AIAA-814608

Anti-Gravity with Present

Technology: Implementation
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and Theoretical Foundation

F.E. Alzofon, Boeing Aerospace
Co, Seattle, WA

AIAA/SAE/ASME 17th
Joint Propulsion Conference
Ama ahn July 27-29, 1981/Colorado Springs, Colorado
For wrnnstion h copy N npublirh. emtact the Lrnerlcan ln$tRUts el Anronantics and Astronautics 1290 Annue ol the Amsrkar, Wow Ywk, MY 10104
 ANTI-GRAVITY WITH PRESENT TECHNOLOGY:
IMPLEMENTATION AN0 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION
F. E. Alzofon*
Boeing Aerospace Canpany
Seattle, Washington
Abstract
This paper proposes a semi-empirical model
of t h e processes leading t o t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l
f i e l d based on accepted features of subatanic
processes. Through an analogy w i t h methods of
cryogenics, a method of decreasing ( o r increas-
i n g ) t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l force on a vehicle, using
presently-known technology, i s suggested.
Various ways o f u t i l i z i n g t h i s e f f e c t i n vehicle
propulsion are described. A u n i f i e d f i e l d theory
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i s then d e t a i l e d which provides a more formal
foundation for t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d model
f i r s t introduced. I n d i s t i n c t i o n t o t h e general
theory o f r e l a t i v i t y , i t features physical
processes which generate the g r a v i t a t i o n a l
field.
Introduction
This paper i s divided i n t o two parts, I and
11. l a r g e l y independent o f one another.
I n t h e f i r s t part, a semi-enpirical model of
the o r i g i n o f the gravitational f i e l d i s
proposed, based on recognized features o f sub-
atomic processes. These features, which concern
t h e a n n i h i l a t i o n and creation o f matter-energy,
are shared by a l l subatomic processes and have
been successfully employed i n t h e explanation o f
t h e Lmb-Retherford e f f e c t , i.e., by the quantum
electrodynamics. The model proposed i s formu-
l a t e d i n semi-classical terms, allowing analogy
w i t h the c l a s s i c a l theory of gases. By u t i l i z i n g
t h e analogue o f processes occurring i n cryo-
genics, i t i s possible t o formulate a method o f
reducing the mean energy of t h e random v i r t u a l
processes asserted t o be responsible f o r the
g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d , and therefore t o reduce the
g r a v i t a t i o n a l force (pat. pend.). The apparatus
required i s well w i t h i n the c a p a b i l i t y o f modern
technology and an example i s presented. Once the
g r a v i t a t i o n a l f o r c e on a vehicle has been
weakened, various methods of vehicle propulsion
can be employed, both w i t h i n and outside t h e
atmosphere of planetary bodies. The model also
suggests a method of increasing t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l
force; i t i s possible t h a t t h i s e f f e c t can be
used i n a propulsion scheme. Sane methods of
using the above e f f e c t s are indicated.
Since t h e model proposed i s d i f f e r e n t from
t h e one advanced i n t h e general theory of
r e l a t i v i t y , a more formal j u s t i f i c a t i o n i s d e s i r -
able than t h e one described i n the f i r s t D a r t o f
+ S p e c i a l i s t Engineer, I n f r a r e d and Optical
Sensors Design
Copyright @ 1981 by F. E. Alzofon
1
the paper. Such a j u s t i f i c a t i o n i s presented i n
the second part, i n which a u n i f i e d f i e l d theory i s
developed. It i s based on t h e n o t i o n of a noisy
l i g h t signal, the noise being contributed by
v i r t u a l subatomic processes. It i s i n t e r p r e t e d
i n terms of c l a s s l c a l dispersion theory. Such a
signal i s asserted t o be c l o s e r t o r e a l i t y than
the type of l i g h t s i g n a l introduced i n the
special theory o f r e l a t i v i t y , and permits a u n i -
f i e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f matter and r a d i a t i o n . Since
t h e m e t r i c of space-time must be altered, owing
t o the f l u c t u a t i o n phenanena c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f
v i r t u a l processes, new f i e l d equations of motion
must be introduced. This, i n turn, leads t o f o u r
p o t e n t i a l s a d d i t i o n a l t o those o f t h e special
theory of r e l a t i v i t y . I n p a r t i c u l a r , i n the case
of an absence o f permanent e l e c t r i c charges and
currents and I n t h e presence of s t a t i c mass d i s t -
r i b u t i o n s . one can recover t h e inverse souare l a w
of a t t r a c t i o n between t w masses. i d e n t i f i e d - w i t h
the law o f g r a v i t a t i o n a l force. One i s then per-
suaded t h a t t h e physical mechanism postulated i s
responsible f o r t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l force. A l t e r -
i n 9 the mean e n e r w associated with these
processes can be ixpected t o a l t e r t h e g r a v i t a -
tional field.
Although t h e above deductions from the theory
are o f i n t e r e s t , other r e s u l t s can be derived of
a more general conceptual value; these are l i s t e d
below and w i l l be demonstrated i n t h e paper:
0 I n e r t i a l mass, g r a v i t a t i o n a l mass and t h e
electranagnetic f i e l d are e x h i b i t e d as d i f f e r e n t
states of t h e same f i e l d .
0 The theory includes, as special cases,
newtonian mechanics, r e l a t i v i s t i c mechanics o f a
mass p a r t i c l e , Maxwell's equations f o r t h e propa-
gation of t h e electranagnetic f i e l d , the g r a v i t a -
t i o n a l f i e l d and a continuous gradation o f these
i n t o forces which may be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h nuclear
forces on a s u f f i c i e n t l y small scale.
o A u n i f i e d d e s c r i p t i o n of c l a s s i c a l p a r t i -
c l e mechanics and quantum mechanical processes,
dependent on t h e scale of measurement i s
presented. The p r o b a b i l i t y f i e l d o f t h e quantum
mechanics i s replaced by a matter-energy f i e l d ,
so t h a t some o f t h e conceptual d i f f i c u l t i e s of
the quantum mechanics are eliminated. e.g., t h e
sharp d i v i s i o n between r a d i a t i o n and matter.
o The zero-point i n f i n i t e energy o f the quan-
tum mechanics o f f i e l d s i s eliminated and given a
new i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . The uncertainty p r i n c i p l e
is reinterpreted.
0 The i n f i n i t e energy o f t h e s t a t i c e l e c t r i c ,
magnetic and g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d potentials, as
separation o f t e s t body and source tends t o zero.
i s eliminated.
 o I t i s shown t h a t mass quantization i n the
f i e l d f o l l o w s fran t h e theory.
o A theory o f a fundamental length follows
n a t u r a l l y fran t h e formulation.
o F i e l d equations are presented f o r Bose-
E i n s t e i n and Fermi-Dirac mass states, as w e l l as
associated quantities.
o Since the theory i s linear, and t h e
processes described are r e a d i l y visualized, i t
becanes easy t o formulate experimental t e s t s of
theory and t o i n t e r p r e t these. Moreover, since
the processes discussed are agreed t o e x i s t , t h e
theory provides a u n i f i e d franework i n t o which t o
fit the many diverse phenanena a s s w i a t e d w i t h
very small and very l a r g e scales o f measurement.
A consequence o f such a formulation i s t h a t the
experimentalist can expect t o be able t o p r e d i c t
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how each of the f i e l d s , which can be generated by
present day technology, can affect t h e other
f i e l d s represented by t h i s theory. The proposed
c o n t r o l o f t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d discussed i n
the f i r s t p a r t of the paper i s derived by such
considerations.
o The d e r i v a t i o n of t h e laws o f c l a s s i c a l
physics and o f the quantum mechanics fran t h e
proposed theory c o n s t i t u t e s an experimental
proof o f sane o f t h e theory. I n t h i s sense, i t i s
s i m i l a r t o the molecular and atanic theory of
matter before Einstein's paper on the Brownian
motion (i.e., many known macroscopic properties
of matter could be explained and u n i f i e d ) . I t i s
believed that, l i k e the atanic theory, enough new
r e s u l t s (aside fran the a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e con-
t r o l of g r a v i t a t i o n ) w i l l be deduced fran the
theory t o make i t worthwhile. I t i s i n t h i s
expectation t h a t the theory i s proposed. How-
ever, the c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f t h e nature of i n e r t i a l
mass, g r a v i t a t i o n a l mass, and the ether (i.e.,
existence) and t h e p r o v i s i o n of a c l e a r l y visual-
ized s t r u c t u r e t o u n i f y t h e data of modern
physics i n exchange for a s i n g l e a d d i t i o n a l
assunptim. make the theory worth consideration.
I. A Model f o r t h e Generation
of t h e G r a v i t a t i o n a l Force
1.0 Introduction
The most evident property o f the gravita-
t i o n a l force i s t h a t i t appears i n the presence
of matter (measured by i n e r t i a l mass) and not
otherwise. It i s remarkable t h a t whatever t h e
s t a t e of matter fran c o l d dust clouds t o very hot
stars, t h e sane law, Newton's Law of Gravita-
t i o n a l Force, remains an accurate representation
of t h e force between two masses, and t h a t t h i s i s
dependent s o l e l y on the masses and separation of
t h e t w O bodies.
This constancy o f behavior argues a comnon
mechanism operating t o cause t h e force, inde-
pendent o f v a r i a b i l i t y o f physical s t a t e and
temperature. Thus we seek c a n o n features of a l l
the forms o f matter known t o e x i s t on an astro-
nomical scale, f o r which t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l force
becanes appreciable. One such comnon f e a t u r e i s
t h e experimentally v e r i f i e d observation t h a t a l l
matter i s confined t o elenentary p a r t i c l e s . It
Is therefore natural t o n q u i r e i f sane property
of elementary p a r t i c l e s can be responsible for
the g r a v i t a t i o n a l force. This we w i l l t r y t o
show i n t h e following. I n the developnent of the
ideas t o follow. we s h a l l not adopt t h e p o i n t of
view t h a t a single k i n d o f elementary p a r t i c l e i s
responsible f o r the force. For i f t h i s were so,
i t would then be necessary t o explain why l a r g e
extremes o f physical states do not r e s u l t i n a L
v a r i a t i o n o f t h e populations of t h e p a r t i c l e s i n
question, and a possible a l t e r a t i o n of the g r a v i -
t a t i o n a l f o r c e as a consequence. A simpler model
i s chosen below, one which r e l i e s on a property
t o be found also on a c l a s s i c a l scale, i n v o l v i n g
gas k i n e t i c properties which are w e l l understood.
I n applying the model i t i s necessary t o
show how subatanic p a r t i c l e s , whatever t h e i r
nature and frequency o f occurrence, can a l l give
r i s e t o the same k i n d o f f o r c e f i e l d . The
d e t a i l s o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between elementary
p a r t i c l e s w i l l not be discussed; these should not
be necessary i f the force i s a r e s u l t of averag-
i n g over a f e a t u r e common t o a l l of them. The
model i s i n the s p i r i t (and was suggested by) the
kinematic d e s c r i p t i o n o f a matter-energy f i e l d ,
developed i n Reference 1 and i n Part I 1 o f t h i s
paper. I t deduces forces fran a known motion o r
state, r a t h e r than r e l y i n g upon a dynamic
description which requires d e t a i l e d knowledge of
t h e forces o f the interaction, fran which the
motion o f the physical system can be deduced.
Moreover, once having described a model o f the
processes which give r i s e t o the force o f gravi-
t a t i o n , a procedure can be proposed by which t h e
force may be altered, i.e. weakened o r
strengthened. This i s also described below.
We here depart fran Einstein's geanetrical
formulation o f t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d , which
does not i n d i c a t e any physical process leading t o J
t h e o r i g i n o f the f i e l d . Moreover, the model
its
adopted views matter e s s e n t i a l l y as an aspect of
a matter-energy f i e l d , a concept developed i n a
more consistent way i n P a r t I 1 of t h i s paper.
The l a t t e r concept i s f a m i l i a r t o physicists,
although a u n i f i e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f matter-radia-
t i o n i s not. The remaining concepts employed are
taken fran modern v i s u a l i z a t i o n s o f physical
processes.
1.1 Kinematic Model f o r t h e G r a v i t a t i o n a l Force
The feature postulated as b a s i c a l l y
responsible f o r the g r a v i t a t i o n a l force i s the
s t a b i l i t y of elementary p a r t i c l e s during the time
they e x i s t . This s t a b i l i t y i s expressed i n the
f a c t t h a t t h e mass m o f t h e p a r t i c l e i s constant,
or, t o put i t sonewhat d i f f e r e n t l y , t h a t i t s
Conpton wavelength hlmc i s constant.
But the Canpton wavelength i s a measure of
the extent o f v i r t u a l processes associated w i t h a
given p a r t i c l e . *
*As pointed out i n Reference 1, and more
e x p l i c i t l y described i n Part 11. t h e Canpton
wavelen t h i s a measure o f the p r i n c i p a l extent
of an eyementary p a r t i c l e matter-energy cloud,
e s s e n t i a l l y a f i e l d phenanenon, r a t h e r than a
p a r t i c l e accanpanied by t h e products of v i r t u a l
processes. As shown i n Reference 1 and i n Part
11, although h/mc i s a m a l l quantity, t h e
average effect of v i r t u a l processes leads t o an
inverse square force law, i.e. these processes U
extend beyond the Canpton wavelength.
2
 In t h e presence of another p a r t i c l e , and
w i t h the above-menti oned non-local i r a b i l i t y of
both p a r t i c l e s , the mass density d i s t r i b u t i o n of
the f i r s t p a r t i c l e i s a l t e r e d since the f i e l d s of
the two p a r t i c l e s overlap and they share sane of
their masses w i t h one another. And i f this is
W so, t h e n the mass of the f i r s t particle i s
a l t e r e d from m t o wdm, and its Canptcm wave-
length a l s o a l t e r e d fran h/mc t o h/(m+Am)c or
t o approximately (h/mc)(l-Am/m). a smaller
dianeter than the i n i t i a l one. To remain s t a b l e ,
i n t h e sense i n which we have deflned s t a b i l i t y ,
an a l t e r a t i o n i n the mass-energy d i s t r i b u t i o n
must t a k e place, according t o LeChatelier's
Principle, which will compress the matter-energy
i n t o a smaller volune with the smaller dianeter
given above and corresponding t o the new
s t a b i l i t y configuration. The a l t e r a t i o n i s due
t o the matter-energy contributed by t h e second
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p a r t i c l e and r e s u l t s i n the mass-energy contri-
buted by this p a r t i c l e being drawn closer t o the
c e n t r a l location of the f i r s t particle. The
reaction t o t h i s re-distribution i s an attractive
f o r c e exerted by the second p a r t i c l e on the
f i r s t . Conversely, by s y m e t r i c reasonfng, the
f i r s t p a r t i c l e e x e r t s an a t t r a c t i v e force on the
second p a r t i c l e , again owing t o i t s own
s t a b i l i t y . The changes must be m a l l i n order
for these considerations t o be valid.
I t i s asserted t h a t t h e above mechanism,
which depends only on assunptions incorporating
the presently accepted view of matter and radiant
energy, and does not r e l y on a detailed descrip-
t i o n of elenentary p a r t i c l e forces, is respons-
i b l e for the a t t r a c t i o n between two masses called
t h e gravitational force. Moreover, i t s a t i s f i e s
t h e requirements outlined i n Section 1.0. A more
W
fonnal discussion of t h e origin of t h i s force has
been given i n Reference 1. where the lnverse
square property has been derived and the
a t t r a c t i v e nature of the force a150 derived on
more formal grounds. A c l a s s i c a l ( i . e . non-
quantun mechanical) model of the o r i g i n of forces
of this general nature is provided i n Appendix A,
but i s not necessary f o r the present exposition;
t h e l a t t e r derivation concerns two macroscopic
P a r t i c l e s suspended i n an ideal gas. The ideal
gas corresponds t o t h e virtual p a r t i c l e cloud
surrounding an elenentary p a r t i c l e .
Implenentation of an Anti-Gravity Device
2.0 Introduction
The Considerations above suggest t h a t a
process analogaus t o those which reduce gas
tenperature by allowing gas molecules t o do work
against an external agent, converting i n t e r n a l
random disordered motion i n t o an external ordered
motion, can be used t o reduce the gravitational
force between two masses. The "gas" i n t h i s case
i s the cloud of 'virtual" p a r t i c l e s surrounding
every subatonic p a r t i c l e . We discuss the physical
mechanism suggested t o produce the e f f e c t , and
estimate its maonitude belar.
<
Sumnary of €he Experiment
For the purpose of reducing the mean energy
Of t h e processes which have been characterized as
L orientation.
subatanic noise i n References 1 and 2. we suggest
the use of pulsed dynmic nuclear orientation
applied t o paranagnetic atans i n a constant
magnetic f i e l d . The basic mechanism invoked i s
t o allow rapid (i.e., faster t h a n thermal
disordering) decay i n t o a disordered s t a t e of
t h a t part of the oriented magnetic manent of the
paranagnetic nucleus due t o creation and
annihilation processes; t h i s decay i s due t o
interaction w i t h the earth's virtual particle
cloud. I t i s asserted t h a t t h i s procedure w i l l
reduce the mean energy of t h e disordered motion
of the e a r t h ' s virtual p a r t i c l e cloud i n the
neighborhood of t h e specimen and lead t o a
reduction of the e a r t h ' s gravitational force on
the specimen.
For reasons indicated i n the f o l l a r i n g
discussion, we suggest use of a specimen c ~ q o s e d
of a very pure isotope of aluninun (e.g. A1 ) with
iron inclusions (magnesium plus chranim inclu-
sions a r e also possible candidates). Acting on
t h e speclmen. a pulsed o s c i l l a t i n g microwave
f i e l d o r i e n t s the nuclei i n the iron inclusions
by dynamic nuclear orientation. Small q u a n t i t i e s
of chraniun included i n the aluninun will
increase efficiency of the pulsed f i e l d i n pene-
t r a t i o n of the specimen. since its e f f e c t will be
to increase t h e s k i n d e p t h f o r microwave penetra-
tion (the r e s i s t i v t t y of chraniun is greater than
t h a t of alwninun). I n addition, chromium i s a
menber of the iron orouo and thus will aid i n the
nuclei orientation Of the iron inclusions
(Reference 3. pp. 63-64).
The nuclear orientation of the iron
inclusions will be communicated t o t h e nuclei of
the aluminum matrlx. diffusing throughout the
material. The Orientation of the aluninun nuclei
has a much longer l i f e t i m e w i t h respect t o
thermal decay than the o r i e n t a t i o n of the iron
nuclei ( i n the ratio of 9 t o 1--Reference 3. p.
64 and p. 8 3 ) . Hence the matrix a c t s as a
reservoir of nuclei orientation, so t h a t the
induced Iran nuclei orientation generates a pump-
ing action, anplifying the e f f e c t of t h e forced
orientations. Sane of the apparatus required i s
shown i n Figure 1.
MICROWAVE
QoVRcE
1 GENERATORI
I~~ZK+T-I
AMPLlFlE R
Fig. 1 Some apparatus Used for dynamic nuclear
 The interaction of the disordered matter-
energy creation-annihilation cloud, generated by
the earth, and the ordered aluminum nuclei (and
inclusions) lead to a disordering of the aluminum
nuclei (and inclusions) orientation. This
process occurs at the expense of the mean dis-
ordered motion of the earth's creation-annihila-
tion cloud and a consequent reduction in the
earth's gravltational attraction exerted on the.
aluminum (and inclusions) specimen.
As a corollary to the above considerations,
it is asserted that constantly driving the
virtual processes by flipping the paramagnetic
nuclei too rapidly to allow the virtual processes
to decay appreciably, should lead to an increase
of the gravitational force, since then the mean
disordered motion of the earth's (as well as the
specimen's) creation-annihilation field will be
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increased. This can be accomplished by a
periodic reversal of the magnetic field which was
held constant above in the usual process of
dynamic nuclear orientation.
The remainder of this paper will concern
itself with the details and magnitudes of the
effects generated by the procedures outlined
above.
2.1 Dynamic Nuclear Orientation
The prlnclpal source of the information in
this section is Reference 3. We describe the
physical basis of dynamic nuclear orientation and
some of the magnitudes associated with it.
Dynamic nuclear orientation of paramagnetic
nuclei consists of first imposing a fixed
magnetic field on a given specimen, causing the
electrons ln a glven atom to precess about the
magnetic field direction. An oscillating field
at right angles to the constant field is then
applied, with resonant frequency Y determined
by the magnitude o f the fixed field % and the
relation
where g is the spectroscopic splitting factor
for the e1ectron.p is the magnetic moment of
the Bohr magneton, and h is Planck's constan$
Typical orders of magnitude are g * 3 , p ~ - l O - d
ergloe.
The oscillating field adds energy at
resonant frequencles to the electrons in the
atoms. causing transitions to hiqher energetic
spin states, increasing the e1ect;on population
in these states. Due to their closeness to the
nuclei of the atom, the. electron orientation
induces nuclei orientation. Apprec i able
orientation of nuclei orientation in a given
sense cy be obtained with external fields less
than 10 oe a t temperatures of the order of
O.l°K.
2.2 The Thermal Lifetime of Nuclear Orientation
The rate of relaxation o f nuclear orienta-
tion in paramagnetic atoms due to thermal
processes is very rapid and rises quickly with
4
increase of temperature above very low helium
temperatures (e.g. as T7 or Tg---Reference 3, p.
33). The above-mentioned i m r r i o n of iron
inclusions in an aluminum matrix was proposed to
overcome this drawback. The diffusion of
orientatlon lnto the alumlnum matrix takes place
in accord with a well-known process (Reference 3, v
pp. 74-77).
Nuclear thermal relaxation times have been
accurately measured, in uding their dependence
on temperature. For A1 5j the relaxation time at
4OK is about 0.5 sec. and is proportional to U T ,
where T is the absolute temperature of the
specimen. If the latter proportionality beo
extrapolated to room temperature (abgut 293 K),
the relaxation time would be about 0.006 sec; i n
any case the latter lifetime will be very short.
Thus, if relaxation times are sufficiently
large with respect to thermal electron
collisions, we can expect that the nuclear
orientation (or part of it) will relax owing to
other processes. We now estimate the lifetime of
the ordered states subject to perturbation by
creation and annihilation processes.
2.3 The Lifetime of Virtual States
Quantum electrodynamics has demonstrated
that the fractional change in the electron's magnetic
moment, owing to creatlon-annihilatlon processes, i s
given by
re - 0.0011596 (2.2)
denotes the altered value of the
:!:z(;cemoment and/ccoe its original value eti12m LJ
and 4 = h/Zz).
Analogously to the estimation of the
magnetic moments of proton and neutron by expres-
sions similar to that used for the electron (e.g.
eh/2Mp for the proton. where
7
is equal to the
mass of the proton), we estima e the effects of
virtual processes on the magnetic m e n t of a
nucleon by a relation similar to 2.2
I -
= 5.1 x ergfoe. the energy
store in the magnetic interaction with virtual
processes is (9-3, Reference 3, p. 2---here g
is deflned sonewhat differently than the
reference, but the calculation is essentially the
same)
For a paramagnetic ion, the nu leus e periences a
magnetic field, locally, of 10s to 10 i oe so
that (2.4) may reach a value of 1.5 X erg
per paramagnetic ion nucleus. The frequency
associated with t e latter energy is then A E / h
B
or about 2.3 x 10 Hr and the complementarity of
frequency and time implied a lifetime for the
state of about 4.3 x 10- sec. That is, the
 l i f e t i m e o f t h e v i r t u a l states in'question are
very much shorter than nuclear o r i e n t a t i o n
thermal l i f e t i m e s . A pulsed o s c i l l a t i n g f i e l d
w i l l t h e r e f o r e serve to keep t h e paramagnetic
