Review
Summary: Synthetic resins have been extensively employed
by artists in their works of art, e.g. as paint binders, or by
conservators for conservation treatments, e.g. as stone
consolidants and protectives. It is generally thought that
synthetic resins are less prone to chemical, physical and
biological deterioration than other organic products but there
are many articles in the scientific literature and some reports
The Biodeterioration of Synthetic Resins Used in
Conservation
Francesca Cappitelli,* Elisabetta Zanardini, Claudia Sorlini
Department of Food Science and Microbiology, Section of MAAE, Agricultural Faculty, University of Milan, Via Celoria 2, 20133
Milan, Italy
Fax: þ39 02 50316694; E-mail: francesca.cappitelli@unimi.it
Received: September 13, 2003; Revised: December 22, 2003; Accepted: January 7, 2004; DOI: 10.1002/mabi.200300055
Keywords: biodegradable; biodeterioration; conservation; microbial attack; resins
Introduction
The conservation of cultural heritage is becoming a more
and more important issue to be addressed. A fundamental
aspect of conservation is to find the causes and devise stra-
tegies to reduce the rate of deterioration of cultural heritage.
Biodeterioration is any irreversible alteration that implies
changes of the material properties caused by microorga-
nisms and/or organisms belonging to different systematic
groups.[1] Biodegradable materials are those which, because
of their chemical structure, are susceptible to being assimi-
lated by microorganisms, such as fungi and bacteria. Bio-
degradable materials can be either organic, both natural and
synthetic compounds, or inorganic. Natural polymers are
easily subjected to biodeterioration. For example, the de-
gradation of cellulose has been widely reviewed.[2–4]
Millions of tons of synthetic resins, which are used as
adhesives, binders, coatings, inks, fabrics, etc., are produced
worldwide every year. Synthetic resins have been used by
artists in their works of art, e.g. as binders, or by conserv-
ators for conservation treatments, e.g. as consolidants and
protectives. It is generally thought that synthetic resins are
less prone to chemical, physical and biological deteriora-
tion than other organic products but there are many articles
in the scientific literature[5–16] and some reports in the con-
servation of cultural heritage literature claiming that micro-
organisms are capable of degrading synthetic resins.
Even during the manufacture of polymers, especially
when dealing with polymer emulsions (aqueous medium),
Macromol. Biosci. 2004, 4, 399–406 DOI: 10.1002/mabi.200300055
399
in the conservation of cultural heritage literature claiming
that microorganisms are capable of degrading synthetic
resins. This paper reviews the researches on the biodeteriora-
tion of synthetic resins used in the conservation of cultural
heritage, including stone, painting and textile materials,
carried out in the last fifty years.
incidences of biological deterioration can occur.[17] The
manufacturing conditions generally prevent microbiologi-
cal growth but it is sometimes possible to encounter a
biological contamination especially with microbial spores,
which can germinate under favourable conditions. The
main effects of the microbiological growth, and conse-
quently enzyme production, are changes in the viscosity, pH
and colour of polymer emulsions and the production of
odour and gas in the environment. In order to prevent bio-
logical growth it is suggested to check water and raw mater-
ials, improve plant design and hygiene and, finally, use a
broad spectrum biocide.
Different methods can be employed for testing the bio-
degradability of synthetic resins.[18] The current standard
methods for evaluating the resistance of synthetic resins to
microorganisms are the ASTM G21-96(2002) ‘‘Standard
Practice for Determining Resistance of Synthetic Poly-
meric Materials to Fungi’’ and the ASTM G29-96(2002)
‘‘Standard Practice for Determining Algal Resistance of
Plastic Films’’. The first practice covers the determination
of the effect of fungi on the properties of synthetic poly-
meric materials. Changes are determined with visual, opti-
cal and electronic observations and measuring mechanical
and electrical properties. The latter practice covers the
determination of the susceptibility of plastic films to the
attachment and proliferation of surface-growing algae.
