the 17 mm
smooth pipe experienced less friction loss compared to 17 mm roughened pipe and 10 mm smooth pipe.
This can be explained through the Darcy – Weisbach Equation which states that when the inside diameter
is made larger, the flow area of the water inside the pipe will increases and the velocity of the water is
reduced. Due to smaller pipe limited the volume of the water flow through it. Therefore, when the velocity
is reduced there is lower head loss due to friction generated from the wall inside the pipe. On the other hand,
if the inside diameter of the pipe is reduced, the flow area decreases, the velocity of the liquid increases and
the head loss due to friction increases from the pipe wall. Thus, the pipe with smaller diameter (10mm) will
experienced more head loss compared to bigger one(17 mm).

As the roughness of the inside pipe wall increases, the thickness of the slow and static boundary
layer of liquid will also increase. The resulting reduction in flow area of water will increases the velocity
of the liquid. Also, the irregular or fluctuate design of the pipe wall will cause water to flow unsteadily.
This will result in the increases of the head loss due to friction from the pipe wall. Thus, the pipe will rough
wall will experience more head loss compared to the smooth one.

In addition, the friction loss will also increase as the control valve is open at greater speed for all
pipes. This is due to drag force generated by the pipe wall which act as a resistance for the flow of water.
Thus, as the water flow at greater speed, it will experienced more head loss. From this concept, it clearly
2
explain the Darcy – Weisbach Equation,ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓 𝐷𝐿 2𝑔
𝑣
.

There are a number of errors which might have occurred during the experiment. One of them is the
slow reaction due to human error when taking the measurement of the time when the volume of water
reached 5 liters. However, an average of three readings for time measurement is taken to improve on the
accuracy of data to calculate the flow rate for this experiment. The air bubbles in the manometer could
have also contributed to the fluctuation of the reading in the manometer. A time lag or excess time
could have easily been introduced into the time recorded. Other than that, parallax error could have
occurred when taking reading of the manometer.

Besides, due to poor maintenance of equipment, there is leakage in the hydraulic bench which has
minimal effect on the accuracy of data obtained. However, the leakage results in having insufficient volume
of water for the pump to circulate in a smooth flow. This results in the delay of the experiment as water has
to be refilled into the hydraulic bench to carry out the experiment. Furthermore, the poor condition of the
hydraulic bench and the control valve also causes irregular flow of the water. Due to the vibration produced

19
by the pump, water flow is inconsistent throughout the experiment. As the experiment was carried out in a
room with fans switched on, there was strong air flow which caused water surface to ripple. Hence, air-
conditioned room is highly suggested when carrying out this experiment.

On the other hand, the percentage error for both 10 mm and 17 mm smooth pipes are low while the
17 mm roughened pipe show the greatest percentage error in the experiment. This is due to the design of
the pipe. Since the 17 mm roughened pipe is artificially designed, therefore, it’s inner diameter for the each
section inside the pipe is different. Furthermore, all the data provided (Table 7) for the roughness of the
commercial pipe are assumed to have a smooth pipe wall. Thus, these uncertainties will caused a greater
percentage error for the reading for 17 mm roughened pipe. However, the overall experiment is considered
success.

Figure 9: The layout inside a roughened pipe

8.0 Conclusion

As a conclusion, this experiment is conducted to determine the head loss in pipes due to shear stress
between the wall of the pipes, which have different diameters and surfaces, and fluid. For most cases, the
value of friction factor can be calculated by using Darcy-Weisbach equation which can be used in any cases
of flow. From the graphs that we obtained from the experiment, we can conclude that the surface and length
of the pipes will affect the head losses in pipes. Rough surface will increase the shear stress between the
rough surface of pipe and the fluid which made the pipe friction coefficient higher than the smooth surface.

Besides, the accuracy of the results should be improved. This is because here are some human-caused
errors in the time recording and taking the readings from the manometer. As a recommendation, some
machine or software may be used to solve this problem. This problem also can be solved by improving the
experimental procedure and equipment.

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9.0 Reference

Aleksandrow, A.A., et al, 2011, Friction Factors For Single Phase Flow In Smooth And Rough Tubes,
Retrieved on 13 April 2018 from http://www.thermopedia.com/content/789/

Cengel, Y. A. and Cimbala, J.M. (2014). Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications. (pp. 348-382).
New York City, New York: McGraw-Hill.

John, F.C., 2015, "Pipe Friction Loss". Retrieved on 13 April 2018 from
http://www.jfccivilengineer.com/pipe_friction_loss.htm

Pentair, n.d., Head Loss in Piping Sytem, Retrieved on 14 April 2018 from
http://www.hydromatic.com/ResidentialPage_techinfopage_headloss.aspx

Nuclear Power For Everybody, n.d., The Hydraulic Head, retrieved on 15 April 2018 from https://www.
nuclear-power.net/nuclear-engineering/fluid-dynamics/major-head-loss-friction-loss/?pdf=14601

Rick, S., (2017). Losses in Pipes, Retrieved on 14 April 2018 from http://my.me.queensu.c/People/
Sellens/LossesinPipes.html

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