Module 3.17 B1B2 Rev 01

Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS
CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.17 – AC GENERATORS
MODULE 3
SUB MODULE 3.17
AC GENERATORS
Rev. 01 3.17
Oct 2009 For Training Purposes Only
Table of Contents Page
Rotation Of A Loop In A Magnetic Field And The Waveform

Produced .....................................................................................2
Operation And Construction Of Revolving Armature Type
Generators ..................................................................................4
Operation And Construction Of Revolving Field Type Ac
Generators ..................................................................................6
Single Phase Two Phase And Theee Phase Alternators ............8
Alternator Systems For Light Aircraft ..........................................8

A Typical Light-Plane Alternator................................................10
Maintenance Of Alternators.......................................................14
Ac Generators ...........................................................................16
High-Output Brush Less Alternators (Generators) ....................20

Permanent Magnet Generators.................................................22
Rev. 01 i 3.17
“The training notes and diagrams are

compiled by SriLankan Technical Training
and although comprehensive in detail, they
are intended for use only with a Course of
instruction. When compiled, they are as up to
date as possible, and amendments to the
training notes and diagrams will NOT be
issued”.
Rev. 01 1 3.17
ROTATION OF A LOOP IN A MAGNETIC FIELD AND By rotating the loop through the vertical position and back to the
THE WAVEFORM PRODUCED horizontal, a voltage will be induced again, but it will be in the
opposite direction in the loop because side AB will now be
A simple A/C generator can be constructed by placing a single moving down through the field and side CD will be moving up
loop of wire between the poles of a permanent magnet and through the magnetic field.
arranging it so that it can be rotated as shown in the figure. The Soon the loop is once again in the vertical position, and no flux
current is taken from the wire loop by means of brushes, which lines are being cut. When the loop is exactly perpendicular to the
make continuous contact with the collector rings (slip rings). One magnetic flux lines, no voltage is being produced. The current
collector ring is connected to each end of the wire loop. In the flow then repeats its cycle as long as the loop is rotated inside
figure, the sides of the loop are designated AB and CD. As the the magnetic field. The voltage waveform produced by this type
loop rotates in the direction indicated by the arrow, side AB will of generator is called the sine wave.
be moving up through the magnetic field. If we apply the left
hand rule for generators, we find that a voltage is induced that By examining the sine wave of the figure, it can be seen that the
will cause a current to flow from A to B in one side of the loop voltage is at zero when the loop is in a vertical position, and then
and from C to D in the other side of the loop. This is because AB it climbs to a maximum value when the loop is in the horizontal
is moving UP through the field and CD is moving DOWN through position. This is indicated on the sine curve from 0 to 900. As the
the field loop continues to turn, we find the voltage is maximum at 90°,
zero at 180°, maximum at 270°, and zero again at 360°.
The voltage induced in the two sides of the loop adds together
and cause the current to flow in the direction ABCD, through the
external circuit, and then back to the loop. As the loop continues
to rotate toward a vertical position, the sides will be cutting fewer
lines of flux, and when it reaches the vertical position, the sides
of the loop will not be cutting any lines of flux, but will be moving
parallel to them. At this position, no voltage is induced in the loop
because a conductor must cut across flux lines in order to induce
a voltage.
Rev. 01 2 3.17
Rev. 01 3 3.17
OPERATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF REVOLVING