As early as the fifties, some experiments on the biodeter-
ioration of poly(vinyl acetate) resins were reported by the
Istituto Centrale del Restauro, Rome. The solid tested
ß 2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
400 F. Cappitelli, E. Zanardini, C. Sorlini

products were Vinavil K 40, Vinavil K 50, Vinavil K 60,
Vinavil K 70 and Vinavil K 90 (see Table 1 for the supplying
companies).[19] The tests were carried out as follows: a
mineral solution, which did not provide any source of
carbon, was used as such and supplemented either with
chips of Vinavil or with glucose. After the cultural media
were prepared, they were sterilised in order to kill all the
alive microbes. Once ready, the media were poured into
non-aseptic spring water, mineral solution (incubation tem-
perature 19–20 8C), and garden soil (incubation tempera-
ture 27 8C). After one month of incubation, the isolated
strains were all identified as mycetes, belonging to the
genera Scopulariopsis, Tricotecium, Fusidium and Poecyl-
lomices. The growth was already visible after one week
but it was considered at its maximum after one month.
The growth intensity showed to be different depending on
the various genera but also among different strains of the
same genera. The microbial growth in mineral media added
with Vinavil was always present but not as conspicuous as
in media supplemented with glucose and was characterised
by localised colonies. No growth was ascertained in the
negative controls. The penetration of the hyphae in the solid
resins was demonstrated by means of optical observations.
Materials and Objects
Stone
The main aims of using synthetic polymers in the con-
servation of stone are stabilisation and protection. A good
example are epoxy resins that, injected into cracked, crum-
bling, concrete wharfs, bridges, and buildings, can rehabi-
litate these structures to provide many additional years of
service.[20]
In order to prevent the weathering of archaeological
stone remains in the Roman town of Luni (Liguria, North of

Francesca Cappitelli is a researcher at the University of Milan, where she carries out research on the
bioremediation and biodeterioration of cultural heritage within the European funded project
BIOBRUSH (MIUR fellowship ‘‘Rientro dei Cervelli’’). She received her PhD in Conservation at the
Tate Gallery (RCA/V&A Conservation course) in London in 2002 with a dissertation on the chemical
characterisation of paint binders in the 20th century art. She worked at the Victoria & Albert Museum,
London, and at the Art Collector’s Museum, Milan, and collaborated with the Kunsthistorisches
Museum, Vienna. She is responsible for the topic of biodeterioration within the ICOM-Committee for
Conservation, Modern Materials and Contemporary Art Group.

Elisabetta Zanardini studied biology at the University of Milan. Her PhD in ‘‘Chemistry, biochemistry
and ecology of pesticides’’ was carried out in the Department of Food Science and Microbiology at the
Agricultural Faculty, Milan. In March 2000 she obtained the doctorate degree and from July 2000 she
held a position of researcher at the same University. Since 2000 she is member of a national commission
of Ministry of Cultural Heritage that produces documents as normative and recommendations in the
field of biodeterioration of stonework and is also a member of Italian Society of Microbiology. She
teaches general and applied microbiology at the Science Faculty (Como, Italy) and biotechnology
applied to the conservation of cultural heritage at the Agricultural Faculty (Milan). Her researches are
generally based on microbial ecology and environmental microbiology, in particular on the biodeter-
ioration of artworks and the biotechnology applied to the cultural heritage together with environmental
biotechnologies (European project BIOBRUSH).