n u c l e i oriented i n s o f a r as thermal decay i s
concerned and, properly timed, w i l l allow t h a t
v p a r t o f t h e magnetic manent due t o v i r t u a l
processes t o becane disordered. I n t h e relaxa-
t i o n by paramagnetic i m p u r i t i e s , t h e n u c l e i act
as though they are coupled together (Reference 3,
p. 73).
2.4 Experiment Parameters and C m e n t s
The above estimates have been i n t h e s p i r i t
o f Reference 3 (e.g. pp. 2-3 and p. 73). taken
more t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e p r i n c i p l e s proposed than
as accurate representations of physical quanti-
t i e s , since the basic parameters do not appear t o
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be accurately known. Hwever these p r i n c i p l e s
have been borrowed from other, and well-know
applications i n c l a s s i c a l physics; the techno-
l o g y of dynamic nuclear o r i e n t a t i o n i s also well-
developed. Hence i t seems h i g h l y desirable and
possible to do an experiment of the s o r t
proposed, e s p e c i a l l y t o determine more accurate-
l y t h e parmeters estimated. I n t h i s connection,
t h e following comnents are made:
o The c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e energy stored i n
t h e ordering o f v i r t u a l processes was performed
f o r a s i n g l e nucleon. The estimate was d e l i b e r -
a t e l y made much smaller than i s l i k e l y ; t h i s
f o l l o w s f r a n the greater c a n p l e x i t y of the
p r o t o n ' s s t r u c t u r e than t h a t o f t h e electron
(e.g. remarks by B.L. Cohen i n Reference 4, p.
8). Moreover, t h e i r o n nucleus i s s t i l l more
complex than t h e aluminum nucleus.
o For t h e proposed experiment, i t i s l i k e l y
t h a t t h e desired e f f e c t can be obtained f o r
temperatures much higher than those a t which
conventional nuclear o r i e n t a t i o n processes are
performed, due t o t h e wide d i f f e r e n c e i n thermal
aml v i r t u a l s t a t e l i f e t i m e s f o r inclusions and
matrix.
The magnetic f i e l d s and frequencies of t h e
o s c i l l a t i n g f i e l d s can be selected as those o f t e n
used i n dynamic nuclear orientation. For
example. w i t h a f i x e d magnetic f i e l d o f 660 oe
one can employ a pulsed o s c i l l a t i n g f i e l d a t MOO
MHt. Pulses o f the o s c i l l a t i n g f i e l d are t o l a s t
for 2 microseconds w i t h a duty c y c l e o f f r o m 2 t o
6 milliseconds. The optimum q u a n t i t y o f i r o n t o
be embedded i n aluminum must be determined by
experiment; cunbination of the two metals i s
aided by t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e i r m e l t i n g points.
Since i r o n has & higher m e l t i n g p o i n t than alumi-
num, i r o n incluslons can be added t o molten
aluminum which i s then s t i r r e d t o o b t a i n a u n i -
form d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e specimen.
If. f o r exmple, t h e r a t i o o f i r o n n u c l e i t o
aluminum n u c l e i i n one ram o f a specimen should
be about 1 i n 10, then !provided t h e above e s t i -
mates are r e a l i s t i c ) o f the order o f a j o u l e o f
g r a v i t a t i o n a l energy can be removed per duty
cy l e . A t the e a r t h ' s surface, there are 6.3 x
108 joules per gram mass of g r a v i t a t i o n a l energy,
5
so t h a t an aDDreCiable D a r t o f i t would be
removed i n several seconds, on t h e basis of t h i s
simple model.
I t would be of i n t e r e s t t o perform the
proposed experiment so t h a t the model proposed
can be tested and improved.
2.5 Vehicle Desian
A n t i - g r a v i t y (i.e.. weakening t h e g r a v i t a -
t i o n a l f o r c e ) alone i s e v i d e n t l y not enough t o
propel a vehicle. I t s p r i n c i p a l use would be t o
reduce t h e power needed t o propel t h e vehicle,
when near a body o f astronunical scale, such as a
planet o r sun.
Within a p l a n e t ' s atmosphere, there are many
possible methods o f p r o p e l l i n g a vehicle, based
on a t h r u s t against t h e atmosphere o f t h e planet.
Since i t i s l i k e l y t h a t the generated f i e l d w i l l
reduce t h e i n e r t i a l mass of the v e h i c l e t o s m e
extent, very high v e l o c i t i e s and accelerations
would be possible.
The method o f applying t h r u s t w i l l depend t o
some e x t e n t on t h e shape o f the vehicle. I t
would be economical t o choose a c i r c u l a r cross
section since t h e generator o f t h e a n t i - g r a v i t y
f i e l d would then be equi-distant f r a n the metal
structures making up the vehicle. These are
imagined t o be sheets o f aluminum w i t h i r o n
inclusions, as mentioned above. These sheets
w i l l be too t h i n t o supply s t r u c t u r a l strength t o
the vehicle and w i l l be attached i n panels t o the
underlying structure. Because o f t h e c i r c u l a r
cross section, t h e propulsive force i n the atmo-
sphere w i l l be applied i n a s m e t r i c a l manner
r e l a t i v e t o t h i s cross section. For example, i f
a spherical shape i s used. a s l o t t e d r i m r o t a t i n g
about t h e center o f the c r a f t , p a r a l l e l t o the
p l a n e t ' s surface, can be used t o l i f t the
vehicle. A c e n t r a l j e t engine w i t h exhaust open-
ings about the sides o f t h e v e h i c l e can supply
h o r i z o n t a l t h r u s t f o r maneuverability. Figure 2
i l l u s t r a t e s a possible configuration.
n .'.
Fig. 2 C o n c e p t u a l d r a w i n g Of v e h i c l e using
anti-gravity screens.
 Because o f the harmful e f f e c t o f microwave
r a d i a t i o n on the crew. the micrwave generator
w i l l be shielded f r a n the crew's quarters; i t s
l o g i c a l placfment would be i n the lower p a r t of
the sphere.
The'design suggested makes t h i s k i n d of
vehicle a good choice f o r a s h u t t l e vehicle
between planet surface and a space ship i n o r b i t
about t h e planet, since i t can not o n l y maneuver
w i t h i n the atmosphere o f the planet, but also
leave i t s surface t o go i n t o a conventionally
chosen o r b i t . For the l a t t e r prrpose, as well as
t a k i n g o f f t o explore interplanetary space, the
suggested design i s useful, since no large take-
off acceleration i s required. Once i n space,
small rocket or gas jets o f f e r a convenient means
of maneuvering. Since large mounts of p r o p e l l -
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ant do not need t o be used i n takeoff and
landing, i t w i l l be possible t o accelerate the
vehicle for p a r t o f an interplanetary t r i p and t o
decelerate f o r t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f the t r i p , thus
reducing t r a v e l time by a considerable margin.
11. Unified F i e l d Theorr
3.0 Introdtiction
The second p a r t of t h i s paper proposes t o
provide a formal basis f o r the g r a v i t a t i o n model
i n Part I . It i s not a theory o f g r a v i t a t i o n
alone; i t i s a u n i f i e d f i e l d t h e a y which
presents the electranagneti c f i e l d (Maxwell I s ) ,
t h e g r a v i t a t i o n f i e l d and f i e l d properties which
can be i d e n t i f i e d w i t h forces on a subatanic
l e v e l as d i f f e r e n t aspects of the sane f i e l d .
Both matter and r a d i a t i o n are exhibited as
different aspects of the f i e l d , i.e. mass
p a r t i c l e s are a special s t a t e o f the f i e l d .
The question of the value o f such a formula-
t i o n may w i s e , although the u n i t y o f matter and
radiation, w i n g t o observed transformations of
one i n t o the other, i s n o t i n question. I n t h i s
connection, one i s reminded o f the advantages
which f o l l w e d fran the u n i f i c a t i o n o f the
e l e c t r i c and magnetic f i e l d s , i n t o the e l e c t r o -
magnetic f i e l d , and the u n i f i c a t i o n performed by
the atomic thecry, as a j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r the
effort. There remains, however, the question o f
how t h i s u n i f i c a t i o n ought t o be c a r r i e d out and
what the properties o f such a u n i f i c a t i o n ought
t o have.
A. E i n s t e i n found i t necessary t o defend h i s
approach t o the problem o f u n i f y i n g the f i e l d s ,
although he never doubted the d e s i r a b i l i t y of
such a u n i f i c a t i o n . As E i n s t e i n states, "The
characteristfcs which especially d i s t i n g u i s h the
general theory o f r e l a t i v i t y and even more...the
u n i t a r y f i e l d theory. from other physical
theories are the degree o f formal speculation.
t h e slender e n p i r i c a l basis...and...the funda-
mental r e l i a n c e on the u n i f o r m i t y o f the secrets
of n a t u r a l law...It i s t h i s feature which appears
as a weakness t o physicists who i n c l i n e toward
ti ve.. ..
realism or positivism, but i s especially a t t r a c -
t o the speculative mathematical mind."
6
That E i n s t e i n recognizes the weakness of a
t h e a y designed p r i m a r i l y for mathfmatical
s i m p l i c i t y , as indicated above, i s f u r t h e r
enphasized by h i s remark t h a t "Pure l o g i c a l
t h i n k i n g can give us no knowledge whatsoever o f
the world o f experience; a l l knowledge about W
r e a l t y begins w i t h experlence and terminates i n
it.''i The relevance o f the special theory of
r e l a t i v i t y t o experiment, f o r exanple. arose out
o f E i n s t e i n ' s recognition o f the empirical f a c t
o f the constancy o f the speed o f l i g h t and h i s
assertion of the nature o f d i s t a n t clock synchro-
nization, a feature o f the use o f l i g h t signals
(i.e. a f i e l d ) t o e s t a b l i s h a coordinate system.
H i s l a t e r work was more mathematically oriented.
It was the questioning, by an empiricist, o f
the geanetrization o f space-time i n the general
theory o f r e l a t i v i t y , which l e d t o experiments
claimed t o cast doubt on the foundations o f the
the~ry.~
The above remarks lead one t o enquire what a
"worthwhile" formulation of a physical theory
should be. I n t h i s connection, the h i s t o r y o f
science provides several guidelines f o r a
physical theory's usefulness.
Experience has shown that, t o be o f general
i n t e r e s t t o the s c i e n t i f i c comunity, a theory
must not only make numerical formulations of
correlations between events, but do so i n a
r e a d i l y visualized manner. I n addition, i n the
appropriate context, i t must reduce t o the
equivalent of foregoing c m e p t s and theories.
I t must, also. y i e l d simpler and more d i r e c t
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of r e a l l t y than i t s canpetitors
(e.g. preceding theories). I n a f i n a l t e s t , a
theory must offer a t t r a c t i v e opportunities f o r
LI
formul a t i on and in t e r p r e t a t i on o f experiments.
The above considerations have guided the
developnent of the following theory and the
course of the discussion below. I f the u n i f i c a -
t i o n of the concepts and f i e l d s proposed i s
correct, then an a l t e r n a t i v e t o the u n i t a r y f i e l d
of A. Einstein has been accomplished. I t s reso-
l u t i o n of sane o f the conceptual d i f f i c u l t i e s o f
the quantm mechanics and removal of i n f i n i t i e s
of the Coulanb-like laws i s an adaed useful
feature, while the u n i f i c a t i o n o f f i e l d and
p a r t i c l e concepts res lves a d i f f i c u l t y recog-
nized by A. Einstein.8 If these and other
conceptual conveniences were the o n l y features o f
the theory, i t would h a w o n l y the value of the
atomic theory i n i t s i n i t i a l stages, i.e. o f f e r -
i n g a u n i f i c a t i o n o f already-known observations.
However, t o the extent t h a t the considerations o f
Part I w e relevant t o the formal theory, a basic
requirfment f o r a useful t h e a y w i l l have been
met.
4.0 General Background
The following theory I s based on the
addition o f a new assunption about t h e propaga-
t i o n of the r e a l electranagnetic f i e l d ( i n
d i s t i n c t i o n t o Maxwell's f i e l d ) , t o the
assunptions of the special theory o f r e l a t i v i t y ,
as w e l l as a closer adherence t o p r a c t i c a l
aspects o f f i e l d measurements.
d
 There are many reasons t o believe t h a t the
l i g h t signal (i.e, electronagnetic f i e l d )
behavior used by E i n s t e i n should be altered.
Since t h e special theory of r e l a t i v i t y was f i r s t
proposed many new experimental properties of the
f i e l d have been discovered, one o f the most
proninent being t h e conversion o f r a d i a t i o n t o
matter and t h e converse. These conve sions may
occur on a scale of the order o f h/mc (m = mass 5
of t h e electron, f o r e x m p l e ) and also on a
r e l a t i v e l y long t i m e scale. The former are
tenned v i r t u a l processes and are conceded t o have
a r e a l existance, as shown by the correctness of
t h e predictions of the quantum electrodynamics.
As an example of how a l i g h t signal might be
a l t e r e d by t h e c r e a t i o n o f matter, consider the
case o f a l i @ t source t r a v e l i n g toward the
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observer a t a speed s u f f i c i e n t t o r a i s e t h e
frequency o f the r a d i a t i o n t o t h e l e v e l o f gama
rays. The presence of heavy n u c l e i ( t o absorb
manentun) near the observer w i l l permit p a i r
creation a t t h e expense o f t h e energy o f the
gama rays and therefore an a l t e r a t i o n i n the
character o f the " l i g h t " signal expected. An
observer a t r e s t r e l a t i v e t o t h e source would not
(according t o t h e special t h e a y of r e l a t i v i t y )
see such events, suggesting a l o g i c a l contradic-
tion.*
While the p a i r c r e a t i o n imaglned above
occurs on a time scale s u i t a b l e t o atonic
physics, v i r t u a l processes of creation and
a n n i h i l a t i o n of matter occur on a much shorter
time scale. And. although the special theory o f
r e l a t i v i t y p r e d i c t s an equivalence between
i n e r t i a l mass and radiation. t h e nature o f the
equivalence i s not featured i n t h e foundations o f
t h e theory. However, ifthe success o f the
special theory o f r e l a t i v i t y has been based on a
recognition o f a p r o p e r t y of the electranagnetic
f i e l d not included i n t h e Maxwell t h e a y o f the
f i e l d ({.e. t h e constancy o f the speed of radia-
tion, independent of t h e speed of t h e observer),
then i t i s f i t t i n g t o enquire what advantage may
be derived by adding t o t h e properties o f the
f i e l d the known phenanena o f the c r e a t i o n and
a n n i h i l a t i o n o f matter.
4.1 Role of the L i g h t Siqnal i n a U n i f i e d F i e l d
The model proposed i n Reference 1 was m o t i -
vated by t h e observation t h a t i f there i s i n
r e a l i t y a u n i f i e d f i e l d , any f i e l d model must
recognize t h a t experiments such as the
Davisson-termer experiment imply t h a t , on a sub-
a t o n i c scale o f phenanena, matter e x h i b i t s wave
*The observer a t r e s t r e l a t i v e t o the signal
e m i t t e r may observe such events on a very mall
time scale [e.g. v i r t u a l p a i r c r e a t i o n ) r e l a t i v e
t o t h e scale on which these events are observed
i n the reference frme i n motion r e l a t i v e t o the
source, owing t o time i n t e r v a l d i l a t i o n . How-
ever. t h i s does not a l t e r the assertion t h a t a
l i g h t signal can have a more canplex s t r u c t u r e
than allowed i n the special theory of r e l a t i v l t y .
7
or f i e l d properties. In addition, on an atomic
scale o r smaller i t i s necessary t o allow for t h e
randan nature of a l l physical processes. On t h e
other hand, one must also be a b l e t o derive f r a n
the model the properties o f mass p a r t i c l e s on a
macroscopic scale. i n c l u d i n g Newtonian
mechanics, as i n Reference 1.
Ift h e m e t r i c o f space-time i s t o be
established by means o f l i g h t signals, S O t h a t
the r e s u l t s o f the special t h e a y o f r e l a t i v i t y
m a y be recovered, then i n the context of a
u n i f i e d f i e l d theory. t h e m e t r i c i s t o be
established by using only one s t a t e o f the u n i -
f i e d f i e l d , t h e Maxwell electronagnetic f i e l d .
I n accord w i t h the analysis o f the Lanb-
Retherford l i n e s h i f t and other r e s u l t s o f t h e
quantun electrodynamics, an electranagnetic
f i e l d signal p a r t i c i p a t e s i n the motion o f other
states o f the u n i f i e d f i e l d and therefore cannot
preserve i t s i d e n t i t y i n t h e presence o f matter.
And since there must always be a material
generator and receiver o f a r a d i a t i o n signal,
there must always be a f i n i t e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t
t h e l i g h t s i g n a l w i l l lose i t s i d e n t i t y f o r p a r t
of i t s motion between sender and receiver. This
p r o b a b i l i t y becones s i g n i f i c a n t f o r s u f f i c i e n t l y
s m a l l regions o f space and time.
However, ifa s i n g l e s t a t e of t h e u n i f i e d
f i e l d i s used t o e s t a b l i s h a metric, t h e other
states o f the f i e l d w i l l appear as i n t e r r u p t i o n s
i n the Propagation o f t h a t s i n g l e state; t h i s i s
a n o t i o n borrowed fran c l a s s i c a l diSDerSiOn
theory. A b r i e f description o f the theory i s
presented i n the next section.
4.2 Dispersion Model Applied t o the LIqht Signal
The c l a s s i c a l t h e a y o f dispersion i s an a i d
t o v i s u a l i z i n g the r o u t e of developnent chosen,
i.e. t o preserve the electronagnetic signal i n a
vacum c h a r a c t e r i z i n g the special theory of
r e l a t i v i t y , while adding one property t o i t s
motion. The l a t t e r approach i s i n accord w i t h
the d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e desirable formulation o f a
theory i n a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e s c i e n t i f i c method.
Ye imagine, f o r s i m p l i c i t y , a plane wave
propagated i n a vacuun:
ei(ru/o)(x - a t )
i n c i d e n t n o n a l l y on a cubic c r y s t a l l a t t i c e .
Most of t h e c r y s t a l l a t t i c e , according t o t h e
atomic theory. i s composed of a vacuun and yet i s
capable of a l t e r i n g t h e phase v e l o c i t y c o f t h e
above wave i n a h - a s t i c manner. The c l a s s i c a l
dispersion t h e a y resolves t h i s apparent paradox
by imagining the e l e c t r i c a l charges o f t h e a t m s
s e t i n t o v i b r a t i o n by t h e plane wave and r e -
r a d i a t i n g t o fm (by coherent interference) a
new plane wave, again c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f
propagation i n a vacuun. There w i l l be, however.
a s h i f t i n phase due t o t h e i n t e r a c t i o n :
ei ( 4 C X X - C t 4
 Each crystal lattice plane adds another phase
shift of the same amount so that when the plane
wave emerges from the crystal, the total phase
shift is proportional to the thickness of the
crystal, call it a. The number of such phase
shifts is approximated by ald, where d is the
separation of the lattice planes. Therefore the
total phase shift is approximately a 6 /d.
Since the thickness of the crystal and the
time interval of passage are known, however, it
i s convenient to interpret the phase shift as a
change of phase velocity and to introduce an
index of refraction as a measure of this altera-
tion.
In the present theory, we shall introduce
phase shifts to indicate processes occurring in
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the radiation signal propagating in a vacuum,
with the difference that the average value of the
phase shifts i s zero for the electromagnetic
field on a macroscopic scale. This condition
describes the Maxwell electromagnetic field and
will not necessarily be valid for other fields.
It is imaginable, for example, that all the phase
shifts for the monochromatic waves comprising a
wave packet will be equal, as in the classical
dispersion theory. In such case, the entire wave
packet will be shifted i n location from what
would be expected on the basis of the electro-
magnetic theory alone. Corresponding to the
possibility of this kind of event and a similar
translation i n the time scale, we interpret the
phase shift as a translation in space and time
coordinates, rather than as an alteration in the
phase velocity. Thus i s preserved the observa-
tion of the constant speed of light; moreover,
like the dispersion theory, there i s the con-
venience of using a wave motion characteristic of
a vacuum.
4.3 Field Theory and Filter
But the introduction of the notion of noisy
signals from comnunication theory is not enough
for an adequate correspondence with reality.
For, along with the admission of noise as well as
signal as fundamental phenomena i n establishing a
metric of space-time, i s the essential concept of
filters used by both generator and receiver of a
given signal. In a more general sense, every
experiment i s a filter: a series of operations
i n which desired effects are to be admitted to
observation, if they exist, and undesired effects
shut out of observation. But undesired effects,
i.e. noise, are never completely eliminated;
hence noise, it is proposed, nust be taken into
account i n a fundamental way in establishing a
metric of space-time. Moreover, this concept
corresponds in a more realistic manner to how
measurements of signals are made, as well as,
more generally, how physical systems interact
through fields.
Relevant to the filter concept. the manner
in which the expanded type of motion of the
unified field i s introduced in Reference 1
characterizes the field i n a kinematic manner, as
distinguished from a dynamical model, i.e. an
assumption i s made about the nwtion of the field
rather than about the forces responsible for the
a
fluctuation processes giving rise to the new
metric and leading to the additional degrees of
freedom. The splitting of the coordinates used
into an average and a fluctuation contribution is
in consonance with a theorem proved by A.
Einstein to hold in an approximate manner.' More-
over, this concept corresponds to the manner in
which the results of observations of fields.
using filters, are analyzed. The latter remark
i s especially relevant to the logical consistency
of the splitting of the coordinates into an
average part and a fluctuating part, as success-
fully carried out for molecular forces in a well-
known and analogous nalysis of the Brownian
motion by Langevin.
5.0 Physical Backaround
It was first recognized, in connection with
the analysis of the spectral energy distribution
of the radiation emitted by a blackbody, that the
emission and absorption of the radiation occurred
i n an uncontrollable manner if the scale f
energy transfer were sufficiently small .Ip More-
over, the balance of energy in a blackbody cavity
was later shown to be closely related to the spon-
taneous emission of radiation (crea on of photons),
again an uncontrollable phenomenon.r4 Further,
events which occurred outside the control of the
experimenter were eventually shown to be inserted
into the whole domain of atomic phenomena; this
observation became a universal law of ature as
the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. 19
More recently, it has been demonstrated that
it is necessary to include the spontaneous
creation and annihilation of particles i n the
description of nature. For example, notable
success has been achieved with explanation of the
Lamb-Retherford line shift i n the hydrogen
spectrum by means of virtual radiative processes
in the presence of a larired vacuum. The
predlgtions of theoryP8 and the experi ntal
data differ by no more than 0.5 MHz,T$ an agree-
ment so accurate that it has been remarked that the
polarization of the vacuum, as a consequence of
an electron-positron fie , i s a "well-
est ab1 ished phenmenon."lg Further verification
-
of the reality of the polarization o f the vacuum,
even if the energy avail ble from the radiant
quanta be less than 2mec9 (ne mass of the
electron and c=speed of light), follows from the
fine structure of the positroniu ground state
and level shifts of mesic atoms. T4
llEarlier it had been s wn that the infra-
red and the ultra-violetP8 catastrophes in the
theory of the scattering of an electron by a
central force field, could be removed by account-
ing for virtual processes. The latter was
considered to be in the nature of a formal diffi-
culty, rather than a reflection of reality.
Further, the interaction of nucleo is
conveniently imagined, at least i n party$, as due
to the creation, followed by the annihilation of
particles (mesons). The magnetic moments of
neutron and proton20, as well as the quadrupole
moment of the deuteron, are imagined to exist as
a consequence of virtual charge creation.