ARMATURE TYPE GENERATORS
The essential parts of a simple revolving armature type ac
generator are shown in the figure. These are a magnetic field,
which may be produced by a permanent magnet or by
electromagnet field coils; a rotating loop or coil called the
armature or rotor; slip rings; and brushes by which the current
is taken from the armature. The poles of the magnet are called
field poles. In most generators, these poles are wound with
coils of wire called field coils. The path of the magnetic flux is
called the magnetic circuit and includes the yoke connecting the
field poles as well as the armature.
The voltage induced in a conductor moving across a magnetic
field depends on two principal factors; the strength of the field
(the number of lines of force per unit area) and the speed with
which the conductor moves across the lines of force. In other
words, the voltage depends on the number of lines of force cut
per second. For example, if a conductor cuts lines of force at the
rate of 100,000,000 lines per second, an emf of I V will be
established between the ends of the conductor.
Rev. 01 4 3.17
Rev. 01 5 3.17
OPERATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF REVOLVING Aircraft alternators and generators have many similarities; both
units change mechanical energy; into electric energy. The major
FIELD TYPE AC GENERATORS differences between a DC alternator and a DC generator are the
various design features. Since a generator has a rotating
Consider the simple generator (alternator) illustrated in the armature, all the output current must be supplied through the
figure. A bar magnet is mounted to rotate between the faces of a commutator and brush assembly. An alternator, having a
soft-iron yoke on which is wound a coil of insulated wire. As the stationary armature, can supply its output current through direct
magnet rotates, a field will build first in one direction and then in connections to the aircraft bus. This system of directly contacting
the other. As this occurs, an alternating voltage will appear the alternator output to the bus eliminates the problems caused
across the terminals of the coil. by poor connections between a rotating commutator and
Almost all alternators for aircraft power systems are constructed stationary brushes. At high power levels, rotating contacts are
with a rotating field and a stationary armature. Since a steady too inefficient to be practical; therefore, alternators, as opposed
voltage must be provided for the aircraft's electrical system, the to generators, are preferred on most aircraft.
field strength of the alternator must be varied according to load
requirements. For this purpose a regulator is employed that can
furnish a variable direct current to the rotor (field) winding of the
alternator, and a voltage-regulator system is used to change this
current as required to maintain a constant alternator output
voltage. This variable regulator current must be supplied by a
DC source.
Rev. 01 6 3.17
Rev. 01 7 3.17
SINGLE PHASE TWO PHASE AND THEEE PHASE ALTERNATOR SYSTEMS FOR LIGHT AIRCRAFT
ALTERNATORS
The alternator system for light aircraft is similar to a power
The aircraft alternator is a three-phase unit rather than a single- system with a DC generator however; the actual output of the
phase or a two-phase unit. This is because they are alternator is alternating current. To use this current in a light
comparatively more efficient when the power to weight ratio is aircraft power system, it is necessary to convert it into direct
concerned. current. This is accomplished by means of a three-phase, full-
wave rectifier. A rectifier for three-phase alternating current
In these alternators the stator (stationary armature) has three
consists of six silicon diodes if the rectifier is designed for full-
separate windings, effectively 120° apart. The field rotates and is
wave rectification. A schematic diagram of a delta-wound stator
called the rotor. The schematic illustration in Figure 1 will serve
with a three-phase, full-wave rectifier is shown in Figure 4. The
to indicate how the stator windings are arranged, although the
arrowheads, which represent the diodes, point in a direction
windings in an actual stator will appear different. Also, it will be
opposite the actual electron flow. Under the conventional system
found that some stators will be wound in the ‘Y’ configuration,
(current flow from positive to negative), the arrowhead would
and others will be wound in the ‘delta’ (∆) configuration. point in the direction of flow. In the diagrams in Figure 5, it can
Schematic diagrams of these arrangements are shown in Figure be seen how the current produced in each phase of the stator is
2. rectified.
The output of a three-phase alternator is shown in Figure 3. Note The three separate voltages produced by each phase of the
that there are three separate voltages 120° apart; that is, each armature overlap, as seen in Figure 5. Once the current is
voltage attains a maximum value in the same direction at points rectified, the voltage curves remain overlapped; however, since
120° apart. As the rotor of the alternator turns, each phase goes the stator is wired in parallel, only the strongest voltage reaches
through a complete cycle in 360° of rotation; that is, each voltage the alternator output terminals. As illustrated in Figure 5, the
reaches maximum in one direction, passes through zero, effective voltage is an average of the voltage values above the
reaches maximum in the opposite direction, and then returns to intersection of the individual voltage curves. The effective
the starting point in 360°. voltage is equal to the rated output voltage of the alternator. This
value averages near 14V for a 12-V battery system and 28 V for
a 24-V battery system.
Rev. 01 8 3.17
Rev. 01 9 3.17
The DC ripple voltage values actually range from approximately A TYPICAL LIGHT-PLANE ALTERNATOR
13.8 to 14.2 V or 23.8 to 24.2 V.
A typical alternator for light aircraft is shown in Figure 2. Units
However, the DC ripple voltage changes value so quickly and so similar to this are manufactured by such companies as the Ford
little that for all practical purposes, the voltage of the aircraft Motor Company, Prestolite, the Chrysler Corporation, and the
electrical system is considered to be the effective voltage of the Delco-Remy Division of General Motors Corporation. The
alternator. particular type of alternator to be used in an aircraft system can
be determined from the aircraft manufacturer’s parts catalog or
A typical electric power circuit is shown in Figure 1. Since the
from the catalog prepared by the manufacturer of the alternator.
rectifier is mounted in the end frame of the alternator, the
alternator output terminals are marked for direct current. The alternator is a comparatively simple device and is designed
to give many hours of trouble-free service. The principal
components are the three-phase stator (armature windings), the
rotor (field windings), and the rectifier assembly. The rotating
field winding provides the electromagnetic field, which is used to
excite the stator windings. A brush set and slip-ring assembly is
used to transfer current to the rotating field. Since the field coil
requires a relatively low amperage (approximately 4 A
maximum) to power the electromagnet, the brushes are smaller
and longer lasting than those found on DC generators.
The brush assembly of a DC generator often carries well over 50
A. The stationary armature receives an induced voltage, which is
connected to the rectifier assembly. The rectifier consists of six
diodes connected to from the three-phase, full-wave rectifier.
Rev. 01 10 3.17
Rev. 01 11 3.17
A typical alternator for light aircraft has a rotor with 8 or 12 poles The center connection of the three-phase stator is not always
alternately spaced with north and south polarity. This provides needed for external circuitry; in this case the connection is
the rotating field within the stator. The strength of the rotating insulated and secured to the stator core. The entire stator
field is controlled by the amount of current flowing in the rotor assembly is then coated will a heat-resistant epoxy varnish.
winding. This current is governed by the voltage regulator. The
Six diodes rectify the AC voltage produced in the armature.
output of the stator is applied to a full-wave rectifier consisting of
There are three positive and three negative diodes, each
six diodes mounted within the alternator housing. The output of
mounted into an assembly plate. The positive and negative
the alternator is, therefore, direct current as it is supplied to the
diode plates are insulated from each other, and the positive plate
aircraft electric power system.
is insulated from the alternator case. In many alternators the
Figure 1 shows a gear-driven alternator. The internal Alternators diodes are not individual units; all six diodes must be replaced as
for light aircraft may be driven by a belt and pulleys, or they may one assembly. Each diode is connected to the alternator stator
be gear-driven and flange-mounted on the engine. In the latter by means of a high-temperature solder or a solder less crimp-
case the engine manufacturer must provide the correct mounting type terminal.
and gear drive for the alternator.
The brush end housing provides the mounting for the rectifiers
Construction of the alternators is the same and consists of the and rectifier assembly plates, the output and auxiliary terminal
components shown in Figure 2. The drive end head contains a studs, and the brush and holder assembly. The brush end
prelubricated bearing, an oil seal, a collar and shaft seal, and a housing also contains the roller bearing, the outer race
blast tube connection for ventilation. assembly, and a grease seal.
The rotor is mounted on a shaft with a ventilating fan on the drive The brush and holder assembly contains two brushes; two brush
end. The slip rings, slip-ring end bearing inner race, and spacer springs, a brush holder, and insulators. Each brush is connected
are on the other end of the shaft. The rotor windings and winding to a separate terminal stud and is insulated from ground. The
leads are treated with high-temperature epoxy cement to provide brush and holder assembly can be easily removed for brush
vibration and temperature resistance. High-temperature solder is inspection or replacement purposes. In some cases the brush
used to secure the winding leads to the slip rings. assembly can be removed only after the alternator has been
disassembled. These brushes are not inspected during a routine
The stator of the alternator has a special electric lead that is
aircraft inspection.
connected to the center of the three-phase windings. This lead
may be used to activate low-voltage warning systems or relays.
Rev. 01 12 3.17
Figure 1 TYPICAL ALTERNATOR FOR LIGHT Figure 2