Claudia Sorlini is full Professor of Agricultural Microbiology and Head of the Department of Food
Science and Microbiology, Agricultural Faculty, Milan. She teaches Agricultural Microbiology (Agri-
cultural Science and Technology Course) and Microbiology (Crop Biotechnology Course). Her main
interests are microbial biodiversity in different ecosystems, biodegradation of xenotic compounds,
environmental biotechnology (soil bioremediation, wastewater treatment, anaerobic digestion, compo-
sting process), biotechnology applied to the study of biodeterioration and conservation of works of art
and the effect of genetically modified plants and food on microbial population both of the rizosphere and
the gastro-intestinal tract respectively. In addition, she is the coordinator of the master ‘‘Monitoring and
evaluation of genes and transgenes in food and environment matrices’’, editor in chief of the trimestral
journal Annals of Microbiology, president of the Italian Society of Agriculture, Food and Environment
Microbiology, member of the Scientific and Technique Council of the experts for Agriculture and Food
Policy, president of a committee of the Environmental Ministry for the ‘‘Elaboration of guidelines for the
genetically modified environmental risk assessment’’, member of a national commission of Ministry of
Cultural Heritage that produces documents as normative and recommendations in the field of
biodeterioration of stonework. She is author of more than 200 papers.

Macromol. Biosci. 2004, 4, 399–406 www.mbs-journal.de ß 2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
 The Biodeterioration of Synthetic Resins Used in Conservation 401

Table 1. Names of the resins or synthetic resin-based products in the cited conservation literature. The chemical class of each resin from
the literature as well as the supplying company at the time of the investigation are reported.

Name Chemical class Company (at the time of the investigation) References

A2/1028 Alkyd resin Croda Resins 33

Acrylic Acrylic resin Kalon 33
Acryloid F-10 Acrylic resin Rohm and Haas 28; 39
AYAA Polyvinyl resin Union Carbide 28
AYAC Polyvinyl resin Union Carbide 28
AYAF Polyvinyl resin Union Carbide 28
AYAT Polyvinyl resin Union Carbide 28
Beva 371 Keton resin Lascaux Restauro 39
Calaton CA Soluble nylon Imperial Chemical Industries 39
Conservare H Silicone-based resin ProSoCo 28
Conservare H40 Silicone-based resin ProSoCo 28
Conservare OH Silicone-based resin ProSoCo 28
Crodakyd 444w Alkyd resin Croda Resins 33
Crodakyd 826w Alkyd resin Croda Resins 33
Crodakyd 850w Alkyd resin Croda Resins 33
Emulsion A Poly(vinyl acetate) resin Vinamul 33
Emulsion B Poly(vinyl acetate) resin Vinamul 33
Emulsion C Poly(vinyl acetate) resin Vinamul 33
Emulsion D Poly(vinyl acetate) resin Vinamul 33
Emulsion E Poly(vinyl acetate) resin Vinamul 33
Emulsion F Acrylic resin Vinamul 33
Emulsion G Acrylic-styrene resin Vinamul 33
EP 2101 Epoxy resin ? 27
Epidian 5 Epoxy resin ? (Polish product) 24
Fomblin Y Met Perfluoropolyether ? 27
Imron 192S Polyimide Dupont 28
Klucel E Cellulose derivative ? 32
Klucel G Cellulose derivate Lascaux Restauro 39
Lascaux 360 HV Acrylic resin Lascaux Restauro 39
Long oil alkyd Alkyd resin Kalon 33
Mowilith 20 Poly(vinyl acetate) resin ? 32
Mowiol 4-98 Poly(vinyl acetate) resin ? 32
Mowital B-20-H Polyvinyl resin American Hoeschst 28
Mowilith DM 5 Acrylic-vinyl acetate resin Hoeschst 32; 39
Mowilith DMC2 Copolymer of vinyl acetate and Hoeschst 39
maleic acid dibutyl ester
Paraloid B72 (formerly Acrylic resin Rohm and Haas 23; 27; 28; 32; 39
called Acryloid B72)
Plastyrol s99x Alkyd-styrene resin Croda Resins 33
Plastyrol t35w Alkyd-toluene resin Croda Resins 33
Plexisol P-550 Acrylic resin Lascaux Restauro 39
Plextol B-500 Acrylic resin Lascaux Restauro 39
Primal AC33 Acrylic resin Rohm and Haas 23; 32
PVA Poly(vinyl acetate) resin Spectrum Oil Colours 33
resin E0057 Acrylic-siliconic resin Raccanello, Padua 21