I n t h e above discussion. no sharo d i s t i n c -
t i o n was drawn between a v i r t u a l and b spontane-
ous process. I n t h e following, it w i l l be
assumed t h a t a v i r t u a l process owes i t s existence
t o spontaneous creations and a n n i h i l a t i o n s which
v are not resolved by the scale o f measurement
employed. Thus. on an atomic scale, no net
change i n the number o f p a r t f c l e s o r i n the net
charge w i l l be observed due t o v i r t u a l processes.
As a consequence o f the above-noted pheno-
mena, v i r t u a l processes are assumed t o have a
r e a l existence and t o proceed without cessation;
t h e y are not considered t o be i n i t i a t e d by the
action of the observer.
But t h e existence o f a d d i t i o n a l modes o f
motion of the real electromagnetic f i e l d argues
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t h e existence of degrees of freedom additional t o
those which customarily ( i n theory) specif the
s t a t e o f the f i e l d . I n Section 5.1 It v i l f be
shorn how t h i s consideration e f f e c t s the formula-
t i o n of the special theory.
5.1 L i q h t Siqnals and Spontaneous Processes
By d e f i n i t i o n , a l i g h t signal i s an e l e c t r o -
magnetic wave packet o f specified shape which re-
s u l t s from a given series o f i n t e r a c t i o n s of
m a t e r i a l bodies, these i n t e r a c t i o n s terminating
a t a given ttme and place. The s e r i e s of i n t e r -
actions and the time and place o f termination (or
emission of t h e packet) w i l l be assumed t o be
determinable as accurately as required.*
But here a d i f f i c u l t y appears. For so long
as space and t i m e i n t e r v a l s o f t e r r e s t r i a l magni-
tude are involved, the s e r i e s o f i n t e r a c t i o n s
r e s u l t s i n the e x c i t a t i o n o f many atoms, followed
" i m e d i a t e l y " by t h e emission of radiation. But
on a m a l l e r scale. i f o n l y a few atoms (or one
atom) are involved, a l l the experimenter can do
i s t o e x c i t e the atoms and observe whether or not
the emission takes place a t the given time and
place. I f the emission of r a d i a t i o n takes place
on schedule, i t i s inferred t h a t the signal has
been generated by t h e experimenter. I f the
emission of r a d i a t i o n does not take place on
schedule, i.e. spontaneously, one may i n f e r t h a t
t h e inherent u n p r e d l c t i b i l i t y o f atomic p h e m e -
na i s a t f a u l t . But E i n s t e f n ' s analysis o f the
*Although the term " l i g h t signal" i s u s u a l l y used
i n connection with a source o f r a d i a t i o n and an
observer who ( i n p r i n c i p l e ) establishes a coordi-
nate system by observations made with t h e i r aid,
the p o i n t of view adopted here i s that the
success of such a procedure i n e s t a b l i s h i n g a
p h y s i c a l theory i s evidence that m a t e r i a l systems
i n t e r a c t w i t h one another through the e l e c t r o -
magnetic f i e l d on an atomic l e v e l o f observation
and i n no other way. I t i s proposed below t h a t
m a t e r i a l systems on a subatomic l e v e l also
i n t e r a c t through f i e l d s and i n no other way. The
m e t r i c i s a measure of how space-time coordinates
are r e l a t e d i n t h i s interaction. e.g. whether the
i n t e r a c t i o n i s o r i s not possible.
L t h a t the model here proposed does not c o n t r a d i c t
9
. ...
balance of r a d i a t i o n i n a blackbody c a v i t y indi-
cates t h a t t h i s u n p r e d i c t i b i l i t y fs linked t o
u n c o n t r o l l a b l e and spontaneous emission o f r a d i -
ation. One may t h e r e f o r e ascribe the delay t o
t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f spontaneous processes not
i n i t i a t e d by the experimenter and i t may be ex-
pected that no complete d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e gen-
e r a t i o n of a l i g h t signal can be obtained without
e x p l i c i t i n t r o d u c t i o n of the e f f e c t o f sponta-
neous processes on the signal.
The viewpoint t o be developed i n the present
paper i s t h a t the discrepancy between the
scheduled and the actual time and place o f emis-
s i o n of r a d i a t l o n i s evidence o f i n t e r n a l n a t i o n
unresolved b y the experimenter, r a t h e r than a
consequence o f an elementary and unresolvable
uncontrollability i n the e x c i t a t i o n o f t h e
r a d i a t i o n field.
On an atomic level, t h i s v i r t u a l motion can
only be inferred; the methods o f the quantum
mechanics appear adequate t o e x p l a i n a l l experi-
mental evidence. However, on a smaller scale,
t h e creations and a n n i h i l a t i o n s which g i v e r i s e
t o s i m i l a r discrepancies are resolved and the
p e r t u r b a t f o n methods of t h e quantum mechanics no
longer apply. If, f o r example, one s p e c i f i e s an
electron-positron p a i r a n n i h i l a t i o n as the gen-
e r a t o r of a signal (gama ray). then there i s the
p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t the gama ray w i l l again create
a pair*. etc.. the process repeating i t s e l f a
great number of times. It i s then seen t h a t t h e
unfqueness o f the time and l o c a t i o n of the event
of signal generation i s i t s e l f l o s t t o s m e
degree. the i n t e r a c t i o n o f the m a t e r i a l bodies
being displaced i n space and time.
The l a t t e r feature of the d e l does not
fntroduce any essential d i f f i c u l t i e s ; rather,
one can then introduce the concepts o f i n t e r n a l
motion, v i r t u a l processes. etc. r e l a t i v e t o t h e
l i g h t signal i t s e l f a f t e r i t s generation. There
i s then removed any essential d i s t i n c t i o n between
the l i g h t signal and the m a t e r i a l system which
generated it. These considerations w i l l be
expanded i n the discussion o f the dispersion
model.
The s i t u a t i o n described above i s not new i n
the h i s t o r y of natural philosophy; i t character-
ized the growth of t h e atomic theory. For
exanple. the Brownian w t i o n i s caused by
Processes which c o u l d n o t be resolved by t h e
o p t i c a l microscopes observing the notion; these
processes would then be classed as i r t u a l .
Analysis o f the i n f e r r e d processes2r required
p o s t u l a t i o n o f degrees o f freedom additional t o
those d e s c r i p t i v e of macroscopic motion. But
although the l a t t e r , new, degrees of freedom do
not d i f f e r i n t h e i r essential character frm
those d e s c r i p t i v e of macroscopic motion, the case
o f t h e l i g h t signal i s unique i n t h a t no measure-
ments on other physical e n t i t i e s can be used t o
+The model o f c r e a t i o n o f p a i r s intended here
d i f f e r s fran t h a t i n f e r r e d f r a n the formalism o f
the quantum mechanics. The f a c t t h a t the f o r -
malism t o be introduced reduces t o t h a t of
quantum mechanics, where appropriate, indicates
present concepts as they apply t o atomic physics.
 define t h e s i g n a l i n a more elementary manner; i t
i s t h e determinant of the space-time m e t r i c and
i t s behavior cannot be described i n terms o f
itself.
5.2 Dimensionality of Space-time and
Spontaneous Processes
A t the basis o f a l l physical theory i s t h e
r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t no t h e o r e t i c a l construct can be
introduced unless i t d c r i p t i v e o f some
physical measurement. 13* $3 I n particular, the
whole imagined s t r u c t u r e of space-time i s based
on t h e oeneration and measurement o f l i a h t
signals: This i s a recognition that, u i t i m a t e l y ,
one can reduce physical measurements t o i n t e r -
actions between e l e c t r m a g n e t i c f i e l d s and
matter, and no f u r t h e r . And, although the
success o f t h e special theory has d m n s t r a t e d
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t h e v a l i d i t y o f i t s underlying assumptions on a
t e r r e s t r i a l and atomic scale, i t i s by no means
c l e a r t h a t t h e theory i s necessarily v a l i d f o r a
more microscopic scale. The preceding discussion
renders i t p l a u s i b l e t h a t a l i g h t signal tr ns-
m i t t e d over a distance of, say h/meC lD-e3 cm.
h/wc' -
o r f o a time i n t e r v a l o f t h e order o f
sec ( h Planck's constant),
cannot preserve i t s o r i g i n a l s t r u c t u r e owing t o
t h e creation and a n n i h i l a t i o n o f elfmentary
p a r t i c l e s during the course o f i t s motion.
On t h e other hand, there i s no mention of
spontaneous c r e a t i o n processes i n the model
adopted f o r t h e establishment o f the Minkowski
metric. And, although t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of the
event may be very small, there e x i s t s t h e possi-
b i l i t y o f spontaneous generation o f a signal o f
the type agreed upon i n advance. And i f t h i s be
so, then one must also admit the existence o f an
u n c o n t r o l l a b l e means of generating a l i g h t signal
independently of the experfmenter ' s in lt ia t Ion
o f t h e signal. The existence o f two such inde-
pendent means o f signal generation requires t h e
i n t r o d u c t i o n of degrees o f freedom f o r t h e space-
t i m e continuum a d d i t i o n a l t o t h e f o u r o f t h e
Einstein-Minkowski gemetry*, since a signal
cannot be described i n terms o f i t s e l f - i t deter-
mines the space-time metric.
On a t e r r e s t r i a l scale such events have not
been observed, b u t t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of observing a
given signal. spontaneously generated, w l l l
increase as t h e number o f observable spontaneous
events increases. The a i m here i s not t h e e s t i -
mation of t h i s p r o b a b i l i t y , but r a t h e r t h e j u s t i -
f i c a t i o n f o r imagining such an event. I t i s well
known, f o r example, t h a t a s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n
e x i s t s i n t h e detectlon of radar signals when the
noise l e v e l i s comparable t o o r greater than t h e
s i g n a l level.
The spontaneous event imagined i s meaning-
less, frm t h e standpoint of i n t e r p r e t i n g the
*It i s o f i n t e r e s t t o compare t h i s remark w i t h A.
E i n s t e i n ' s ooinion
~ ~~~ o f t.h e. v a l i d i t v o..f f i e l d
~~~.~~~
theories whlkh i n c r e e t h e dimensionality o f t h e
space-time c o n t i n u u 3 .
10
present model, unless a p r o b a b i l i t y be associated
w i t h t h e occurrence o f the event. It i s agreed
t h a t t h i s p r o b a b i l i t y i s n e g l i g i b l e on the
t e r r e s t r i a l scale o f measurenent. Moreover, i t
i s inherent i n t h e manner of t h e i r i n t r o d u c t i o n
t h a t the new degrees of f r e e d m be associated
with s t a t i s t i c a l distributions descriptive o f
the processes which g i v e r i s e t o than. Hence the
observable q u a n t i t i e s t o be discussed w i l l be of
the nature o f expectation values which depend on
s t a t i s t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s . A l i k e remark applies
t o the magnitudes o f the new degrees o f f r e e d m
themselves.
On t h e other hand, a s t a t i s t i c a l model i s o f
value if the spontaneous processes introduced
above are unresolved and therefore lead t o an
average e f f e c t . I f t h e spontaneous processes are
resolved, then there has been obtained a causal
description o f nature i n the sense t h a t one then
has dynamical variables which determine t h e
behavior o f the i n d i v i d u a l physical system, not
i t s average behavior alone. This p o i n t w i l l be
discussed i n greater d e t a i l i n Section 5.3 and
the sections following.
5.3 Spontaneous Processes and t h e Space-time
Metric
The a x i m s o f t h e special theory (93 r e l a -
t i v i t y ) are now assumed t o be i n force. Thus,
t h e r e l a t i o n between observations performed by
experimenters r e l a t i v e t o rectangular Cartesian
coordinate systems S:(x,y,z) and S':(x',y',z'),
i n r e l a t i v e motion w i t h constant speed v along a
conmon a x i s ( t h e x and x' axes), are e s s e n t i a l l y
sunmarized by the r e l a t i o n s between the coordi-
nates x,y,z,t and x',y',z',t'
I
I
x'y (x-gct) 1
Moreover, i t i s emphasized t h a t space-time i s
assumed t o be homogeneous, as presymed i n the
special theory.
For t h e purpose o f extending the special
theory t o account f o r the uhenmena considered
above; other assumptions w i l l be added t o those
of the special theory:
Postulate I. The character o f t h e space
determined by spontaneously generated l i g h t
s i g n a l s i s i d e n t i c a l i n s t r u c t u r e t o and inde-
pendent o f the space-time continuum determined by
l i g h t signals generated by t h e experimenter.
A consequence o f Postulate I i s t h a t p o i n t
events of a spontaneous o r i g i n are r e l a t e d by
transformation equations of the same s t r u c t u r e as
t h e Einstein-Lorentz equations 5.1.
But, according t o Einstein, a coordinate
system i s derived frm an assemblage of oper-
ations performed with l i g h t sources and clocks a t
 r e s t w i t h respect t o an observer.23 Whether t h e
s i g n a l s are emitted by design or spontaneously
can make no r e a l difference i n t h i s d e f i n i t i o n .
Hence, for the sake of consistency, i t i s
required t h a t t h e Cartesian coordinate systems
SO:(XO,Y .TO) and SA:(xb,~b,z6).
W descriptgve of spontaneous l i g h t signals
measured by observers a t r e s t w i t h respect t o
coordinate systems S and S ' . are themselves
r i g i d l y f i x e d i n t h e systems S and S ' . For
s i m p l i c i t y , i t i s assumed t h a t the axes o f the 5
and So and the S ' and Sd systems are p a r a l l e l and
have t h e same senses. Hence i t f o l l o w s t h a t
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I n the f o l l o w i n g discussion, any symbol
appearing w i t h a subscript o r superscript con-
t a i n i n g the symbol "0" w i l l r e f e r t o a coordinate
system o f the nature o f So. Sanetimes such
variables w i l l be r e f e r r e d t o b r i e f l y as "zero"
variables. Subsequently i t w i l l be shown t h a t a
j u s t i f i c a t i o n e x i s t s f o r r e f e r r i n g t o them as
" i n e r t ia1" v a r i ab1es.
In accord w i t h the mode o f generation o f t h e
coordinate system So (and, of course, S ' ), t h e
coordinates are meaningless without specqfica-
t i o n o f s t a t i s t i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n s expressive o f
t h e processes by which these magnitudes and
functions dependent on them arise. M n g these
d i s t r u t i o n s i s included the causal d i s t r i b u -
t i o n . l D More w i l l be deduced below about t h e
W properties which such d i s t r i b u t i o n s must
possess.
Since i t i s o n l y averages over the zero
variables which have physical significance, the
o r i g i n (and o r i e n t a t i o n - t h i s has already been
agreed upon) o f t h e SO system may be chosen
a r b i t r a r i l y . For convenience, t h e o r i g i n o f any
such system w i l l be assumed t o coincide w i t h the
o r i g i n of t h e S system unless otherwise stated.
S i m i l a r considerations are assumed t o apply t o
primed systems 5 ' . An imnediate consequence o f
t h e l e t t e r observation i s t h a t t h e domains o f t h e
zero variables are without bound:
--< Y,<+Qs
(5.3)
-4) <eo< + - a
I t was assumed above t h a t i t i s possible t o
separate spontaneous from non-spontaneous
events. This assumption was necessary i n order
t h a t the new degrees o f freedom be independent of
t h e custanary degrees of freedan. Such an
assumption i s based on t h e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t , as
the refinement of physical measurements
advances, one can increasingly expect t o be able
t o separate events due t o spontaneous creation
and a n n i h i l a t i o n of p a r t l c l e s frm those due t o
t h e experimenter's i n i t i a t i o n . I n p r i n c i p l e ,
11
then. one can imaaine t h i s alreadv done. Such
refinement, f o r eiample. was t h e case i n t h e
development of atomic physics.
However, the separation indicated above i s
n o t always possible i n experiment. Instead one
must frequently reckon with a space-time universe
i n which both types of events cannot necessarily
be separated from one another, and correspond-
ingly, a space-time continuum i n which t h e space-
t i m e coordinates o f the two kinds do not trans-
form independently of one another. Considera-
t i o n s of symnetry imply t h a t t h e transformation
equations corresponding t o (5.1) and (5.2) must
be of the form
The canbined spaces correspond t o measure-
ments i n which c r e a t i o n processes are v i r t u a l and
appear as motion i n t e r n a l t o the processes
observed. As such. transformation (5.4) corre-
sponds t o observations on a t e r r e s t r i a l or atomic
scale, o r approximately so. and t h e zero
variables appear as htdden variables.
One imnediately notes a p r a c t i c a l d i f f i c -
u l t y i n t h e assumption as t o the transformation
equations o f t h e combined spaces. No observation
has y e t indicated t h a t t h e Einstein-Minkowski
space-time suffers t r a n s l a t i o n s i n t h e manner o f
(5.4). Yet the d i f f i c u l t y i s an apparent one; t o
remove it, one needs o n l y t o assume t h a t t h e
average values o f the zero variables i n a vacuum
are a l l n e g l i g i b l e on a macroscopic scale.
Indeed, the simplest such assumption i s t h a t the
average values of these variables are a l l zero.
As w i l l be pointed out i n l a t e r sections (Section
7.0 and t h e f o l l o w i n g ) t h i s assumption has a
f a m i l i a r and important meaning f o r the processes
of c r e a t i o n and a n n i h i l a t i o n o f p a r t i c l e s and
a n t i - p a r t i c l e s , bears d i r e c t l y on the s t a b i l i t y
of elenentary p a r t i c l e s , implying a mass quanti-
zation, and leads t o t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a l force.
Moreover, from a more formal aspect, i t
eliminates i n f i n i t i e s i n t h e energy of the
matter-radiation f i e l d due t o spontaneous
fluctuations.
Hence, t o Postulate I there i s added
Postulate 11. The average values o off the
zero variables. when averaged over spontaneous
processes i n a vacuum, a re~
are a lal l lzero.
Symbolically. postulate I 1 i s sumnarized by
the r e l a t i o n s .
(5.5)
 where r0 = (xo, yo. zO), and the s p b o l
indicates t h a t an average over spontaneous
< >, Postulate 111. The m e t r i c of the space-time
continuum generated by both experimenter-
processes has been calculated. I n effect, (5.5) i n i t i a t e d l i g h t signals and spontaneously
defines t h e vacuum state. i n i t i a t e d l i g h t signals i s given by
I t w i l l be seen t h a t Postulate I 1 i s n o t Sa- S=+ GL (5.9) v
independent o f subsequent postulates r e l a t i v e t o ptczt'+ra*-ca&z
the equations of motion o f the matter-radiation
field.
where Vaz=r:+$+$j s'd=C"tS
A consequence o f Postulate I 1 i s the a
recovery of t h e Einstein-Lorentz transformation and s,+ I-@c't.
=
(5.1) from ( 5 . 4 ) . upon averaging over zero
variables.
5.4 The M e t r i c
I n analogy w i t h the m e t r i c introduced by
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Minkowski,
,aa
= xz+3=+
( 5.6)
= p=-c=bX
(where s denotes the space-time i n t e r v a l between
an event a t the o r i g i n of the four demensional
space a d he ev n t a t t h e point (x,y,z.ct),
while rq=xky2+z$), and w i t h consideration of the
meaning of equations (5.4). one expects the
m e t r i c of space-time, including the e f f e c t s of
t h e spontaneous processes t o be
Now i t i s c l e a r that, although postulate I 1
ensures the reinstatenent o f the transformation
equations o f the special theory, such i s not
possible f o r the m e t r i c (5.2). One obtains,
Thus. as i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of randan processes,
the behavior o f space-time w i t h r e s p c t t o
e f f e c t s described by quadratic expressions i s
r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t , on the average, f r o n the
effects described by l i n e a r expressions. When i t
i s r e f l e c t e d t h a t the equations o f motion of a
f i e l d are dependent on t h e structure o f space-
time as determined by a quadratic expression. i t
i s evident t h a t (5.8) implies equations of motion
different frm those c u r r e n t l y employed. More
w i l l be pointed o u t i n t h i s connection i n the
following sections o f t h i s paper.
For convenience. i t w i l l be assuned t h a t the
quadratic form (5.7) be replaced by one
equivalent t o i t under averaging i n a vacuum:*
*This assunption r e f l e c t s the o r i e n t a t i o n
described i n Section 3.0. The s p l i t t i n g of the
coordinates i n t o mean and f l u c t u a t i n g contribu-
t i o n s has been c a r r i e d out t o establish the
connection between preceding theories and the
present one. I n a l a t e r section on the r e l a t i o n
of t h i s theory t o the quantun mechanics, i t w i l l
be convenient t o avoid t h i s separation of
.
v a r i ab1es
( w p dr2=dx2 *tdz2, dxo2 + dyo 2 t dzo,
2
-
ds = dr2 c 2 d z and ds dp.L&t$The synbols
s, s , and S w i l l always r e f e r t o tne i n t e r v a l
b e t d e n two point events o f which one l i e s a t the
o r i g i n of space-time; the d i f f e r e n t i a l s appear-
i n g i n (5.10) refer t o neighboring events.
The metrics (5.9) and (5.10) are i n v a r i a n t
under the transformations (5.1) and (5.2). More-
over, the i m p l i c a t i o n of having separated the
ordinary frm the zero coordinates i s t h a t one
therebyassunes a causal description o f nature t o
be possible.
For the purpose o f analyzing v i r t u a l
processes i n t o t h e i r conponents, the n e t r i c s
(5.9) and (5.10) w i l l be assuned v a l i d for the
renainder o f t h i s work. However, the i n t e r p r e t a -
t i o n o f the combined space as generated by a L,
t r a n s l a t i o n of the Einstein-Minkowski continuum
w i l l be employed repeatedly f o r the purpose o f
bridging the gap between the special theory and
the one presently proposed.*
Thus, the equation o f the i i g h t signal
proposed by Einstein
rL- ex t = O
(5.11)
or &=- caAtz= o
i s now replaced by
p 2- C=P+ rez-c~~z=O
*It i s noted t t the o r i g i n a l discussion of the
special theor$g does n o t employ the Minkowski
metric, although E i n s t e i n was well aware of the
invariance of the quadratic form. E i n s t e i n gave
a more physically oriented j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r the
transfornation (5.1). The reasoning enployed by
Einstein need be altered i n no d e t a i l by a
t r a n s l a t i o n of coordinates, provided t h a t the
mean e f f e c t o f the t r a n s l a t i o n be n e g l i g i b l e when
averaged over events which occur f a r more r a p i d l y
than those e n t a i l e d by any measurement he
described.
 The difference i n t h e expressions (5.11) and
(5.12) follows fran the f a c t that, a f t e r a
t r a n s l a t i o n (5.4). one has averaged over a