AIRPLANE A GEAR DRIVEN ALTERNATOR
Rev. 01 13 3.17
MAINTENANCE OF ALTERNATORS To test for open windings in the stator, one test probe of the
ohmmeter is connected to the auxiliary terminal or to the stator
Maintenance of alternators follows the principles of good
winding center connection. The other probe is connected to each
mechanical and electrical practice and should be accomplished
of the three leads, at a time. The ohmmeter should show
according to the instructions given in the maintenance manual
continuity in each case, and the resistance should be in the
for each particular unit requiring service. In general, the
range specified by the manufacturer.
disassembly procedure is similar to that for other generators.
Care must be taken to assure that the parts are marked and
identified in such a manner that they can be reassembled
correctly.
The rotor winding can be tested with an ohmmeter or continuity
tester. The reading is taken with the test probes of the
instrument applied to the slip rings. The resistance of the rotor
winding should be relatively low and within the limits specified by
the manufacturer. Grounding of the rotor winding can be tested
by connecting one test probe of an ohmmeter to the rotor shaft
and the other to one of the slip rings. The reading should
indicate infinite resistance. If current flow is indicated, the rotor
must be replaced.
The stator windings can be tested by checking between the
stator leads with the ohmmeter. The reading in each case should
be within specifications. Normally, the reading will show low
resistance. If the resistance is above or below the limits specified
by the manufacturer, the stator must be replaced. To test for
grounded windings in the stator, the ohmmeter is connected
between one stator lead and the stator frame. The ohmmeter
should show infinite resistance.
Rev. 01 14 3.17
STUDENT NOTES
Rev. 01 15 3.17
The induced voltage will reverse polarity every half revolution of