resin solution 11309 Silicone resin Rhône-Poulenc 29
Rhoplex AC-234 Acrylic resin Rohm and Haas 28
Silicone 1048 Silicone-based resin General Electric 28
Silirain 50 Silane resin ? 27
Sobral 1241 ML 70 Alkyd resin Scott Bader 33
Styrene acrylic Styrene acrylic resin Kalon 33
Synolac 28w Alkyd resin Cray Valley 33
Synolac 60w Alkyd resin Cray Valley 33
Tegosivin HL100 Siloxane derivative Goldschmidt 27
Tegovakon V Silicone-based resin Goldschmidt 28
Texicryl 13-031 Acrylic resin Scott Bader 33
Thixotropic alkyd Alkyd resin Kalon 33
Tylose MH300 Cellulose derivative Hoeschst 39
Vilkyd 211 Alkyd resin Spectrum Oil Colours 33
Vilkyd 270 Alkyd resin Spectrum Oil Colours 33
Vinavil K 40 Poly(vinyl acetate) resin Società Rhodiatoce (Montecatini group) 19
Vinavil K 50 Poly(vinyl acetate) resin Società Rhodiatoce (Montecatini group) 19
Vinavil K 60 Poly(vinyl acetate) resin Società Rhodiatoce (Montecatini group) 19
Vinavil K 70 Poly(vinyl acetate) resin Società Rhodiatoce (Montecatini group) 19
Vinavil K 90 Poly(vinyl acetate) resin Società Rhodiatoce (Montecatini group) 19
Wacker 290L Siloxane derivative Wacker? 27
XC 41 Epoxy resin Ciba-Geigy 21

Macromol. Biosci. 2004, 4, 399–406 www.mbs-journal.de ß 2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
402
Italy), two synthetic resins, the epoxy resin XC 41 and the
acrylic-siliconic resin E0057, were employed to cover
archaeological areas. According to the manufacturers, these
conservation treatments are not only able to prevent deter-
ioration by atmospheric pollutants but also to avoid micro-
bial growth. Before the employment of the resins the floor
and columns of a house were covered with a thick film of
green algae. Although for some months after the treatment
the microbial growth was prevented, algal colonies were
then detected. Thus, some biological samples were taken to
identify the algae and test their ability of growing on plastic
materials.[21] The green alga was identified as Stichococcus
bacillaris. Tomaselli et al. in their study on the biodiversity
of photosynthetic microorganisms dwelling on stone monu-
ments claimed that the most widespread chlorophyta are
Stichococcus, in particular the species S. bacillaris.[22] In
the experiment by Favali, the alga was inoculated on a
mineral medium containing sucrose and on Petri dishes
whose bottom was covered with the same resins used for the
conservation treatments. Using traditional cultural methods,
light microscopy, scanning and transmission electron
microscopy, a conspicuous growth on agar-sucrose, sug-
gesting a mixotrophic metabolism, and agar containing
only mineral salts was reported. In addition, it was demon-
strated that the algae can survive on plastic films for several
days. The authors suggested that the presence of the algae in
situ is due to the fact that they were able to find mineral salts
either through small cracks on the plastic films or due to the
deposition of mineral salts caused by the wind.
In another research, the resistance to biodeterioration of
two acrylics, Paraloid B72, which is the most used synthetic
resin-based product in conservation, and Primal AC33, was
investigated using the soil burial test and the agar plate
count.[23] The deterioration was evaluated by measuring the
weight loss. The microorganisms chosen for the inocula
were Aspergillus fumigatus, Aspergillus niger, Chaetomium
globosum, Curvularia sp., Trichoderma sp., Ulocladium
atrum, Ulocladium chartarum, Alternaria alternata,
Aspergillus flavus, Myxotrichum deflexum, Stachybotrys
atra, Aspergillus terreus, Curvularia sp., and Penicillium
funiculosum. The authors claimed that, as there was no
significant difference between the weight loss of the inocu-
lated resins and the controls, the acrylics did not provide a
carbon source for the microbes. However, they concluded
that the fungal growth interfered with the structural pro-
perties of the polymers due to the modification of the water
affinity.