quadratic form which has reference t o events
occurring on t h e surface o f a sphere, and t h i s i s
a more r e s t r i c t i v e statement than one concerning
L/ l i g h t propagation i n a l i n e p a r a l l e l t o t h e
d i r e c t i o n of r e l a t i v e motion of t h e coordinate
systems 5 and S'. Moreover. i t i s remarked t h a t
(5.12) has reference t o t h e propagation o f a
l i g h t s i g n a l accompanied by p a r t i c l e s , w h i l e
(5.11) contains no such reference. That these
p a r t i c l e s are " v i r t u a l " w i l l be seen below t o be
sumnarized by Postulate 111.
5.5 Use of t h e Dispersion Model
Relative t o t h e l a s t remark o f t h e Drecedina
paragraph, we p o i n t out t h e nature o f t h e mea-
- i n g t o t h e special theory, no m a t e r i a l body can
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surements performed t o e s t a b l i s h the rnetrics
(5.9) and (5.10).
One agrees a t t h e outset t o confine t h e mea-
surenrents t o l i g h t s i nals recognized t o have a
s p e c i f i e d shape. U n t t l such a s i g n a l makes i t s
appearance against t h e background of t h e noise
c o n s i s t i n g of t h e products of c r e a t i o n and anni-
h i l a t i o n , no 11 h t s i g n a l can be presumed to have
arrived. That 3s. t h e c r e a t i o n and a n n i h i l a t i o n
processes must u l t i m a t e l y r e s u l t i n t h e signal,
ifone adheres t o t h e convention agreed upon.
Indeed. one may receive the s p e c i f i e d s i g n a l
before t h e experimenter has generated it. I t i s
-
noted t h a t -e< t o < + .d , i n connection
w i t h t h e l a t t e r renark.
It i s proposed t h a t t h e c r e a t i o n and the
a n n i h i l a t i o n o f p a r t i c l e s may be t r e a t e d on t h e
basis o f a dispersion model. There i s t h i s d i f -
W ference: t h e average phase s h i f t must be zero i f
enough randan processes are taken i n t o account.
Moreover, the s h i f t s must be o f such a character
as t o r e t u r n t h e solutions of t h e equation o f
propagation o f the matter-radiation f i e l d t o the
vacuum form o f Section 4.2. One can imagine
these r a n d a processes t o be saewhat of the f o l -
lowing structure:
Let %- .2meC2 ( 6 = h / 2 r ) and imagine
t h a t a t some time t during t h e propagation o f the
corresponding wave (Section 4.2), t h e energy o f
t h e wave i s transformed i n t o an electron-positron
p a i r wfiich i s subsequently annihilated, t h e whole
proce3s occupying a time i n t e r v a l o f order
h/mec , When t h e wave i s r e s t o r e t o i t s o r i g i -
n a l mode o f propagation, a t time %
, there may
w e l l have been a phase s h i f t i n space, say o f
magnitude ( W c ) x o ( t h a t is. one focuses
a t t e n t i o n on a wave o f frequency W , as above),
w h i l e t h e t o t a l time o f pro agation f t h e wave
i n t h i s form i s not & but !-h/meCs. Thus t h e
form o f t h e a n a l y t i c a l expression for the wave i s
n o t as i n Section 4.2, but
i(w/&-%(.+ t - h/*&ZJ
a (5.13)
I n c r i t i c i s m o f the c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e pre-
ceding paragraph, i t i s pointed o u t t h a t t h e time
iven as required f o r the c r e a t i o n and annihi-
9a t i o n i s a root-mean-square value and n o t s u i t -
able as a phase s h i f t (which, f o r example, may
13
be negative). Further, a p p l i c a t i o n of a scat-
t e r i n g nodel such as proposed, i n which the ener-
gies I n t h e i n t e r a c t i o n vary continuously, i s not
i n consonance w i t h t h e physical basis of the
quantum theory, where i t has been shown t h a t no
energy l e s s than a quantum can be exchanged be-
tween a material system and t h e electromagnetic
f i e l d . However, it i s emphasized t h a t t h e basis
of t h e proposed theory i s c l a s s i c a l i n character
and w i l l y i e l d the same r e s u l t s as the quantum
mechanics. These questions w i l l be taken up
below.
Moreover, t h e concept of a r a d i a t i o n f i e l d
accapanied by m a t e r i a l bodies and t r a v e l i n g w i t h
t h e speed c appears t o be i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n w i t h
t h e basic tenets of the special theory. Accord-
t r a v e l with t h e speed of l i g h t , which i s a l i m i t -
i n g v e l o c i t y for t h e motion o f matter. The
l a t t e r conclusion appears t o be already i m p l i c i t
i n t h e choice of t h e electromagnetic f i e l d as t h e
agency f o r s i n a l l i o g . That is. i t i s assumed
t h a t t h e speei c i s t h e maximum speed a v a i l a b l e
f o r any s i g n a l l i n g System, and t h i s speed i s
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e electromagnetic f i e l d as
conceived by Maxwell. But the discovery t h a t the
r e a l e l e c t r m a g n e t i c f i e l d possesses i n t e r n a l
degrees o f f r e e d a implies t h a t the observed
parameter c applies t o a more complex e n t i t y than
heretofore imagined.
Thus, ifone wants simultaneously t o pre-
serve t h e concepts o f an i d e a l i z e d pure e l e c t r o -
magnetic f i e l d as t h e o n l y means o f s i g n a l l i n g
(by agreement), and the canbined radiation-par-
t l c l e f i e l d propagated w i t h speed c (as obse-
rved). then t h e s c a t t e r i n g mechanism i s a con-
venient means by which t h i s can be done. The
matter-radiation f i e l d i s then equated t o a pure
r a d i a t i o n f i e l d w i t h "hesitations"; t h i s hesi-
t a t i o n w i l l be i d e n t i f i e d . i n the next section,
w i t h t h e property o f matter known as i n e r t i a .
The foregoing remarks apply t o phase waves.
Have packets necessarily t r a v e l a t speeds d i f -
ferent than c i f the matter aspect o f the f i e l d
be daninant. I n Section 6.0 and t h e f o l l o w i n g i t
w i l l be shown t h a t one obtains t h e speed o f l i g h t
c f o r t h e r a d i a t i o n aspect o f t h e f i e l d , even
when propagated as a packet. One l i k e w i s e ob-
t a i n s a m a t t e r - r a d i a t i o n f i e l d propagated w i t h
the speed of l i g h t upon averaging over v i r t u a l
processes i n a vacuum.
An even c l o s e r analogy e x i s t s between t h e
proposed model and a method o f attack u t i l i z e d by
Lorentz i n a c l a s s i c discussion o f l i n e broad-
ening by r a n d a a l l i s i o n s between e m i t t i n g mole-
cules o f a gas.2g It i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t t h e c o l -
l i s i o n s g i v e r i s e t o an i n e r t i a l e f f e c t ({.e.
e f f e c t i v e l y increased mass) on t h e e c t r o n nm-
1%
t l o n generating t h e r a d i a t i o n f i e l d . A similar
r e s u l t w i l l be evident i n a model f o r the o r i g i n
o f I n e r t i a l mass below.
 5.6 P a r t i c l e Mechanics and the Metric
As already indicated, the equation
dr'- ca&a+.dr,z-eLdC;Z-O (5.14)
has reference t o the propagation o f an e l e c t r o -
magnetic f i e l d i n a vacuum accompanied by many
p a r t i c l e s , provided one agrees tJhat the mean
values of the r a n d m variables ro and &. are es-
s e n t i a l l y zero when enough randm processes are
taken i n t o account. However, although the f i e l d
i s no longer the e l c t r m a g n e t i c f i e l d of the
special theory, the vanishing o f the i n t e r v a l be-
tween two event? (_x,y,z,t;xo,y~.zo.to) and
( X , ~ , ~ , f ; f ~ . ~ ~ , z ~ , t o )implies here, as i t does
f o r the special theory, t h a t a single i d e n t i -
f i a b l e feature o f t h e f i e l d i s specified. A l t e r -
natively, one may mean t h a t the two events a t the
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endpoints of the i n t e r v a l can be joined by some
i d e n t i f i a b l e feature o f the matter-radiation
f i e l d , propagated from one event t o the other.
Equation 5.14 w i l l now be shown t o lead t o the
d i f f e r e n t i a l equation o f motion o f t h i s feature.
Let i t be assumed possible to c o r r e l a t e the
proper time i n t e r v a l *
7+ =p- (5.15)
w i t h the coordinates o f both i n i t i a t e d and
spontaneous events, so t h a t the t r a j e c t o r y of an
*= ? r ( ~ ,t
) -
i d e n t i f i a b l e p o i n t o f the f i e l d i s given by
i&ctr),t,-tlt) (5.16)
and l e t there be defined the momenta
m,d?/dr
P measured by pro esses i n i t i a t e d by the observer,
EdG
= g c &/&
-
p, = m,dFf /AT
m,c d 6 /AT i (5.17)
where mn i s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h the i n e r t i a l mass
a s s o c i a i e d ~ w i t ha specified feature o f the
matter-radiation f i e l d . Then the average values
o f po and E i n a vacuum are zero when averaged
over v i r t u a ? processes:
(5.18)
Thus, the mean energy and the mean mmentum
associated w i t h spontaneous f l u c t u a t i o n s i n a
vacuum are zero.
Equation (5.14) now implies t h a t
(5.19)
p%p,"= C5ii&++(E;/c)"
Relation (5.19) may be obtained frm a s i m i l a r
formula f o r the electromagnetic f i e l d
(5.20)
n s i s t e n t d e f i n i t i o n o f dzwould be
The choice made i s a f i r s t approxima-
i o n and chosen f o r more convenient canparison
w i t h the special theory o f r e l a t i v i t y .
14
by a translation,
IF-& I" =1@-E.,/..I' (5.21)
1
followed by averaging over v i r t u a l processes,
w i t h due account o f the vacuum condition ( 5 . 5 ) .
W
I n p a r t i c u l a r , l e t the specified feature of
the f i e l d be a p o i n t a t r e s t r e l a t i v e t o the
observer, and with which i s associated i n e r t i a l
mass m (hence a "point mass"-it w i l l be shown
below t h a t specifying a p a r t i c l e i n t h i s manner
does not prevent i t from having a f i n i t e , measur-
able, diameter). Then
dS= 0
dC=o (hence F-0) f (5.22)
whence i t follows t h a t
E= M, GL
(5.23)
and
Relations (5.23) and (5.24) are independent of
any average over zero variables and m a y be ex-
pected to hold, essentially, f o r low v e l o c i t i e s .
Hence one recovers Einstein's r e l a t i o n between
energy and manenturn whenever creation processes
do not p l a y a dominant role, and w i t h i t the
Newtonian p a r t i c l e mechanics f o r low v e l o c i t i e s .
It w i l l be shown i n what sense E i n s t e i n ' s r e l a -
t i o n f o r p # 0 holds i n the present formalism.
Thus, the t o t a l energy o f a p a r t i c l e a t r e s t , as LJ
8
i s equal t o moc and owes i t s existence t o a
residual m t i o n o f the p o i n t mass f i e l d , due t o
spontaneous creation and a n n i h i l a t i o n processes.
There has now been obtained, and given phy-
s i c a l content, the well known r e l a t i o n o f the
special theory between mass and radiant energy,
o r i g i n l y derived from more formal considera-
tions.33 It i s seen t h a t the new degrees of
f r e e d m are closely r e l a t e d t o the i n e r t i a l mass
o f the p a r t i c l e s they describe. For t h i s reason,
they w i l l o f t e n be referred t o as i n e r t i a l v a r i -
ables, and the associated energy a n d t u m as
the i n e r t i a l ener and i n e r t i a l manenturn; the
field.
4
correspon i n g f i e w i l l be tenned an i n e r t i a l
With reference t o t h e pure e l e c t r m a n e t i c
f i e l d , the condition (5.20) coupled w i t h q5.19).
implies t h a t the conditions
p - rpl-fk (5.25)
and k-lpfr= C/,
are equivalent and serve t o specify the pure
electranagnetic f i e l d . Relations (5.25) have the
i n t e r e s t i n g i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t a pure electromag-
n e t i c f i e l d generated by an observer cannot e x i s t
as such unless the spontaneous variations i n the
f i e l d are due t o creation and a n n i h i l a t i o n o f
e l ectrmagneti c r a d i a t i o n a1one. Moreover,
neither type of motion can e x i s t without the
other, i f one admits the v a l i d i t y of the metric. J
 6.0 Notation

To sumnarize. there has been derived d

m e t r i c s u i t a b l e t o describe t h e propagation of a for four dimensions (the d'Alenbertian), and
matter-radiation f i e l d . The m e t r i c lends i t s e l f
w
t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n of a " p o i n t mass. and leads t o
t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f momenta
$a/= o +ne (6.10)

and energies
$=
6 - mdd$/h-)
fi.(dVkl
(6.1) f o r e i g h t dimensions.
I n t h e present paper. i t w i l l be shown how
much of the c l a s s i c a l concept of t h e p o i n t mass
E = m. cz (dt/dd (6.3) can be preserved. The equations o f motion of t h e
f i e l d w i l l be postulated and some of t h e i r con-
.g = m. CL (he/&) (6.4) sequences w i l l be discussed. h n g these are t o
be mentioned a quantization o f mass and a model
where * i s a proper time i n t e r v a l measured by f o r nuclear forces.
means of l i g h t s i g n a l s i n i t i a t e d b y t h e observer.
The momenta and eneraies are r e l a t e d by the m a - 6.1 Model f o r t h e flatter-Radiation P o t e n t i a l s
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d r a t i c expression
obtained by imposing the condition t h a t an iden-
t i f i a b l e p o i n t feature o f t h e f i e l d has been
where
d g= d r i c V t %+ A*.'-
I n the following discussion, contravariant
q u a n t i t i e s w i l l be w r i t t e n w i t h a superscript,
w h i l e convariantly transforming q u a n t i t i e s w i l l
be w r i t t e n w i t h a subscript. Greek Indices w i l l
vary from one t o eight, w h i l e L a t i n indices w i l l
vary from one t o four. The appearance o f 0 as
e i t h e r a superscript or a subscript refers t o the
v coordinates generated by spontaneous l i g h t s i g -
(6.5) On a scale of observation near the t e r r e s -
t r i a l , as pointed o u t above, one may consider
v i r t u a l processes t o be described by a trans-
l a t i o n o f t h e Einstein-flinkowski space-time. The
l a t t e r t r a n s l a t i o n has been l i n k e d t o the i n e r -
t i a l properties of matter. Thus, one may expect
t o gain i n s i g h t i n t o t h e nature o f the matter-
r a d i a t i o n p o t e n t i a l s by c a r r y i n g out a t r a n s l -
a t i o n of t h e arguments of t h e Maxwell theory.
( 6.7
For s i m p l i c i t y , l e t there be considered a
s t a t i c f i e l d i n a vacuum, and the Coulomb poten-
t i a l V(r) due t o some charge d i s t r i b u t i o n . Then,
according t o t h e propoled prescrfpfion, V(?) i s
t o be replaced by V(?-ro), where(r>.= 0.
Expanding V(?-$") i n a power series i n ?-.

x 4 .*:
nals. I t i s agreed t h a t
=xS,i<t-e
and since t h e covariant m e t r i c tensor
WXS; %=X bEX,a ,. .. and averaging over virtual-drocesses, one finds
g r v * $," E t h e Kronecker delta, i t follows
t h a t contravariant and covariant rep esentations
c incide.l Hgnce one may w r i t e x , ax I.... and
x8 = x =xo-xl, etc. IEi$tjveitors w 11 be
denote8 by (xf )-(I . j,I .$,..., xi), four-
vectors b y 4 -
vectors by x ) ) x x ,x ,x ), and three-
ih,x2.x3). Abbreviations s i m i l a r
And, assuming the average values o f the zero
variables t o be equal (a s y n n e t r i c a l d i s t r i b u -
t i o n ) , one f i n d s

w i l l be employed w h i l e ii',tl and ~?o,to] , w i l l

denote t h e sets o f a l l ordered number quadruples
(P.t) and (po,to), respectively. The e i g t t d i -
mensional space w i l l be denoted by i?,t;r0to
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , {F,t] and ii?o.t$ w i l l be r e -
1.
ferred t o as obs r v e r ( o r experimenter) space and
i n e r t i a l space, respectively. The sumnation con-
vention w i l l be adopted, e.g.
and the Laplacian operator A may be w r i t t e n
f o r three dimensions,
The preceding discussion has been i n t r o d -
uced t o provide a physical model as c l o s e l y r e -
l a t e d as possible t o recognized models implying
t h e existence o f a c o r r e c t i o n t o t h e Coulomb
f i e l d . To what extent one can enploy s h a
model i n c a l c u l a t i o n s has been exploredY5, and
w i l l cat be discussed here. Only one numerical
r e s u l t w i l l be borrowed from t h e work cited, and
t h a t i s t h e estimate f
I! rz
order of magnitude (e /tic)(+l/~$
as eing o f t h e
f o r an
electron interacting with a fluctuating e l e c t r i c
f i e l d . The estimate i s convenient, b u t n o t
necessary, i n the considerations t o follow; i t
i l l u s t r a t e s t h e order o f magnitude o f t h e
c o r r e c t i o n t o c l a s s i c a l theory e n t a i l e d by the
trans 1a t i on.

15
 The approach o u t l i n e d above leads essent-
i a l l y t o p e r t u r b a t i o n corrections, which are un-
l i k e l y t o r e s u l t i n a u n i f i e d f i e l d theory. The
next section w i l l introduce p o t e n t i a l s for the
complete u n i f i e d f i e l d .
6.2 The F i e l d P o t e n t i a l s
Noting t h a t t h e scalar product
i s i n v a r i a n t under the group of r o t a t i o n s
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h1-Y i%-pc*.>
3-; 3 (6.16)
$- 'bo
c*;= ,'(c%-px.)
(an equivalent t o (6.141, i n a vacuum, i s (8-T0)*
(?-?O)-(E-Eo)(t-to), i t follows t h a t a s u i t a b l e
phase wave f o r d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e f i e l d i s
e& (F.P-E&.++b?. -E,*.)
I n (6.17), 6 i s Planck's constant divided by 2rr
and serves f o r t h e present as a dimensional con-
stant. No quantum e f f e c t s are thereby i n t r o -
duced.
The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n between (6.17) and ex-
pressions l i k e (5.13) can be made more e x p l i c i t
by
Postulate I V . (de Broglie). The frequen-
c i e s 9 and,!b and wavelen t h s A and A . of the
4
m a t t e r - r a d i a t i o n waves (1 .4) i r e r e l a t e d t o t h e
energies E and E and manenta p and po by t h e
proportional it i e t
The symbol k i n (6.18) w i l l be referred t o as a
wave number, although i t d i f f e r s by a f a c t o r o f
h f r a n t h e usual d e f i n i t i o n . No quantum e f f e c t s
are necessarily implied by Postulate I V .
To a f f i r m t h e existence o f t h e potentials,
there i s introduced
Postulate V. There e x i s t p o t e n t i a l s
V 6 t W $ , i w *Y(Ct;C;O and
which describe t h e r a d i a t i o n -
matter f i e l d and respectively transform as
(i?,et;r.,dJ.
a,
not d b y ( ; a t times one denotes
an?ds by 4*,&$ and q.
&,
The e i g h t p o t e n t i a l w i 1 be de-
respecti-
0,
vnly. I t i s noted that&) t r a n s f o m as
(r.t). W'
Postulate V i s n o t independent o f t h e suc-
ceeding Postulate V I r e l a t i v e t o the equations o f
(6.14) motion; i n any case, i t i s c l e a r t h a t one should
obtain, f o r example,
where V(r,t) denotes a s o l u t i o n o f Maxwell's
eauat ion.
(6.15) Although some ambiguity i s introduced by t h i s
notation, considerable econany and suggest-
iveness are attained. I f no arguments are i n -
dicated for a given function, ii w i l l be under-
stood t h a t these are r,t,ro and to.
I n formulating the equations o f motion of
t h e f i e l d , a tensor n o t a t i o n would be convenient;
for t h e present i t i s more i n s t r u c t i v e to defer
such a treatment. Eventually, i t w i l l appear
t h a t the f i e l d t o be described as a reasonable
generalization o f t h e electromagnetic f i e l d may
be termed a "nose-Einstein" f i e l d .
Since t h e exponentials (6.17) can be super-
posed l i n e a r l y t o o b t a i n an extensive class of
functions (owing t o t h e completeness o f t h e set
of canplex exponentials), i t i s convenient t o
(6.17)
formulate t h e equations o f motion of t h e f i e l d
such t h a t each exponential i s a s o l u t i o n o f the
equations, by reason o f (6.5). To t h i s end, t h e
p r e s c r i p t i o n employed i n the quantum mechanics i s
used, i n which replacements
I-
F-*V
q--+ (6.19)
&-+K
EJC -+(&>**.
are c a r r i e d out i n a given function, f o r t h e pur-
pose o f transforming the expression i n t o an oper-
ator. It w i l l be show t h a t the s u b s t i t u t i o n
(6.19) leads t o recovery of t h e c l a s s i c a l equa-
t i o n s of motion. e i t h e r of the p a r t i c l e mechanics
o r of t h e electromagnetic f i e l d . It f o l l o w s as
well t h a t t h e Hamilton-Jacobi equation o f m t i o n
i s l i k e w i s e recovered i n t h e appropriate context;
t h a t the Hamilton-Jacobi equation represents a
geanetrical o p t i c a l model and provides a bridge
between c l a s s i c a l mechanics and the Schrodinger
equation i s w e l l known.
Thus, i t i s proposed t h a t
Postulate V I . The equations o f motion o f the
eneralized electranagnetic f i e l d I n free space
9o r nose-Einstein f i e l d - b r i e f l y ,
are
t h e BE f i e l d )
8 ? t.i%) a, a'$=
a *I e-s&+A -
-0
16
 6.3 The R e l a t i o n o f t h e Matter-Radiation If, i n (6.23)@be independent o f t h e time
F i e l d t o Classical F i e l d s and Elementary t. one obtains
P a r t i c l e Force F i e l d s
A<(a,Z=O (6.24)
I n t h e present r e h i o n . s m e consequences o f
t h e equations of m o t i h (6.20) w i l l be presented. Laplace's equation f o r a source-free f i e l d . On
These w i l l be d i r e c t e i toward e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e other hand. t h e Green's f u n c t i o n f o r an in-
r e l a t i o n s between t h e formalism of t h e proposed f i n i t e region i n {FLf space,
theory and preceding f i e l d theories, along w i t h (6.25)
suitable interpretation. Or
(r f 0 ) . i s a s o l u t i o n o f (6.24) and represents
Invokinu t h e electromaanetic f i e l d condit- t h e f i e l d o f a p o i n t source a t t h e o r i g i n . The
ions (5.25),-the form of th; elementary s o l u t i o n s Green's function (6.25) i s l i k e w i s e a s o l u t i o n
(6.17). and t h e agreement (6.19). t h e equations f o r Poisson's equation f o r a f i e l d due t o a
o f motion f o r t h e e l e c t r m a g n e t i c f i e l d are source d e n s i t y which varies as a d e l t a function,
6(r).
(A- fg-)$-o (6.21) With t h e l a t t e r remarks i n mind th%Green's
functions t o r i n f i n i t e regions In f,t;ro.to~
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space and sane subspaces o f lesser imensiona i t y

w i l l be studied.
(6.22)
The reen's f u n c t i o n f o r ]lt,t;?o,to{
space f s2 1
Equation (6.21) refers t o t h e f i e l d observed
through t h e medium o f a f i l t e r . w h i l e (6.22) 1 -
zR*
(S.+CP (6.26)
r e f e r s t o the f i e l d generated spontaneous1
o f t h e equations may be derived from ( 6 . 2 0 f ; b y ISf+hl#O . With due regard f o r t h e method
t h phase r e s t r i c t i o n (5.25).
&on r$ and to i n (6.21) and o f
The epend nce of
i n 6.22 can be removed by averages over these
4
o n f and t
o f d e r i v i n g (6.23). one notes t h a t t h e unweighted
average of (6.26) i n so i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o
v a r i ablet . (6.27)
Hence, i n (6.21) and (6.22). one recovers and ( 6 . 2 7 j i s . i n t u r n pro o r t i o n p j t o the
Maxwell's wave equations f o r t h e two f i e l d s , each Green's f u n c t i o n f o r tV.tf space ,
propagated w i t h speed C. These equations em-
phasize t h e s m e t r y of t h e theory and the essen- 1- s - ~
.I-!-(Pi ctl.3'' (6.28)
t i a l i d e n t i t y o f s t r u c t u r e of t h e two f i e l d s , 4x2 h ' C

v d i f f e r i n g as they do o n l y i n the mode of t h e i r