AC GENERATORS the rotor because the flux will reverse in direction as the opposite
poles of the rotor pass the stator poles. One complete revolution
AC generators, often called alternators, are used as the principal of the rotor in a two-pole alternator will produce 1 cycle of
source of electric power in almost all transport-category aircraft. alternating current; that is, one complete AC sine wave will be
The AC system supplies almost all the electric power required produced for each complete revolution of the rotor.
for the aircraft. Where DC is needed, rectifiers are used. For The number of cycles of alternating current per second is called
emergency situations AC generators driven by auxiliary power the frequency. Since a two-pole alternator produces 1 cycle per
units (APUs) or ram air turbines (RATs) are often used. revolution (cpr), it is apparent that an alternator produces 1 cycle
AC power systems produce more power per weight of equipment of alternating current from each pair of poles in the rotor. If we
than DC systems; however, all AC generators require a wish to determine the frequency of any given alternator, we
constant-speed drive to maintain a constant AC frequency. A proceed as follows;
constant-speed drive (CSD) is a type of automatic transmission Divide the number of poles by 2, and multiply the result by the
that maintains a constant output rpm with a variable input rpm. speed in rpm to obtain the number of cycles per minute. To find
Since heavy aircraft use large amounts of electric power, the the cycles per second, divide the cycles per minute by 60.
employment of a constant-speed drive and an AC generator is
practical. On light aircraft, where a relatively small amount of Let us assume that we wish to determine the frequency of an
electric power is used, an AC generator requiring a constant- alternator having four poles and turning at 1800 rpm. Dividing 4
speed drive is simply too heavy. Modern light aircraft use DC by 2 gives 2 cpr, and 2 cpr multiplied by 1800-rpm equals 3600
alternators to produce electric power. A DC alternator produces cycles per minute. Dividing 3600 by 60 (60s/min), we obtain 60
an AC voltage and uses internal rectifiers to produce a DC Hz (cycles per second).
output.
The stationary part of the alternator circuit is called the stator,
and the rotating part is called the rotor. The stator is actually a
stationary armature, and the rotor is a rotating field, which may
be produced by either a permanent magnet or an electromagnet.
As the rotor turns, the magnetic flux cuts across the stator poles
and induces a voltage in the stator winding.
Rev. 01 16 3.17
Rev. 01 17 3.17
Typically, alternators use an electromagnet for the field, which