Domaslowski and Strzelczyk reported that stone objects
consolidated with epoxy resins or conserved with epoxy-
based mortars are sometimes susceptible to microbial
deterioration.[24] The stone specimens were limestone from
the Pińczów quarry and sandstone from the Nietulisko
quarry that were soaked in the epoxy resin Epidian 5. The
hardener used for the stone specimens was the Polish
product Z-1. Mortars were prepared from different fillers
Macromol. Biosci. 2004, 4, 399–406 www.mbs-journal.de
F. Cappitelli, E. Zanardini, C. Sorlini
cemented with Epidian 5. The material tests were brushed
with a suspension of fungi and algae growing on stones in
natural conditions. Fungi were able to grow on the speci-
mens but not the algae. The classification was performed
after seven weeks from the inoculation and the predominant
species was Aspergillus fumigatus. However, it was not
clear if the epoxy resins or the associated products were
food for the fungi. In fact, during the saturation of the stones
the hardener that is not bound migrates to the surface of the
stone. It must be noted that this was not the first time that it
was inferred that the degradation of synthetic polymer-
based products may be related not only to the breakdown of
the polymer but also to other compounds in the formulation.
It has been reported, in the case of plasticised polyvinyl
chloride, that the plasticisers, which are an easier available
source of carbon rather than the polymer, were attacked
by microorganisms.[25] In addition, also impurities and
the residual monomers, as acrylic acid both under anaero-
bic and aerobic conditions, can support the growth of
the microbes.[26]
Salvadori and Nugari screened five synthetic resins
commonly used in the treatments of monuments, Silirain
50, Paraloid B72, EP 2101, Fomblin Y Met and Tegosivin
HL100 dissolved, depending on their solubility, in trichloro-
ethane, isopropanol, toluene, trichlorotrifluoroethane and
hydrocarbons. The resins were put into contact with bio-
logically active mud. EP 2101, Fomblin Y Met were the
only products to be resistant to the microbial attack.[27]
However, it was not proved whether the resistance was due
to the polymer or to the solvent employed. In addition,
Carrara marble specimens and Lecce limestone, treated by
capillary rise with Tegosivin HL100 and Wacker 290L,
were partly subjected to soil burial test in accordance to
the British standard 6058 and partly exposed to artificial
weathering in a chamber at 28 8C and 95% relative humidity
for one month. The growth was assessed with visual and
optical observations, the water repellence by contact angle
and the capillary absorption by the Normal 11/82 method.
Microbial growth on stone specimens subjected to burial
test was difficult to determine as soil particles interfered
with the observations and measurements whereas the growth
was evident in the samples aged in the artificial chamber and
almost the same for each different specimens and resins.
The microbes isolated were fungi identified as Alternaria
alternaria, Alternaria sp., Cladosporium cladosporoides,
Myrothecium verrucaria, Trichothecium roseum, and
Ulocladium atrum. Regarding physical measurements,
there was no significant difference between the treated
specimens and the controls with the only exception being
Wacker 290L under soil burial test where a slight reduc-
tion of both water repellence and protective ability was
observed.
Koestler and Santoro selected six fungi, belonging
to the genera Penicillium, Fusarium, Cladosporium and
Aspergillus, and inoculated them on Acryloid B72, Acryloid
ß 2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
 The Biodeterioration of Synthetic Resins Used in Conservation
F-10, Rhoplex AC-234, AYAA, AYAC, AYAF, AYAT,
Mowital B-20-H, Conservare H, Conservare H40, Conser-
vare OH, Silicone 1048, Tegovakon V, and Imron 192S.[28]
Visual assessment procedures were carried out every week
until the 35th day. The biodeterioration effects were evalu-
ated with weight loss measurements and Fourier transform
infrared spectroscopy. However, the latter gave inconclu-
sive results. The least susceptible to biodeterioration were
Rhoplex AC-234, Tegovakon V, and AYAA, the most affec-
ted were AYAC, Conservare H40, Acryloid F-10, and Imron
192S. The results suggested that no polymer class behaved
in a uniform manner when subjected to fungal attack. The
authors were not certain of the presence of biocides in
the product formulations that might have been the cause of
resistance to the fungal attack.