generation.
( 6 3 0 , r Z h t a . The S t a t i s t i c a l weight func-
t i o n employe i n (6.27) i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e causal
d i s t r i b u t i o n$5 , equal t o u n i t y i n t h e i n t e g r a l .

&
On t h e other hand, i t has een pointed out
t h a t an unweighted average o f over v i r t u a l
processes should lead t o t h e p o t e n t i a l s of t h e
If, f o r convenience. the f u n c t i o n o f (6.28)
be continued a n a l y t i c a l l y t o d m a i n -*des*
electranagnetic f i e l d I n observer space. The and Fourier analyzed i n t, one obtains a trans-
average e f f e c t of t h e ro.tomotion should r e s u l t form which v a r i e s e s s e n t i a l l y as
i n t h e electranagnetic f i e l d described by (6.21).
Such i s indeed t h e casb.
&Wr
e
Averaging both s i es of (6.20) over
to, invoking Green's theorem over a y h e r e o f
?o and -
r (6.29)
unboundedly large d i m e t e r 2so i n ro.to , which i s a s o l u t i o n of
space, and presuming t h e derivative\ o f b t e n d
t o zero as so increases without bound, one ob- (6.30)
tains

Equations (6.23) are Maxwell's equations f o r an

)=I
-
electromagnetic f i e l d propagated i n a 'vacuum, a t
l e a s t f o r )I 1,2,3,4. The meaning of <$k f o r
5,.. .,8 e v i d e n t l y r e s t s on an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
-here can be no o b j e c t i o n t o t h i s continuation
on physical grounds, since t h e choice of o r i g i n
o f t h e forces implied by t h e f .t motion. The f o r t h e t v a r i a t i o n i s a r b i t r a r y . Greater SW-
l a t t e r p o l n t w i l l be undertake8 $ 1 ~ . metry i n t h e s t r u c t u r e of f?,t] and i o , t i \
spaces i s thus obtained.
Thus, one obtains t h e e l e c t r m a g n e t i c
f i e l d , propagated w i t h i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c speed.
e i t h e r as a phase c o n d i t i o n or as a r e s u l t a n t o f
averaging over v i r t u a l processes. The l a t t e r
view-point i s discussed i n Section 6.4.

17
 where & is the transform of p. Expression
(6.29) is a Green's function f o r (6.30) and implies
Hence, for a p a r t i c l e nearly a t r e s t , (6.20)
represents the f i e l d due t o a point source a t the
o r i g i n with o s c i l l a t i n g strength. I t i s noted (6.33)
t h a t exp (irnfc) r s proportional t o t h e charac-
t e r i s t i c function 28 of the causal d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
and t h a t an average over the frequency w i t h t h i s
a s weight function leads t o t h e Green's function ( &may now be replaced b y & k , i n (12.331,
(6.28). Moreover, s e t t i n g w =O t o obtain a and equations (12.33) are ob3grved t o correspond
s t a t i c f i e l d , one obtains (6.24) from (6.30) and, t o the Proca wave equations. Thus, (6.20)
correspondingly, (6225) fran (6.29). In addi- represents the motion of a family of mass s t a t e s
tion. averaging 11s Over t h e time with a ca.usa1 of intrinsic inte spjgadmay be temaa
d i s t r i b u t i o n , one obtains l f r . as before. Bose-Einstein (BE? f i e l d .
The r e s u l t s of t h e latter paragraph serve t o Repeating the argument whch led t o (6.23).
demonstrate gain the equivalence of a phase con- one f i n d s t h a t the Green's function of (6.33) f o r
d i t i o n and an average, a s well a s the symnetry of an i n f i n i t e r e g i m is proportional t o (Jn( x so)
behavior of functions defined i n observer space i s a Bessel function of order n )
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and i n i n e r t i a l space.
(6.34)
The foregoing remarks serve t o define a
heirarchy of Green's functions defined on regions I
of progressively smaller dimensionality. Each For an unweighted average over t. and considera-
function appears as a point source and can be t i o n s similar t o those leading t o (6.23). one
interpreted a s a r e s u l t a n t of and due t o pro- must o b t a l 8 the Green's function (Yukawa
cesses over which an unweighted average has been potential )
calculated. The sources discussed have had re-
ference to generation of an electranagnetic eFXr/r (6.35)
f i e l d ; one can proceed somewhat d i f f e r e n t l y t o
extend the meaning of the singular solution (rt0). The potential (6.35) is a solution of
\-.--,.
ffi~?fi\
(A-rL)&=O . (6.36)
Thus, f o r a p a r t i c l e of mass m a t rest,
equation (5.24) and relations (6.203 imply obtained by averaging (6.33) over t, and the
(A. - 1 =-4 (6.31)
foregoing conclusion, r e l a t i v e t o the average of
(6.34). follows f r a n the uniqueness of t h i s solu-
tion.
( x = nbcfh), w i t h elementary solution, i n polar
coordinates*
J
Fourier analysis of the Green's function f o r
(6.33) i n the time and subsequently s e t t i n g rr) =O
eixsee* =* ( 12.32)
must lead again t o t h e Yukawa potential.
The conclusion proposed as a consequence of
the above considerations i s t h a t the i n i t i a l
Green's function (6.26) represents a potential
s u i t a b l e t o describe a f i e l d a r i s i n g from super-
*The point (x, ) - ( f , t ) i s represen d i n polar
coordinates by (s,a,,# .q ), where $8 position of a l l mass s t a t e s , d < w 4 . O , without
weighting any s t a t e i n preference t o another.
XISs i n a si* f w r q Each state, if stattc, has spatlal range of t h e
yssinu sipSfn7 order of I/%.
$=s r i n d 60s f B u t w i t h reference t o (12.321, a plane wave
;&is cosq advancing along the i c t o axis has an approximate
representation el X 4 . A superposition of such
I f , f o r example. 5. f a - w i t h O<O-<+"J, then exponentials suffices t o represent any reason-
Of&-, 01 6lc, and O S ~ Z r i;f s be r e a l , sim- able type of packet advancing i n the i c t o direc-
i l a r consi cfe r a t i o n s foljflw. The Laplacian equa- tion. And of such packets, one may assert
t i o n (6.9) then becomes
2 + sA882 ++ dd&. +&SL

I f t h e four vector (k l-(k,,kL,k ,k+) be

directed along t h e 2 i d a j i s , tP2(t&)(x" ) -
ks cos c4 , where k - k i k , s =r -c t , and d i s
t h e angle between ( x ~) and the i c t axis.

18
 or. f o r a s i n g l e mass state, X= m.c&
(SL>2 s% (v+)= (6.39)
Thus, i n (6.39) there has been obtained a
theory o f a fundamental l e n g t h 3 i n a n a t u r a l
u manner fran consideration of c r e a t i o n processes
i n which one mass s t a t e has been resolved. More-
over, f o r such a s i t u a t i o n i t i s apparent t h a t
the range o f f l u c t u a t i o n e f f e c t s i s o f t h e order
o f a Canpton wavelength f o r t h a t state, and is,
on t h e average, n e g l i g i b l e beyond t h i s l i m i t .
More w i l l be pointed o u t in t h i s connection
below.
More generally, i t has been shown t h a t w i t h
an i d e n t i f i a b l e feature of t h e m a t t e r - r a d i a t i o n
f i e l d there i s necessarily associated an uncon-
t r o l l a b l e b l u r r i n g due t o spontaneous processes.
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This fuzziness prevents an a r b i t r a r y degree o f
accuracy i n observins t h e Dostulated location.
say (t,i), o f the feature.' The
sion o f t h e b l u r r i n g i s o f the
and t h i s i s approximately b61.c
state. Hence, for t h e experimental refinement i n
question, a p o i n t mass cannot be defined except
as a convenient construct. On t h e other hand,
one i s then freed from t h e necessity of i n t r o -
ducing t h e Oirac d e l t a f u n c t i o n t o describe a
r e a l mass o r charge d i s t r i b u t i o n . * *
A t t h e same time, there i s obtained an opera-
t i o n a l d e f i n i t i o n of an elementary p a r t i c l e o f
non-zero diameter.
Considerations s i m i l a r t o those above apply
whenever several mass states are unresolved, each
p o i n t of space-time (observer) having associated
,-, w i t h i t a " b l u r sphere". t o borrow a term having
an analogous meaning f r o m optics. The suggested
t e r m refers (as does i t s analogue) t o t h e smal-
l e s t measurable e n t i t y corresponding t o a p o i n t
source.
The p o t e n t i a l (6.26) i s now suggested t o r e -
present a f i e l d i n a region of t h e diameter of a
Compton wavelength enclosing t h e source. Thus.
outside t h e sphere o f confusion f o r a p o i n t
source a t ? I , t h e average over v i r t u a l processes
leads t o a Coulanb p o t e n t i a l . Now, 3s a t e s t
body i s brought c l o s e r t o t h e p o i n t r ' so t h a t SN
h/Wc, t h e spontaneously generated processes be-
come resolved, an unweighted average I s no longer
s u i t a b l e (see S e c t i o n 7.1). and one obtains a
p o t e n t i a l which varies approximately as
where (-1, and other f a c t o r s have been deleted.
*The estimate given In (6.37) may be improved by
averaging over a. but cannot a l t e r t h e e s s e n t i a l
which has asymp o i c behavior
d*/E
Then, if XS>>I, (6.39) holds also f o r t h e aver-
age over d .
*A b r i e f statement of t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s introduced
L
d by t h i s necessity, and a proposed method f
avoiding then, i s given by K e n - i t i G06.3 P
Ift h e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s such as t o favor a.single
mass state, one obtains t h e Yukawa p o t e n t i a l .
I t i s notable t h a t , as a consequence of the
existence o f v i r t u a l processes, the p o t e n t i a l has
no s i n g u l a r i t y i f r fo. Moreover, t h i s i s i n t h e
nature o f things: i f io be small, then t h e nun-
ber of % states must be large (6.37). and if mass
states appear w i t h equal s t a t i s t i c a l weights,
then t h e average e f f e c t i s simply a Coulanb po-
t e n t i a l . But i f r be s m a l l , then t h e Coulanb
p o t e n t l a l i s no l o n e r s u i t a b l e and a r e l a t i o n o f
the nature o f (6.403 applies. Further. i f o n l y a
few% states e x i s t , clustered about sane c e n t r a l
value, then the spread i n so values must be
large, and t h e p o t e n t i a l (6.26) cannot lead t o
singularities.
Thus, it has been show i n t h i s section t h a t
a) v i r t u a l processes lead t o and are respon-
s i b l e f o r electranagnetic f i e l d phenanena;
b) t h e existence o f a fundamental length i s
d i r e c t l y traceable t o v i r t u a l processes;
c) p o s t u l a t i o n o f a p o i n t mass i n i?,tj space
can be reconciled w i t h t h e existence of e l e -
mentary p a r t i c l e s o f f i n i t e diameter, as a
measurable phenanenon, and without contra-
d i c t ion ;
d) t h e s i n g u l a r Coulanb and Yukawa p o t e n t i a l s
can be replaced by non-singular potentials,
equivalent t o these upon s u i t a b l e averag-
ing, and v a l i d in t h e range of nuclear
forces.
Before passing on t o t h e next section, we
Point out a Dhvsical aspect o f t h e existence o f
an i n e r t i a l f i e l d , bearing upon t h e concept o f
a c t i o n a t distance.
A Coulanb p o t e n t i a l l/r seems t o i n d i c a t e an
instantaneous t r a n s p o r t of force through empty
space from source t o receptor: hence a c t i o n a t a
distance. Yet with the i n t r o d u c t i o n of v i r t u a l
processes, t h e concept of empty space becomes
untenable and a c t i o n a t a distance unnecessary.
For a s t a t i c f i e l d i n observer space i s r e -
presented by a s o l u t i o n o f
(A+ 4,g.= O (6.41)
and an elementary s o l u t i o n t o ( 6 4 1 ) i s
(6.42)
w i t h k z + a 2 = 0, so t h a t t h e elementary s o t u t i o n
assumes the form
r;cR.r: e-x'%CoS*
e (6.43)
 and any s o l u t i o n of (6.41) can be w r i t t e n as a
superposition of functions ( 6.43).
But t h e functions (6.43) imply a r e l a t i o n of
observer space to i n e r t i a l space. Averaging over
roand to does not destroy t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f
t h e dependence k = + i X : 9,ppic field is a
superposition o f st&s e i n observer
space, and states e""@% i n e r t i a l space;
hence o f mass s t a t e s s p e c i f i e d by X .
Thus one can imagine a Coulunb s t a t i c f i e l d ,
or a mass s t a t i c f i e l d (e.g. a p a r t i c l e a t r e s t ) ,
t o be a r e s u l t a n t of a time varying i n e r t i a l
f i e l d responsible f o r propagation o f t h e s t a t i c
f i e l d . Just as t h e time dependent electromag-
n e t i c f i e l d i s conceived t o be a special, l i m i t -
i n g f o r 2 o f matter, propagated w i t h maximum speed
t r,t\ space, t h e s t a t i c radiation-matter
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f i e l d e l e c t r i c , magnetic, or matter a t r e s t ) i s
l i k e w i s e a sped21 form o f matter propagated w i t h
l
zero speed i n r,t] space. Both l i m i t i n g cases
are consequence of t h e interference o f various
i n e r t i a l states w i t h one another.
Hence, t h e concept o f empty space surround-
i n g a source o f a s t a t i c f i e l d can be given up,
and replaced by t h e concept o f a superposition of
states which transport t h e f i e l d fran source t o
t e s t body. "Action a t a distance" then becomes
an unnecessary concept.
6.4 Brownian Motion and Creation Processes
Thus f a r t h e i n e r t i a l mass mo has been
assumed t o vary continuously and appears as a
constant o f p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y between a residual
energy and the square of the speed o f l i g h t ( o r
b e t t e r , o / c = EMc = X , a p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y
between wave number and frequency). Although t h e
continuous v a r i a t i o n i s reasonable on a
t e r r e s t r i a l scale. t h e r e l a t i o n (12.17) i n d i -
cates t h a t a r e s t r i c t i o n on t h e scale of observa-
t i o n of SO (and hence of S) w i l l lead t o
r e s t r i c t i o n s on corresponding values of X , and
conversely. Thus, , ~Ci ,fWI - X then
so- hm /c.,, Indeed. experiment demonstrates
t h a t such must be t h e case whenever t h e scale o f
measurement i s o f t h e order o f t h e Canpton wave-
l e n g t h of a given mass state.
This section proposes t o show how t h e model
featured i n t h e preceding sections can r e s u l t i n
c o n s t r a i n t s on t h e i n e r t i a l f i e l d , g i v i n g r i s e t o
d i s c r e t e mass states. For t h i s purpose, however,
i t i s convenient t o develop s t i l l f u r t h e r t h e
analogy t o Brownian motion.
It w i l l be ecalled t h a t one model o f
T
Brownian motion2 concerns t h e motion of a par-
t i c l e l a r g e i n comparison w i t h the molecules
which cause i t s motion. The p a r t i c l e i s assumed
subject t o t h e sane forces as a molecule of t h e
f l u i d surrounding it; these forces are
a) a r a p i d l y varying and randun force,
and b ) a viscous damping force.
The randan force I s a t t r i b u t e d t o randan c o l -
l i s i o n s tending t o create a flow and mixing o f
matter thoughout t h e f l u i d , w h i l e t h e viscous
20
force tends t o oppose l a r g e accelerations o f t h e
molecules. Thus, forces a) and b ) are opposed t o
one anot r i n a dynamic equilibrium, on t h e
average.bP Hence t h e net displacement of t h e
Brownian p a r t i c l e i s zero.
A f u r t h e r model'' eliminates t h e viscous J.
force previously assumed to hold, on t h e average,
and considers o n l y r a n d m c o l l i s i o n s of molecules
w i t h the Brownian p a r t i c l e . It i s s i g n i f i c a n t
t h a t one obtains i d e n t i c a l r e s u l t s f o r both the
proposed models, averaqe.
Yet i t i s recognized by both models t h a t
only one mechanism i s i n operation: n o l e c u l a r
c o l l i s i o n s . The viscous force. a macroscopic
e f f e c t , i s elevated t o the standing o f a f o r c e
a c t i n g i n the same i n t e r v a l o f time as the much
more r a p i d randan c o l l i s i o n s . There i s no con-
t r a d i c t i o n i f one enquires a f t e r e f f e c t s r e s u l t -
i n g f r a n averages taken over periods o f time i n
which viscous force may be assumed t o have sane
r e a l existence.
Thus, t h e Brownian motion, as observed by
o p t i c a l means, can be viewed as a superposition
of two kinds o f motion:
a) a very r a p i d motion n o t observable by
o p t i c a l instruments, due t o a r a p i d and random
force, and
b ) a slower motion observable by o p t i c a l
means, and g i v i n g r i s e t o a viscous force.
The f i r s t motion i s i n t e r n a l t o t h e second, and
separated f r a n i t as a matter of convenience.
A study by LorentzZ6 demonstrates how the
viscous f o r c e may a r i s e fran randm i n t e r r u p t i o n s
o f an unforced motion, t o a f i r s t approximation. J
Indeed, i t f o l l o w s from t h e existence of a f i x e d
mean value f o r a given coordinate, t h a t there
must e x i s t a f o r c e opposing any departure o f the
physical s t a t e described by t h e coordinate, from
t h a t mean value. The l a t t e r consideration can be
formalized i n a theorem having p a r t i c u l a r r e l e -
vance t o t h e present theory (Appendix C). From
t h e p o i n t o f view o f t h e present paragraph, t h e
Brownian motion appears as a superposition of trm
kinds o f motion, each an i n t e r r u p t i o n of t h e
other. Each motion occurs a t t h e expense of the
other.
The model adopted f o r d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e
c r e a t i o n processes i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h a t o f the
l a t t e r paragraph. Thus. the o b s e r v e r - i n i t i a t e d
signal i s propagated i n a vacuum and i n t e r r u p t e d
by spontaneous processes and conversely. I t i s
emphasized t h a t the spontaneous processes may oc-
cur a t a very high r a t e and then c o n s t i t u t e a
motion i n t e r n a l t o t h e o b s e r v e r - i n i t i a t e d pro-
cesses.
The l a t t e r feature corresponds t o s i m i l a r
features o f the Brownian motion, and the f o r -
malism f u r t h e r i l l u s t r a t e s t h e point. Thus, t h e
propagation o f an i d e n t i f i a b l e f e a t u r e o f the
f i e l d i s described by
s2= -so2 (6.44)
 or ds2 -dsg (6.45) For b r e v i t y , l e t U denote a p o t e n t i a l of t h e

or PG - -P%0 (6.46)
spontaneous c r e a t i o n f i e l d , p e r t a i n i n g t o a mass
a t r e s t and l o c a l i z e d i n a r e g i o n about t h e o r i -
g i n of i n e r t i a l space of r a d i u s r = a. It w i l l
be assumed t h a t W depends on ro a?one; t h e mean-
W (ps ads/dT , PSo modso/dr ). Hence, i n g of t h e r e s t r i c t e d dependence will be d i s -
increase o f a sauared sDace-time i n t e r v - cussed i n p a r t B o f this section.
a l s2 occurs ' a t t h e expense o f t h e i n t e r v a l
then si
sg. A t e r n a t i ely. if52 (or dsz) be space-like,
( o r d s i ) must be time-like. Hence t h e
squared magnitudes of pS and PSO are always
Then (6.31)
&,+r"V==4
'.<a (6.47)
opposite i n sign; these r e l a t i o n s are independent 4W==O, (6.48)
of averaging.
which may be r e w r i t t e n i n t h e form (2-0. 1,
With reference t o t h e discussion of Appendix
C, i t i s asserted t h a t t h e vacuum c o n d i t i o n
imposes a c o n s t r a i n t on t h e creation processes,
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opposing any l a r g e v a r i a t i o n i n density o f the

created p a r t i c l e s . The forces c a l l e d i n t o p l a y
may be deduced with t h e a i d o f t h e theorem and a
knowledge o f t h e appropriate s t a t i s t i c a l d i s t r i -
b u t i o n i n ro and to. Rayleigh's method32 pro-
vides a means o f deducing t h e s t a t i s t i c a l d i s t r i -
b u t i o n required, i f one i n t e r p r e t s t h e i n e r t i a l
variables as phase s h i f t s induced i n an e l e c t r o -
magnetic wave. The d e r i v a t i o n o f t h e d i s t r i -
b u t i o n i s given i n Appendix A and i n d i c a t e s t h a t
t h e i n e r t i a l mass mo serves as a root-mean-square
measure o f t h e q u a n t i t y o f motion stored i n t h e
\?o,to) space. moreover, one may then view t h e R - ea m , p > a (6.54)
&,to motion as res o n s i b l e f o r t h e appearance of
an i n e r t i a l m a s s h e shown below
(Section 7.5) t h a t t h e i n e r t i a l motion l i k e w i s e
gives r i s e t o g r a v i t a t i o n a l mass.
Since t h e forces due t o i n e r t i a l mntion op-
pose any departure of t h e f i e l d p o t e n t i a l s from
Continuity a t r o - a requires t h a t
W t h e vacuum condition <&>o = 0 and (to', 8 0, xaj, ( x a ) = j o (*a), R=o (6.55)
there i s , i n effect, an a t t r a c t i v e f o r c e d e l d
w i t h seat a t the o r i g i n o f <FO,t
the next section i t w i l l be shown owspace* d. In
t h i s effec-
t i v e f o r c e f i e l d leads t o a quantization of mass.
The l a t t e r paragraph emphasizes t h e kine-
matic nature o f t h e vacuum assumption (5.5). One
8 - 0 or t o x a - s f 2 . 3 7 r A
and t o
. . . , f o r 1 = 0,
is, by i t s aid, l e d t o an equivalent f o r c e f i e l d
whfch i s asserted t o be responsible f o r t h e 3n(l) -l=&&/na+( 6ea)cot s a
s t a b i l i t y o f the matter s t a t e o f t h e f i e l d . The f o r 1 = 1.
manner i n which t h e c o n d i t i o n i s introduced f o r -
b i d s looking f a r more fundmental causes In the For given a (say a=10-13cm) there i s im-
framework o f t h e present theory; i t i s asserted p l i e d a discrete series o f levels f o r
t o be an elementary property o f nature. Wore- ponding t o various angular momentum nu%e:rg:-
over, as w i l l be seen, t h e condition i s equiva- The dependence o f a on has been assumed t o be
l e n t t o t h e requirement that p a r t i c l e and n e g l i g i b l e i n relations?6.47) t o (6.54).
a n t i - p a r t i c l e be created together (Section 7.1).
emphasizing again t h e fundamental character of Sfnce I t i s n o t t h e purpose here t o a t t m p t
the condition. a d e t a i l e d correspondence of theory and experi-
ment, no c a l c u l a t i o n o f the values o f w i l l be
6.5 The Quantization of Mass given. Moreover, there e x i s t s a good p o s s i b i l i t y
t h a t any d e t a i l e d discussion mst lead t o selec-
In Section 6.4 i t was shown that the vacuum t i o n r u l e s which w i l l modify t h e above consid-
c o n d i t i o n leads t o an e f f e c t i v e a t t r a c t i v e f o r c e e r a t i o n s (8.g. as must occur for t h e d i p o l e
f i e l d . The eauivalence o f k i n e m a t i c - s t a t i s t i c a l moment d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f spontaneous charges and
and dynamic descriptions was pointed out. The currents).
present section applies these considerations i n
obtaining a quantization o f mass states from both 4,
I n connection w i t h the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f
p o i n t s of view. one may speculate on i t s r e l a t i o n t o the i n t -
r f n s i c spins a t t r i b u t e d t o €he e l m e n t a r y par-
A. Kinematic Viewpoint t i c l e s , t h e ananalous magnetic mments o proton
and neutron. and t h e strangeness number. 3 5

21
 B. Dynamic Viewpoint
I t has been shown t h a t i n t e r r u p t i o n of the
observer-generated electromagnetic f i e l d gives
r i s e t o the observed i n e r t i a l character of mat-
t e r . But the converse i s perforce true: the
process may be viewed as i n t e r r u p t i o n of the