receives a direct current to excite the armature. An alternator
with a four-pole electromagnetic rotor is illustrated in the figure.
A permanent-magnet rotor is not satisfactory, because the
strength of the field flux always remains the same, and voltage
regulation cannot be accomplished. For this reason an
electromagnetic field is always used for aircraft applications.
Alternators are classified according to voltage, amperage,
phase, power output (watts or kilovolt-amperes), and power
factor. The phase classification of an alternator is the number of
separate voltages that it will produce. Usually, alternators are
single-phase or three-phase, depending on the number of
separate sets of windings in the stator. Three-phase alternators
are typical for most aircraft applications. Three-phase alternators
are constructed with three separate armature windings spaced
so that their voltages are 120° apart.
Rev. 01 18 3.17
Rev. 01 19 3.17
HIGH-OUTPUT BRUSH LESS ALTERNATORS The theory behind the brush less alternator is to use
(GENERATORS) electromagnetic induction to transfer current from the stationary
components of the generator to the rotating components. Unlike
High-output brush less alternators were developed for the the alternator in Figure 1, the brush less system induces current
purpose of eliminating some of the problems of alternators that into the rotor using magnetic flux lines. This principle eliminates
employ slip rings and brushes to carry exciter current to the the need for the rotating contacts of slip rings and brushes.
rotating field. High-output alternators are often referred to as AC Typically, brush less alternators uses a three-phase, ‘Y’ -
generators. When AC systems are discussed, the two terms, connected armature. The voltage across any single phase is 120
alternator and generator, are often considered equivalent. For V, whereas the voltage across any two of the main output
the purpose of this text, the terms AC generator and AC terminals is 208 V. This is illustrated in Figure 2. One terminal is
alternator will be used interchangeably during our discussion. 208 V. This is illustrated in Figure 2. One terminal of each
Among the advantages of a brush less alternator are the separate stator winding is connected to ground, and the other
following: terminal of the winding is the main output terminal, For aircraft
circuits requiring 115/120 V, single-phase power, the circuit is
- 1. Lower maintenance cost, since there is no brush or slip connected between one main phase and ground. For three-
ring wear. phase power circuits such as those for motors, all three main
- 2. High stability and consistency of output, because phases are connected to the motor.
variations of resistance and conductivity at the brushes and
slip rings are eliminated.
- 3. Better performance at high altitudes, because arcing at the
brushes is eliminated.
Rev. 01 20 3.17
Figure 1
Figure 2
Rev. 01 21 3.17
PERMANENT MAGNET GENERATORS As seen in the figure, the GCU monitors the main generator
output and in turn regulates the exciter field current as needed. If
Modern brushes less alternators are called permanent magnet more generator output is required, the GCU will increase the
generators (PMGs). The PMG gets its name from the permanent exciter field current; this will, in turn, increase the exciter
magnet within the generator, which initiates the production of armature output and the main field current. A stronger main field
electric power. As seen in the figure, there are actually three will 'increase the main armature's output. If less generator output
separate generators within one case; (1) the permanent is needed, the GCU will weaken the exciter field current, and the
magnet generator, (2) the exciter generator, and (3) the main generator output will decrease.
generator. Each of these three units is an essential part of the
modern brush less alternator.
The permanent magnet, which is connected to the rotor, is used
to induce an alternating current into the stationary PMG three-
phase armature winding. The generator control unit (GCU)
rectifies a 1200-Hz AC armature current and sends a DC voltage
to the exciter field winding. The exciter field induces an
alternating current into the exciter armature. The exciter
armature is connected to the rotating rectifier, which changes the
alternating current to direct current and, sends a current to the
main generator field. The main field induces an AC voltage into
the main generator armature.
The main generator armature is a three-phase winding that
produces 120 volts across a single phase and 208 V across two
phases. This armature is connected to the output terminals of
the generator and hence supplies the electric power for the
aircraft systems.
Rev. 01 22 3.17
Rev. 01 23 3.17
STUDENT NOTES
Rev. 01 24 3.17

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Module 3 – ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS

CATEGORY B1/B2 - MECHANICAL/AVIONICS Sub Module 3.17 – AC GENERATORS

SUB MODULE 3.17

Table of Contents Page

Rotation Of A Loop In A Magnetic Field And The Waveform

Alternator Systems For Light Aircraft ..........................................8

High-Output Brush Less Alternators (Generators) ....................20

“The training notes and diagrams are

OPERATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF REVOLVING

Figure 1 TYPICAL ALTERNATOR FOR LIGHT Figure 2

The induced voltage will reverse polarity every half revolution of

Typically, alternators use an electromagnet for the field, which

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