Sorlini et al. soaked Serena stone specimens in 26%
methyl-phenyl silicone resin solution 11309 for one day.[29]
After the drying, some specimens were immersed in distill-
ed water where the resin is the only possible carbon source,
and in malt broth with supplement organic compounds apart
from the resin. Then these specemens underwent inocula-
tion with eleven fungal species. After six months of incub-
ation, visual and SEM observations, and stereomicroscopic
examinations proved that the only fungi isolated from
the stones were Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus flavus and
Chaetomium globosum. These species were found only on
treated and untreated samples immersed in malt broth sug-
gesting that the resin did not sustain microbial growth. All
treated samples underwent a minor loss of weight than con-
trols, which meant that the resin was an efficient protective
of stone.
Paintings
Synthetic polymers are mainly used for the lining and con-
solidation of paintings and are employed as binders and in
varnishes.[30,31]
In order to evaluate the microbial degradability of some
synthetic polymers, commonly used in wall painting con-
servation, as Klucel E, Mowilith DM 5, Mowilith 20,
Mowiol 4-98, Paraloid B-72, and Primal AC 33, the
resins were incubated with microorganisms isolated from
wall paintings.[32] The microbial agents were Aspergillus
versicolor, Aspergillus niger, Cladosporium herbarum,
Cladosporium sphaerospermum, Engyodontium album,
Penicillium aurantiogriseum, Penicillium chrysogenum,
Trichoderma longibrachiatum, Debaryomyces hansenii,
Rhodotorula mucilaginosa, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus
licheniformis, and Rhodococcus fascians. The resins were
dissolved either in 20% of aqua bidest. or in ethyl acetate
and supported on glass slides. The resins were inoculated
with pure cultures and incubated for eight weeks at 28 8C.
Primal AC 33 and Paraloid B-72 appeared visually almost
not susceptible to microbial breakdown. A significant micro-
bial growth was determined for Klucel E, Mowilith DM 5,
Macromol. Biosci. 2004, 4, 399–406 www.mbs-journal.de
403
Mowilith 20, and Mowiol 4-98. In the case of fungal cul-
tures, the acid excretion was also investigated after 13 d,
measuring the pH and analysing organic acid formation,
mainly citric and acetic acid, by high performance liquid
chromatography. A small pH shift was observed with Primal
AC33 and Klucel E whereas Mowilith-types produced
significant decreases of pH values, the maximum reduction
being observed for Mowilith 4-98.
Cappitelli et al. studied the biodeterioration of a large
number of synthetic resins in housepaints, Synolac 28w,
Synolac 60w, A2/1028, Crodakyd 444w, Crodakyd 826w,
Crodakyd 850w, Plastyrol s99x, Plastyrol t35w, Acrylic,
Long oil alkyd, Styrene acrylic, Thixotropic alkyd, Sobral
1241 ML 70, Texicryl 13-031, PVA, Vilkyd 211, Vilkyd
270, Emulsion A, Emulsion B, Emulsion C, Emulsion D,
Emulsion E, Emulsion F, and Emulsion G, following
the American military MIL-STD-810E method.[33] The
resins were left to dry at room temperature three months
before any fungi inoculation was started. The fungi used
in the experiments were Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus
flavus, Aspergillus versicolor, Penicillum funicolosum, and
Chaetonium globosum. Optical and scanning electron
microscope observations proved the fungal growth. In gene-
ral, fungi seemed to grow very easily on alkyd, well on poly-
(vinyl acetate) resins whereas acrylic resins seemed not to
be attacked at all. On all the samples, Fourier transform
infrared spectroscopy analyses were carried out, but, com-
pared to spectra of controls, no modifications in the spectra
were detected. Vibrational spectroscopy is an advantageous
analytical tool for polymers and comprises two comple-
mentary techniques: infrared and Raman spectroscopy. A
recent investigation carried out by the same authors has indi-
cated that Raman spectroscopy is the more potential tech-
nique for the study of products of degradation of synthetic
resins caused by biological agents.[34] In fact, because
the Raman signal arises from changes in polarisability and
the IR signal arises from changes in dipole moment, poly-
mer backbones generally have a strong Raman signal. In
addition, Raman bands are narrower than IR bands so that
there is less overlapping of signals.