spontaneously generated f i e l d , again g i v i n g r i s e
t o the i n e r t i a l property. Moreover, the l a t t e r
i n t e r r u p t i o n i s observer-generated, and if a s i n -
g l e mass s t a t e thereby i s induced, then there i s
implied a constraint on the i n e r t i a l f i e l d ,
generated by the i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h the observer.
The c o n s t r a i n t must be such t h a t one mass s t a t e
i s produced as a r e s u l t of the interaction; t h i s
may be described as a process leading t o selec-
t i o n o f the states W o) such that x2=kg - and i n the f o l l o w i n g sections the formalism w i l l
( w o / c ) 2 = ( r n o c / S ; ) ~ ' c o n s t a n t . Other mass
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The formalism i s shown t o be equivalent t o
c l a s s i c a l quantum mechanics and the vacuum condi-
t i o n i s r e l a t e d t o Dirac's hole theory.
The theory i s shown t o encanpass gravita-
t i o n a l effects and r e l a t e s p a r t of the d i p o l e
vr'
magnetic f i e l d s of c e l e s t i a l bodies t o t h e i r
angular mments.
7.1 Tensor Formulation: Source-
Free F i e l d
I t i s convenient t o formulate t h e equations
o f motion and q u a n t i t i e s derived f r a n the eight-
p o t e n t i a l s as tensor r e l a t i o n s . I n the present
section, t h i s w i l l be done for the free f i e l d ,
be extended t o the forced f i e l d . The physical

states can only appear as v i r t u a l states. s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the tensors w i l l be touched upon.

Thus, one i s led, i n the Maxwell equation In analoov t o the tensor formulation of the
special tneory, one defines a gauge invariant
LV. -(fihy]w(c)=o (6.57) generalized f i e l d i n t e n s i t y tensor
describing propagation o f an electranagnetic
f i e l d generated spontaneoysl and o f f r e uenc
Eo/h , t o s u b s t i t u t e %-%#!
f o r Ve and Eo, respectively. Her?
and E -( 4

transform as a f o u r vector and describe the ob-

2 V
The form 7.1 i s l u s t i f i e d when one observes t h a t
(fl m ) ~ i s a t i n s o r i d e n t i c a l w i t h the corre-
sponding tensor of the special theory. If/LL and
server's i n t e r v e n t i o n i n the spontaneous proc- y are greater than four, one obtains a te6sor
esses t o select the mass s t a t e mo. w i t h components averaging t o zero
A
I t i s now assumed t h a t both a and Eo are <fncs,nC++), =o (7.2)
n e g l i g i b l e and V = - ~ c 2 , if r$a and V=O if
>
r a; hence i t i s enquired of the derived equa- Moreover, since the f i e l d generated spontaneous-
t i o n as t o the condition f o r the appearance of a l y d i f f e r s from t h a t measured o n l y i n source, but
f i e l d of zero energy corresponding t o a binding n o t i n structure, the f o l l o w i n g notation i s
energy2c,-m , i n a square w e l l of range r o = a. One adopted, w i t h due regard f o r the remarks f o l l o w - J
then obtains i n g ( 6 . 7 ) and Postulate V: ( f . ~ ) =
(Aa+xL)w=o,
re$& (6.58)
0 % -&-$ti $#.E f,b fi7 f19
A,W =O ,re>d (6.59)
-% 0 A+ -iff $sf- L
l i
L
as before. & -N, 0 -& $aS fSL fa? $80

The discussion i n P a r t B has run counter t o

the s p i r i t of the theory preceding, but i s equiv-
a l e n t t o it. The viewpoint i s adopted by way of
i l l u m i n a t i n g the discussion i n P a r t A and i n Sec-
-$w-$s-f* 0 -x-e
t i o n 6.4. --fjL -fu fu '&%-%e 0 &"'go
7.0 Introduction t o the Formalism
I t has been shown above how the basis of the
special theory of r e l a t i v i t y may be extended t o
include the matter f i e l d as an i n t e g r a l p a r t Of -.
-
One notes that{&(?,t;?o.to)>o and
the theory. O f necessity, the source-free elec- <;)([S,t;fo,to)) coincide w i t h the e l e c t r i c and
tromagnetic f i e l d served as an i n i t i a l basis of maanetic f i e l d f n t e n s i t i e s o f the Maxwell theorv.
discussion, and i t s g e n e r a l i z a t i m . the Bose- Moreover, < - o ( F , t ; ~ ~ , t ~ ) > ~ and
E i n s t e i n f i e l d , reflected the i n i t i a l bias. $VIP, t ;Fo,f0)> 0 the corresponding f i e l d
i t e n s i t i e s due t o spontaneous processes.are
I n the present sequence of Sections zero. BY previous convention, then, one writes
7.0. ...., the formalism begun i n Section 6.0,
etc. w i l l be extended t o the BE f i e l d w i t h
sources, and t o i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h other f i e l d s .
The generalized Fermi-Dirac (FD) f i e l d w i l l be
introduced. The neutrino f i e l d w i l l be placed i n
a p o s i t i o n r e l a t i v e t o the FD f i e l d analogous t o
t h a t occupied by the electranagnetic f i e l d among
the BE fields.

22
 which i s seen t o correspond t o t h e vacuum condi- Hence, corresponding t o t h e energy denstty o f t h e
t i o n (5.5), b u t i s not equivalent t o it. special theory, one has

The cross terms f l ,m+4 correspond t o

COuPling of the average and i n e r t i a l f i e l d s , and
LJ t h e averages o f these terms are, i n general, not
zero. The coupling i s a r e f l e c t i o n of the
assumption t h a t radiation-matter t r a n s i t i a n s may
occur i n free space.

9.One now f u r t h e r r e s t r i c t s t h e v a r i a t i o n of
by the guage condition
Postulate VI1
jL a p = o (7.5) w h i l e t h e current d e n s i t i e s are

which i s seen t o pass over i n t o the corresponding

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r e l a t i o n o f t h e spectal theory when averaged

$!4,cQ% =0 (7.6)
I t follows a t once t h a t

5 {/"..a (7.7) and. f o r example.

and t h e l a t t e r r e l a t i o n s become t h e Maxwell is= $f..lf Qs (7.16)

equations when averaged.
I t i s evident t h a t the averages o f current
There i s now defined t h e energy-manenturn d e n s i t i e s and d e n s i t i e s are not equal t o t h e i r
tensor correspondents of t h e special theory. On the
other hand, t h e averages o f these q u a n t l t i e s over
+
r o and t o s a t i s f y a consewattan law i n observer
space
by analogy with the special theor;. The choice
of t h e numerical f a c t o r 1/4c w i l l be justified
tn section 7.4. as w e l l as t h e fitness o f the
V- & *. i & e > . - a (7.17)
d e f i n i t i o n . One notes t h a t so t h a t the i n t e g r a l o f the averaged density,
L over r. i s a constant i n the time t (note t h a t
dP5;h.O (7.9) < j &+4>o * 0 . A - 1.2.31

as a consequence of (7.7). ac
- q < p ; ?di'= 0. (7.18)
It i s evident t h a t (TN) i s n o t equal S i m i l a r l y . bypassing the meaning o f t h e operation
t o the corresponding tensor o f The special the-
ory, except as a f i r s t approxfmation I n terms o f
v i r t u a l processes. T h i s has been c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
A?,
for t h e mment. ifone averages (7.9) over
@ space, with s u i t a b l e r e s t r i c t i o n o f the
dices, one f i n d s (note t h a t
Of t h e foregoing theory, t h e behavior o f quad-
r a t i c expressions being markedly d i s s i m i l a r . on
(jh > 8 k- 1.2.3)
0.
t h e average, from t h a t of l i n e a r expressions. s*'d:>+ Ad<f*>"o
c 86 (7.19)
S i m i l a r l y . by analogy, one defines the
eight-current d e n s i t y i n observer space by
where
Then
< r e f e r s t o the indicated average.
4
,&=l,2,S fce#>d?
1
(7.20)
G+)<&si#y) f" BpiG (7.10) i s a constant i n t h e time coordinate to.
fig &++'P42,3 Thus, although t h e current and denslty are
n o t equivalent t o t h e i r correspondents of t h e
and i n i n e r t i a l space by special theory, t h e t r averages s a t i s f y a conser-
@rh ,k= 1 ~ 3 v a t i o n law i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h a t o f t h e special
theory. The significance o f t h e l n t e g r a l s (7.18)
and (7.20). as w e l l as t h e meaning o f t h e average
over r, t space, w i l l be undertaken i n
Section 7.2.
Although t h e f i e l d Is unforced, there e x i s t
matter states i n the f t e l d . These do not p l a y
t h e r o l e of sources, b u t are an t n e v t t a b l e conse-

23
 quence o f creation processes. Moreover, i f no
e l e c t r i c charges o r currents e x i s t i n average
space, so t h a t
there i s no guarantee t h a t <x > o or {
f o r example, w i l l l i k e w i s e va ish. The aOt? gr i s $
c l e a r l y due t o the quadratic character of the
currents and densities. The cross terms do not
represent i n t e r a c t i o n s between f i e l d s i n the
usual formal meaning o f t h e term, b u t s i g n i f y t h e
e s s e n t i a l u n i t y o f matter and r a d i a n t energy.
The generalized Coulanb p o t e n t i a l (6.26) i n d i -
cates t h a t there e x i s t n o n - z a currents and den-
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while t h e current density i s
The conservation of densitv and c u r r e n t i s
assured by (7.17) t o t h e &e approximation.
Paul1 34 has shown t h a t a current and density
defined by (7.24) and (7.25). w i t h a law o f mo-
t i o n (7.22 cannot lead t o a conservation law
(7.17) if h be r e a l . I t i s therefore of i n t e r -
e s t t o repeat t h e above discussion a l l o w i n g t h e
potent ia1s t o be canplex. re-defining
observable q u a n t i t i e s t o ensure t h e i r r e a l i t y .
Thus, l e t ?be a complex function s a t i s f y -
i n g equations ( .33) and l e t * denote i t s ccin-
plex conjugate. As before. de i n e 4-

s i t i e s i n t h e f i e l d , even i f % ( < t) = 0;
moreover, t h i s can only occur because t h e
p o t e n t i a l depends on SO.
7.2 The Formalism and Quantm Mechanics a-&'~p<a.;:~ (7.27)
I t i s the purpose of t h i s section t o estab-
l i s h an equivalence between t h e present formalism and note t h a t &y+=+Q*y-d&*
and t h a t of classical, n o n - r e l a t i v i s t i c quantun w i t h (1/2) ( *) representing a
mechanics. Further i n s i g h t i n t o t h e nature of measured f i e k t r e & ? ?
the currents and d e n s i t i e s defined above, as well
as sane i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e vacuun condition, Similarly, define
w i l l then follow.
To obtain t h e i n d i c a t e d approximation, one
3v-&@ 5.%+$:$ + *4PJ(7.2B)
assumes so t h a t
i) *t varies e s s e n t i a l l y as in .p%
t h e time
( t h e r e may renain a canparatively
weak dependence on t);
and
(a
hence d 1 < a>,
ii) a auge such t h a t
t i v e l y v.#p, t ) - O
4>0 = 0, and
= O(2-1.2.3) or, alterna-

*a
i i i ) t h e d i r e c t i o n of @(r,t)varies slowly
+.. -
i comparison w i t h t h e r a t e o f v a r i a t i o n of
i&,t)\ =a.
With r e s t r i c t i o n s 1) t o i i i ) i t w i l l be
shown t h a t can be i d e n t i f i e d , e s s e n t i a l l y , as
with
>. -0 (7.31)
I t follows that, w i t h approximations e s s e n t i a l l y
t h e p r o b a b i l i t y f u n c t i o n o f the c l a s s i c a l quantun those of 1) t o iii)o f t h i s section
mechanics, The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n can be made c m -
p l e t e by a l t e r i n g t h e formalism sanwhat t o
include canplex f i e l d potentials.
Imposing t h e non-re1 a t i v i s t i c c o n d i t i o n
E/moc2 << 1, one obtains ( 4 e>,=
n
qr &-kk) and

1 = 1,2,3, and hence, w i t h t h e a i d of ii)and Hence, f o r t h e approximations (7.33). t h e conser-

iii) v a t i o n of current and n s i t y holds e x a c t l y and
- C A=&x
~ aU (7.23)
the identification of
function
% with the probability
of the c l a s s i c a l quantun mechanics i s
2% canplete.
Moreover, t o a f i r s t approximation. t h e density
I s glven by As a possible c r l t i c l s m of t h e preceding re-
marks, i t i s noted t h a t t h e present discussion
&& RZ (7.24) deals w i t h the Bose-Einstein f i e l d while the
g u 8% c l a s s i c a l quantum mechanics was p r i n c i p a l l y con- u

24
 cerned wlth t h e motion o f a Fermi-Oirac p a r t l c l e
( t h e electron). On t h e other hand, t h e approxi-
matlon Invoked l n both cases renders t h e motlon
lndependent of spin; hence the relevance o f the
analysis.
L
The analysls above, coupled w i t h (7.18).
permits one t o i n t e r p r e t <p> 0 as a p r o b a b f l i t y
denslty. a f t e r s u i t a b l e normallzatton. More-
over, t h e synmetry ls behavlor o f observer and
i n e r t l a l spaces, as nvldenced I n (7.20), permits
i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f <foj with a probablllty
d e n s l t y f n i n e r t l a l space.
But t h e l a t t e r l d e n t l f l c a t i o n lmplles a
r e s t r i c t l o n on t h e v a r i a t l o n o f P n i n a vacuum,
for one must now w r i t e a -
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~li$rtc,<pL>t- 4 Iji.d-q.>,d=O (7.34)
as an expression o f t h e vacuum condltlon. And
requlres
P aW,t;
.
(7.34) ls secured I n a slmple manner I f m e
C,**l==fa(~W-~*r*J (7.35)
o r t h e equivalent statanent
where f o ) f i s t h e Fourler transform o f
P o f n x and to?
Condition (7.36) i s thus an a l t e r n a t l v e
statement o f t h e vacuum conditlon. and as such
expresses t h e f a c t t h a t equal s t a t i s t i c a l weights
L. are assigned t o creatfon a d a n n f h i l a t i o n o f both
p a r t l c l e and a n t l - p a r t f c l e . It Is c l e a r t h a t
(k 0, 0 ) and r e f e r t o t h e same mass
St%e d - It Is therefore
suggested t h a t ( 7 6) represents t h e condltlon
t h a t an electron and a p o s l t r o n be created
together near a heavy nucleus through the agency
of a gama ray, and hence agreement w l t h r e a l i t y
I n t h l s case. I t 1s t r u e t h a t t h e c r e a t l a n does
n o t occur f n a vacuum, b u t i t i s t h e closest
appmximatlon t o such a condftion observed I n
t h i s connection and t o t h i s extent v e r l f l e s
(7.36).
Moreover, c o n d i t i o n (7.36) and i t s meaning
w i l l be proposed as replacement of O l r a c ' s h o l e
model o f electron-posltron c r e a t l m , and fs
worthy of note here I n reference t o BE f i e l d s .
Thus, Olrac's assertfon t h a t negative energy
s t a t e s are concelved t o be occupled by electrons
becanes transformed t o t h e assertion t h a t nega-
t f v e i n e r t i a l four-wanenturn' s t a t e s are a n t l -
p a r t i c l e s (e.9. positrons); t h e excl;j?bn
p r l nc 1 p l e prevents t r a n s i t lons i n t o occupied
states. The assumption t h a t t h e negatlve energy
states (e.g. positrons) produce no electranag-
n e t l c o r g r a v i t a t i o n a l effects Is now a l t e r e d t o
assert t h a t (along w l t h other v f r t u a l states) the
negative four-mentum states are responslble,
i n t h e wean, f o r c l a s s i c a l e l e c t r m a g n e t l c and
g r a v f t a t f o n a l effects.
25
Although the BE f l e l d 1s n o t subject t o t h e
excluslon p r i n c l p l e , s l m l l a r I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s
apply t o it.
The synmetry I n t h e f*, tj and {j", t o 3
ti
spaces, and t h p e x l s t e n c e of a p r o b a b l l ty
d e n s i t y f o r {r, space now j u s t i f i e s t h e
averages o v e r ? an t mentloned e a r l i e r (Sections
@and Z l ) . Except perhaps f o r t h e vacuum condl-
tlon, the correspondence i n behavlor of t h e two
spaces Is complete t o t h l s extent. But t h l s
c o n d i t i o n 1s more a r e f l e c t t o n o f a l i m i t e d type
of experiment than a t r u e p l c t u r e o f t h e f l e l d
structures i n t h e two spaces.
7.3 The Uniffed F f e l d and Quantum Mechanics
The s i g n l f l c a n c e o f the foregoing theory f o r
t h e quantum mechanlcs can be l l l u s t r a t e d by sane
physical cons l d e r a t lons.
There are t w o features of physlcal observa-
t i o n a t t h e basis o f t h e quantum mechanics. They
are:
a) t h e de B m g l i e hypothesis recognizing
the wave character of matter; and
b) t h e i n d l v l s i b i l i t y and u n c o n t r o l l a b i l -
i t y of transfer o f a quantum o f energy between
p h y s i c a l systems.
A theory seeklng t o supplant t h e quantum
mechanlcs must account f o r these features.
The foregofng discussicm has been based on a
wave model o f the matter s t a t e and embodles the
de B r o g l i e hypothesis; It does not. however,
exclude t h e p a r t i c l e aspect of matter.
For definiteness, l e t us consider the case
where observations do n o t resolve v l r t u a l
Drocesses: t h l s i.~s t h e atomic
~ ~ ..~ l e v e l o
~~~~ -.f nhcprva- __
t l o n . This i s expressed i n t h e present theory by
t h e assumption t h a t the coordinates measured are
x-XO, y-yo, 2-z0. and t - t o , denoted by X, Y. Z
and T. respectfve1.v. The COrresDondlnQ m e t r l c is -
4s'- d%'+ d Y ' + d i ~ ' - e . d ~ ~ ( 7 . 3 7 )
w l t h energy E and manentum P defined i n t h e usual
Manner.' I n a d d i t l o n one m a y d e f i n e t h e a c t i o n
-
varlable f o r a p a r t i c l e i n a p e r i o d i c o r b i t , by
J {PAL?
where Q'q-90 and P=p-po are generalized coordi-
17.38)
nate and manentun. Averaging over t h e v i r t u a l
processes, one flnds
J '- J P d j </r.$%> (7.39)
q h l s m e t r l c could have been chosen from the out-
Set w l t h t h e understandfng t h a t t h e coordlnates
(e.9. Sectlon 6) are r a n d m varlables. The
approxlmation implled by t h e separation would n o t
then be f n effect, but comparison w i t h precedlng
theories would n o t be as d l r e c t .
 For
.. . s.u f f i c i e n t l v small values o f the f i r s t
i n t e g r a l (i.e. on an
becanes o f canparable
t h e minimum value o f
t o be h. S i m i l a r l y , differences i n the
values o f J have a minimum value of h.
But, with reference t o a l i g h t wave of
frequency Y , a v a r i a t i o n i n t h e energy
En = hY o f t h e wave (see (5.25)) i s given by
(7.40)
No smaller energy transfer than h 9 can be
expected, under t h e conditions assumed.
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I t i s f e l t t h a t many of the conceptual
d i f f i c u l t i e s of t h e quantum mechanics a r i s e from
t h e d i v i s i o n between p a r t i c l e and f i e l d . The
u n c e r t a i n t y p r i n c i p l e , f o r example, concerns t h e
i n d i v i s i b l e transfer of energy between a radia-
t i o n f i e l d and p a r t i c l e . Because o f t h e need t o
use r a d i a t i o n t o observe the motion o f a par-
t i c l e , t h a t motion i s perturbed. The degree of
the p e r t u r b a t i o n i s measured by the canplementary
r e l a t i o n between t h e manentm and l o c a t i o n o f the
p a r t i c l e . Thus t h e observer enters i n t o t h e
determination o f the r e a l i t y o f physical observa-
tions. On t h e other hand, i n the context o f the
present theory, there i s necessarily a coinplemen-
t a r y r e l a t i o n between frequency and time i n t e r v a l
necessary t o define t h e f i e l d , or, a l t e r n a t e l y ,
between t h e bandwidth o f the f i l t e r required t o
observe t h e desired feature w i t h i n t h e time
i n t e r v a l allowed. A s i m i l a r remark applies t o
t h e manentm and l o c a t i o n o f a given feature of a
p a r t i c l e f i e l d . I n t h e l a t t e r case, t h e r e a l i t y
o f t h e physical world i s n o t considered t o be
inaccessible t o t h e observer, due t o h i s i n t e r -
ference w i t h it, but i t s perception i s l i m i t e d by
t h e type o f instrumentation used.
I n addition, t h e present theory replaces t h e
p r o b a b i l i t y f i e l d of the quantum mechanics des-
cribed by a f u n c t i o n by t h e p o t e n t i a l s o f t h e
f i e l d equations, chosen t o be i n v a r i a n t under
transformations leaving t h e above m e t r i c i n v a r -
i a n t . Thus, instead o f an a u x i l i a r y -e, f i e l d
which guides t h e motion of an assembly of par-
t i c l e s , or describes t h e p r o b a b i l i t y of t h e
behavior o f a s i n g l e p a r t i c l e . one has a poten-
t i a l which can be d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e density
of t h e m a t t e r l r a d i a t i o n f i e l d . No change i n t h e
formalism o f the quantum mechanics appears t o be
necessary; there i s simply a r e - i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
methods used.
For example, t h e mysterious n o t i o n o f a
p a r t i c l e "leaking through" a p o t e n t i a l b a r r i e r ,
(as i n r a d i o a c t i v e decay) since t h e
of quantum mechanics i s o f a wave-like nature and
function
c a r r i e s t h e p a r t i c l e along w i t h it. i s replaced
by an a l t e r n a t e concept. I n t h e a l t e r n a t e model,
t h e f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e energy o f t h e p a r t i c l e
constrained w i t h i n t h e b a r r i e r are sanetimes
s u f f i c i e n t t o c a r r y t h e p a r t i c l e over t h e bar-
r i e r , whence i t escapes fran t h e p o t e n t i a l well,
g i v i n g up i t s excess energy t o t h e w e l l as i t
26
leaves. The l a t t e r model, i t i s f e l t , i s more
e a s i l y v i s u a l i z e d than t h e former, and more i n
consonance w i t h t h e model advanced i n preceding
sections. Another model i s seen t o a r i s e fran
a,
i d e n t i f y i n g t h e p a r t i c l e w i t h the u n i f i e d f i e l d
f o r which leakage through a b a r r i e r by a sanewhat
s i m i l a r mechanism can be visualized. aqain a more
d i r e c t d e s c r i p t i o n than possible w i t h the a u x i l -
i a r y 'lp f i e l d .
In closing, i t i s noted t h a t t h e need t o
appeal t o spontaneous processes t o provide a more
c l a s s i c a l p i c t u r e o f quantum e f f e c t s i s well
known, e.g. the r o l e o f spontaneous emission of
r a d i a t i o n i n t h e d e r i v a t i o n of the Planck black
body r a d i a t i o n d i s t r i b u t i o n . And, although these
spontaneous processes lead t o an i n f i n i t e zero
p o i n t energy f o r the r a d i a t i o n f i e l d , they are
necessary t o t r i g g e r any m i s s i o n of r a d i a t i o n by
a system i n a s t a t i o n a r y state. The present
theory provides a mechanism f o r these effects,
otherwise unresolved as spontaneous processes.
7.4 The BE F i e l d w i t h Sources: I n t e r a c t i o n s
Between Fields.
The formalism developed i n t h e preceding
sections has had reference t o the unforced BE
f i e l d . As pointed out above, t h e r e s t r i c t i o n
does n o t exclude matter currents f r a n the f i e l d ,
these currents being an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f the
f i e l d . Vet one does n o t o b t a i n the c l a s s i c a l
electromagnetic f i e l d equations w i t h sources
f r a n t h e present theory, i n the appropriate con-
t e x t , and hence t h e formalism must be extended. J
Postulate V I I I . I n t h e presence o f sources,
specified by the eight-current d e n s i t y (7.10),
t h e equations o f motion o f the generalized r a d i -
ation-matter BE f i e l d p o t e n t i a l s are
It i s emphasized t h a t Postulate V I 1 remains
valid.
Averaging (7.4!) over v i r t u a l Processes,
one obtains (note )
3Sqak>,=++q,,~ (7.42)
( d ....
i n a reement with the c l a s s i c a l theory
= 1,2
VI11 imply t h a t
4 ) . Moreover, Postulates VI1 and
(7.43)
and hence t h a t
9l G # A >, = h.&2 (7.44)
Equations (7.44) are t h e c l a s s i c a l equations of
motion f o r t h e f i e l d i n t e n s i t i e s i f
.l,h =1,2,3.4.
Defining the generalized force density
(7.45) W
 equations (7.43) imply

3, = 859
-
(7.46)

W
where Try
tensor defined
T,,
4
i s the ener y momentum
r e l a t i o n (7.8j;-the use o f t h e oroo
f a c t o r 1 / 4 X i s then j u s t i f i e d . i r o00
A f o r c i n g a c t i o n may l i k e w i s e be obtained by
i n t e r a c t i o n o f two fields. Formal expression of
t h i s s i t u a t i o n i s obtained by r e p l a c i n g 9 in
t h e above theory by
(7.47)
where ( @ ) i s t h e e i g h t - p o t e n t i a l d e s c r i p t i v e
o f the interacting f i e l d .
OO?O
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It would lead t h i s preliminary study too f a r

from t h e present purpose t o d e t a i l f u r t h e r prup-
e r t i e s o f t h e BE f i e l d ; i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e gen- -ir00 0
e r a l i z e d FD f i e l d w i l l next be considered.
7.5 The Fenni-Dirac F i e l d
With respect t o t h e meaning of equations
(6.20) and (6.25), i t i s seen t h a t these are es-
s e n t i a l l y equivalent t o t h e Pmca f i e l d equations
and hence describe mass states of i n t e g r a l spin.
The r e s u l t s o f Section 6.5 i n d i c a t e t h a t a s i n g l e
s e t of equations o f motion f o r both BE and FD
f i e l d s may be possible. On t h e other hand, i t i s
easier t o employ e x i s t i n g a n a l y t i c techniques, as
w e l l as being of i n t e r e s t t o examine t h e meaning
of these methods i n t h e l i g h t of t h e present
viewpoint. For t h e foregoing reasons, t h e Dirac The components o f each of t h e t r i p l e s 8
equation w i l l be extended t o o b t a i n t h e equations
of motion o f a generalized Penni-Dirac matter-
r a d i a t i o n f i e l d , characterized by h a l f - i n t e g r a l
i n t r i n s i c spin.
k=l,2,3. denotes k t h canponent o f a given
Thus. w i t h t h e a i d o f t h e matrices t r i p l e o f matrices)
lit= 1 (7.52)