Textiles
Synthetic polymers have been employed to make novel
fibres or as adhesives, consolidants and protectives of fragile
textiles.[35–38]
Unbleached Egyptian linen textiles were treated with the
following synthetic polymers already employed in the con-
servation of ancient textiles: Mowilith DM5, Tylose
MH300, Mowilith DMC2, Acryloid F-10, Paraloid B72,
Lascaux 360 HV, Beva 371, Klucel G, Plexisol P-550,
Plextol B-500, and Calaton CA.[39] The fungal strains
inoculated, Alternaria tenuissima, Aspergillus nidulans,
Aspergillus terreus, Chaetomium globosum, Penicillium
asperum, Penicillium funiculosum, and Thichoderma viride,
ß 2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
404
were previously isolated by Abdel-Kareem from ancient
Egyptian linen textiles and were allowed to grow for two
weeks. The effects of the biodeterioration were measured
by means of spectroscopic measurements (colour changes),
SEM observations, and changes in tensile strength and
elongation. First of all, even if the majority of the polymers
examined reduced the biodeterioration of the textiles, it was
not completely prevented. The author demonstrated that
Beva 371 and Paraloid B72 were the synthetic resins most
resistant to fungal attack and Acryloid F-10 and Mowilith-
types the most affected ones.
Several types of plastic materials have become important
as components of fabrics. Plastics made of polyethylene are
usually resistant to a microbial attack.[40] However, two
types of plastic used extensively as coatings for textile
materials, plasticised polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and poly-
urethanes, are susceptible to biodeterioration. In the case
of PVC, the polymer itself does not readily provide a
source of carbon for bacteria and fungi. The susceptibility
of PVC formulations is usually related to other components
rather than the resin, such as the plasticisers. Many of these
additives are organic compounds of relatively low molec-
ular weight. Microbial utilisation of the plasticisers may
cause the PVC coating to crack during use. On the other
hand, with polyurethanes the actual polymer is directly
capable of supporting microbial growth.[16] As a practical
measure, therefore, biocides should be added to both plasti-
cised PVC and polyurethanes.
Discussion
If an artist may be aware of the durability of the materials
used in his/her work, it should be a duty for a conservator
or a conservation scientist to know as much as he/she can
about the long-lasting of the material used in the conserv-
ation treatments as these have a significant effect on the
preservation of cultural heritage. It is thus important to have
caution in using new materials and methods in contrast to
old material and methods that have been used successfully
for centuries. If a material is stable and plays the role of a
protective from physical and chemical agents, this does not
necessarily mean that in the long term it will be the intelli-
gent choice from the biodeterioration point of view. In fact,
it has been assessed that microorganisms may exacerbate
deterioration of materials. Potentially every material pro-
vides a substratum upon which biological agents may grow.
In addition, the biodeterioration may act in synergy with
physical and chemical means of deterioration so that a
damage can be dramatically increased.
Biological attack of synthetic resins is a problem of major
economical importance throughout the world and has pro-
vided a worthy challenge to microbiologists. On the other
hand, there are more and more biodegradable plastics on
the market. Widespread studies on biodegradable plastics
Macromol. Biosci. 2004, 4, 399–406 www.mbs-journal.de
F. Cappitelli, E. Zanardini, C. Sorlini
have been carried out to overcome the environmental prob-
lems associated with plastic waste. These investigations
lead to the isolation of synthetic polymer-degrading bacteria
and the discovery of genes encoding for enzymes involved
in the degradation of plastics.[41]
The majority of the investigations carried out on the
resins used in conservation are laboratory studies that
attempt to predict field trials. Although it is not always
possible to reproduce real environmental conditions, the
main advantage of laboratory-scale research over field
trials is to note and record microscale changes.[28] The
evaluation of the biodeterioration effects was ascertained
by visual determinations, optical and electronic observa-
tions, physico-chemical changes of the polymers, such as
loss of weight, and Fourier transform infrared spectro-
scopy. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy was gene-
rally not able to show minor chemical alterations. The
technique probably requires additional refinements in
order to detect this degree of chemical alteration. As pre-
viously mentioned, for this aim the use of Raman spectro-
scopy has been suggested.
Most of the researches carried out were devoted to the
study of consolidants and protectives of stone materials.
Although the use of synthetic resins as protectives could
be enough to protect stone from pollutants and physical
deterioration agents, they might be insufficient to prevent
the growth of microbial species. The most studied synthetic
product was Paraloid B72, an acrylic resin. It was generally
noted that acrylic resins were not affected by the attack of
biological agents, whereas other type of resins, such as
alkyd resins and poly(vinyl acetate) resin, under favourable
conditions of temperature and relative humidity, are likely
to be susceptible.
An important parameter to consider when evaluating the
biodegradation of a resin is whether the investigations were
carried out when the resins were in solution/emulsion or
when the resins were dried. This condition has to be check-
ed because the physical state of a molecule has an important
effect on its biodegradability. The resin is less susceptible
to the attack when dried. Conservators are generally inter-
ested in the dried state because this is the state of the resin
after the conservation treatment. Thus, the presence of the
solvent, another source of carbon apart from the resin, may
lead to erroneous considerations. Another important factor
to take into account is the presence of other components
in the formulation of the commercial product such as im-
purities and additives. In this case the biological growth
on synthetic resin-based products may not be due to the
assimilation of the resin but to other organic compounds.
However, it is possible that the biomass, grown on the addi-
tives, produces unspecific enzymes that can attack the resins
(co-metabolic conditions). In any case, when additives and
impurities are present, microbial growth can not be a certain
indicator of the resin attack and other methods of investi-
gation should be applied.
ß 2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
 The Biodeterioration of Synthetic Resins Used in Conservation
Different microbes play an important role in the attack
of synthetic resins. However, due to their adaptability to
various conditions, including environments of low mois-
ture, sharp temperature variations, and minimal nutrition,
fungi represent the main cause of synthetic resin-based
products deterioration. It is worth noting that the control of
environmental conditions, such as relative humidity and
temperature, greatly reduce the biological damage. If the
object has to be treated with an organic synthetic compound
that is known to be susceptible of biodegradation it should
be displayed or stored in a controlled environment, e.g. low
relative humidity. Otherwise the polymer should be supple-
mented with a biocide. In addition, when the biomass has
started to grow on an object, due to the different metabolism
of various microbes, catabolic products of some micro-
organisms could be used by others not directly capable of
degrading the polymer examined. This second colonisation
may lead to further damage. In addition, the synthetic resin-
based product may be chemically damaged by metabolites
secreted by microorganisms using atmospheric deposition
and living on the surface of the material. The time of expo-
sure to the test should take into account the microbial
adaptation to the substrate, that means the period the species
needs to produce induced enzymes capable of polymer
hydrolysis. For example, it has been reported that, when
the fungal growth occurred, it did not start right in the
beginning of the experiment, as in the case of PVA,
Emulsion E and Emulsion G that showed no growth after
two weeks but a slight degree of growth after more than one
month.[33]
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