b!*"rr+ V.'Z%P =a (7.53)

1- kZ.3
dhdp80(, ,M=f,Z,3 (7.54)
one defines the e i g h t row and c o l m n Hermitian
matrices (where k, 1 ,m a r e permuted c y c l i c a l l y ) , and

SI 0 0 0

4 0 $10 0 0 S,D were 3 and $ are vectors which c m u t e w i t h

0 0 os, 0). The t r a c e s of a l l t h e matrices are equal t o

%=(; s , o o o 2;;) zero.

With t h e a i d o f t h e matrices (7.49) t o
(7.51) one may f a c t o r the fundamental r e l a t i o n
between momenta and energies (6.5) I n t o t h e
square o f the equation
0 0 0 %

Now, l e t t i n g
 -
y =(%) (3,..'. r'PL)
denote a row m a t r i x whose elements are t h e
(7.57)
The r e l a t i v i s t i c invariance of both (7.58)
and ( 7 . b 2 ) may be proved i n a manner too w e l l
described t o be repeated here.

p o t e n t i a l s of t h e FO f i e l d . there i s introduced Defining t h e eight-current density by

Postulate I X . The equations of motion of $acy*sp $*cp*lgy/ (7.63) J .
t h e f r e e Fenni-Dlrac (FD) m a t t e r - r a d i a t i m f i e l d
are assuned t o be P'P*P p.=p*p,p2'9L] . I

and w i t h t h e a i d of t h e equations of motion

(7.58). it i s e a s i l y shown t h a t t h e current i s
It i s c l e a r t h a t (7.58) has been obtained by
means o f t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n (6.19) i n e q u a t i m
(7.56). Moreover, f o r closer i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h
t h e Dirac e q u a t i m t o which (7.58) w i l l be shown
t o reduce i n t h e mean, i t w i l l be assuned f r a n
the outset t h a t t h e m t e n t i a l s W.. - be complex
may and t h a t
+d e
I"

a( A
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nunbers. V.<$>. 0 (7.65)

Upon averaging (7.58) over ?O and to, and Bf
assiming t o vanish a t i n f i n i t y I n
j ro, to] space, one finds so t h a t upon i n t e g r a t i o n
L
(7.66)
which i s t o be canpared w i t h t h e e q u a t i m of
m o t i m for t h e free electromagnetic f i e l d . and hence <P
>o may be i n t e r p r e t e d as a proba-
Indeed, upon s u b s t i t u t i n g f o r <UP. t h e b i l i t y densi y.
expenenti a1 UpX(P.(r-Efj. one finds
One f u r t h e r defines t h e Hemiltonian
operator
so t h a t f =E/c, or p2 = (E/c)*, and t h e
l a t t e r i s noth ng e l s e than t h e phase c o n d i t i m
fl- q[e,s *P +pe@*%+$&,87.67)
f o r a f r e e electranagnetic f i e l d , when applied t o
t h e appropriate equatims o f motion. It w i l l be n o t i n g t h a t t h i s comnutes w i t h t h e generalization
shown t h a t (7.58) refers t o t h e eauations of of the angular manentun tensor
motion o f a ' f i e l d o f h a l f - i n t e g r a i spin, and J
since (7.59) applies t o a f i e l d o f zero r e s t (7.68)
mass, i t (and t h e corresponding phase c o n d i t i o n )
i s suggested t o be t h e equation of motion of t h e and w i t h t h e operators*
n e u t r i n o f i e l d . Thus the n e u t r i n o f i e l d i s the PSj?+~.Clii
analogue of t h e electranagnetic field, both as a
phase c o n d i t i m and as t h e r e s u l t of averaging (7.69)
over v i r t u a l processes.
Ifa s i n g l e mass s t a t e o f non-vanishing r e s t and hence are constants o f t h e motion.
mass mo be specified, so t h a t
7.6 The Coupled FD and BE Fields
The coupling of t h e FO and BE f i e l d s may be
expressed by t h e f m a l i s m i n a variety o f ways.
For example. one may s u b s t i t u t e t h e eight-current
d e n s i t y defined i n S e c t i o n 7.5 i n equations

for L
(7.41 as a f o r c i n t e n . and t h e p o t e n t i a l s sly.
i n (7.473. Further, by analogy w i t h
t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e current sources i n
(7.41). one may imagine a l i k e generalization o f
t h e equations o f motion f o r t h e f r e e FD f i e l d
(7.58).
i t follows t h a t (7.58) becanes. t o t h e indicated
appmximati m ,
l.'.v+ *$ +ifx11p@3'47,62)
*It i s again poTnted out t h a t t h e quadratic
expressions o f t h e special theory are generalized
with '(t -% andp=p&. Equatim (7.62) i s
recognized as the D i ac equation. And w i t h
by extendjng t h e danain of t h e sumnation indices
f r a n four t o eight. Those variables defined i n
terms of ro. to alone are given an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
(7.62) one recovers t h e D i r a c formalism as w e l l analo ous t o t h a t i n observer space f o r corre-
as the c l a s s i c a l quantun mechanics i n t h e 9
spond ng exprersims. I n t h i s connection, one
notes t h e e f f e c t of a t r a n s l a t i o n o f observer
appropriate n o n - r e l a t i v i s t i c l i m i t .
J
 On t h e other hand, t h e purpose here i s a
dlscusslon c l o s e l y analogous t o t h a t employed by
Dirac i n d e r l v i n g t h e s p l n properties o f
t h e e l e c t r o n and demonstrate t h a t t h e mass states
of t h e f l e l d under discussion do indeed possess
b h a l f i n t e g r a l spin.
Hence, i n analogy w i t h the customary proce-
dure, t h e s u b s t l t u t l o n s ( s u i t a b l e for a p o i n t
charge; prevlously f n t e r a c t l o n p o t e n t i a l s f o r
charae and current d i s t r i b u t i o n s have been
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are c a r r i e d out l n equatlons (7.58). One then
obtalns
and f o r t h e plane wave q=e
,dcp'.A-Et)&.&bEA
L Upon squaring both sides of equations (7.72).
employlng (7.55) f n t h e %oms
[S-(P-$Z)J:[&ZQJ-@ 2.2
i t 1s r e a d i l y seen t h a t
(F-2G@y++;+%)e
+...
Equations (7.75) i s recognlzed as t h e non-
r e l a t i v l s t l c expresslon f o r t h e energy of a
p a r t l c l e w i t h magnetic manent C y,c l n t e r -
a c t i n g with t h e magnetic f i e l d $! , and
magnetic moment t & E , Interacting wlth
t h e magnetic f i e 1 p/. . Only the f l r s t two
tenns survlve upon averaging over v i r t u a l pro-
cesses. One must conclude, however. that t h e
p a r t l c l e descrlbed b y (7.75) has half l n t e g r a l
spln i n observer space, wlth a s i m i l a r behavlor
I n l n e r t l a l space. The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e
charge 1 w l l l be taken up i n t h e next section.
7.7 Magnetic Mments o f Rotatlnq R l a l d Bodies
and t h e U n l f i e d F i e l d
The discusslon I n Section 7.6 found It
necessary to lntroduce a q u a n t l t y w l t h the
dimensions o f e l e c t r l c charge. d c h a r g e j can-
not be equal t o t? slnce charge creatlon a d
a n n i h i l a t l o n may proceed I n t h e nelghborhood o f a
p a r t l c l e observed t o have no net e l e c t r i c charge
(e.g. t h e neutron), so t h a t although 8 4,i t
does n o t f o l l o w t h a t q-0. I n t h e l a t t e r connec-
tion, I t has been I m p l l c l t l y assuned t h a t t h e
scale o f Observation does not permlt separating
out t h e products o f charge creatlon; hence must
be considered t o be a k i n d of average c h a r 4 .
For t h e present, i t w l l l s u f f i c e t h a t one can
expect t h e e f f e c t l v e charge
4 t o generate
magnetic f f e l d l n t h e neighb rhood o f r o t a t l n g
bodles. This conclusion f o l l o w s f r a n considera-
a
t l o n s s l m l l a r t o those encountered i n discusslons
of t h e Einstein-deHaas-Barnett experlments35.
Thus i t Is asserted that, since t h e e f f e c t
ofJ I s small f n comparison with t h a t o f a
pe anent charge C , a magnetlc f l e l d should be
p e r c e p t f b l e on a macroscopic scale i n t h e nelgh-
borhood o f a large, s u f f l c i e n t l y e l e c t r i c a l l y
neutral. bodv I n r o t a t i o n . Moreover. t h e r a t i o
and of t h e magn&lc moment t o t h e angula; momentum of
such a body should be
7.73)
C e l e s t i a l bodles serve as the most well-known
examples of l a r g e masses I n fn r o t a t l o n whlch
possess magnetlc f i e l d s , and of these, t h e best
known Is t h e Earth. The magnetic f l e l d o f t h e
Earth cannot be explalned on t h e basis o f a small
and pennanent e l e c t r f c charge, and f t Is of t h e
nature of a d f p o l e f i e l d w i t h a x l s roughly coin-
7.74) c i d e n t w l t h t h e a x i s o f r o t a t l o n o f t h e Earth.
(7.77)
"-
(where t i s of the order of u n i t y ) .
for a l l r o t a t i n g c e l e s t i a l bodles,i..c.
to h o l d
Although t h e agreement w l t h observation was
s t r i k i n g l y accurate f o r many cases, l a t e r obser-
vatfons dlsagreed w i t h t h e p r e d i c t l o n s of 7.77.
However. t h e theory presented above makes i t
p o s s i b l e t o evaluate go f o r cases i n whlch
magnetohydrodynamic e f f e c t s do n o t predominate
29
 ~
( f o r s i m p l i c i t y ) . Observation of r o t a t i n g r i g i d
bodies a t very high r o t a t i o n a l speeds i s an
example of such an experiment, ift h e experiment
can be c a r r i e d out.
7.8 Sunrnary
I n t h e considerations above, i t has been
shown t h a t a u n i f i e d f i e l d theory with a c m -
P a r a t i v e l y simple formalism can be derived by
s p l i t t i n g t h e space-time continuum i n t o two
spaces. These spaces correspond t o two inde-
pendent methods of signal generation, one a mean
e f f e c t and t h e other a r i s i n g spontaneously,
characterized as uncontrollable noise.
H i t h a few reasonable assumptions about t h e
s t r u c t u r e of space-time one may o b t a i n i n s i g h t
Downloaded by KUNGLIGA TEKNISKA HOGSKOLEN KTH on November 12, 2015 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1981-1608
i n t o (among other subjects):
1) a causal d e s c r i p t i o n of nature, i n c l u d -
i n g t h e quantum mechanics, as an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f
t h e theory;
2) a more s a t i s f a c t o r y conception of
" a c t i o n a t a distance";
3) an i n s i g h t i n t o t h e nature o f elementary
p a r t i c l e s , as i t r e l a t e s t o the matter/energy
f i e l d and a mechanism f o r t h e quantization of
mass;
4 ) t h e genesis of elementary and g r a v i t a -
t i o n a l forces and an implenentation o f an a n t i -
g r a v i t y device.
The extensive agreement o f t h e theory pro-
posed above, and those t h e o r i e s already
found t o be i n agreement w i t h experiment,
c o n s t i t u t e s a p a r t i a l proof o f the v a l i d i t y
of t h e theory. I n addition. when t h e pro-'
posed theory i s anployed as a moderate
extension of accepted theories, one may
expect, by extrapolation. e.g., increased
i n s i g h t i n t o t h e subtractlon o f i n f i n i t i e s
of the quantum mechanics, as well as more
accurate predictions and analyses o f phenomena
not presently included i n physical theory.
The f o l l o w i n g seini-quantitative discussion
i s a k i n e t i c theory model of t h e generation o f an
a t t r a c t i v e force i n t h e g r a v i t a t i o n f i e l d by a
mechanism analogous t o t h a t proposed f o r t h e
unified field. It i s n o t a d e t a i l e d description,
b u t being formulated i n terms more f a n i l i a r than
t h e theory of Reference 1, i t may be easier t o
see how t h e a t t r a c t i v e force arises i n t h e u n i -
f i e d f i e l d . It also serves t o emphasize what
features are s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h e mechanism o f t h e
f o r c e ' s generati on.
He f i r s t consider a s i n g l e p a r t i c l e of mass
M imnersed i n an i d e a l gas and i n thermal e q u i l i -
brium w i t h t h e gas a t absolute temperature T.
The p a r t i c l e i s subject to no other f o r c e s than
those due t o c o l l i s i o n s o f t h e molecules o f t h e
gas, which are assumed t o have mass m and a l l t o
move w i t h speed v. He assume that m M. The
molecules i n t e r a c t s t r o n g l y w i t h t h e l a r g e par-
t i c l e and very weakly w i t h one another. We w i l l
30
show below t h a t t h e speed o f t h e molecules o f the
gas, as well as the density of the gas, must,
c o n t r a r y t o t h e i n i t i a l assumption, vary through-
out the gas volume.
The speed o f each molecule i s given by 3
and of t h e large, massive, p a r t i c l e by
v- (3kT/M)'h (@I
so t h a t
I n a s i n g l e c o l l i s i o n between a molecule and the
l a r g e mass, t h e r a t i o o f t h e changes i n speeds,
r v l A V i s i n t h e r a t i o M/m. Thus on the aver-
age, t h e massive p a r t i c l e i s e s s e n t i a l l y a t r e s t
and gains very l i t t l e i n speed i n any s i n g l e c o l -
l i s i o n ; m u l t i p l e c o l l i s i o n s lead t o t h e condition
sumnarized i n equation A3. again e s s e n t i a l l y a
r e s t condition. Moreover, m u l t i p l e c o l l i s i o n s
with molecules i s e s s e n t i a l l y s y m e t r i c as f a r as
t h e l a r g e p a r t i c l e i s concerned, so t h a t the
l a r g e p a r t i c l e tends to remain i n a s i n g l e loca-
tion. The s i t u a t i o n i s very d i f f e r e n t f o r each
c o l l i d i n g molecule since i t i s brought n e a r l y t o
r e s t wit,h every c o l l i s i o n w i t h the l a r F p a r t i -
cle. Since t h e pressure o f the gas p a t any
p o i n t i s given by
p= -Ls ' v s
twhere P
h e mo ecules (i.e.
r e f e r s t o t h e average mass density of
f = m. where n i s equal
t o the nunber o f mole ules per u n i t volume),
J
there i s implied a reduction i n pressure i n t h e
neighborhood o f t h e l a r g e p a r t i c l e and consequent
flow of molecules toward t h e p a r t i c l e . Assuming
thermal e q u i l i b r i u m to continue t o hold, the
pressure near t h e massive p a r t i c l e can o n l y
increase i f t h e p a r t i c l e d e n s i t y increases. Once
e q u i l i b r i u m i n mass f l o w has been established, we
can expect t h a t the increase i n d e n s i t y over the
o r i g i n a l d e n s i t y i s e f f e c t i v e over. approxi-
mately, several mean free path lengths of the
molecules. The mean f r e e path L varies invers-
e l y as t h e density o f t h e gas f .
Let us now consider a configuration o f two
massive p a r t i c l e s imnersed i n an i d e a l gas, under
t h e same conditions o r i g i n a l l y postulated f o r t h e
s i n g l e p a r t i c l e above. He w i l l , i n addition,
assume t h a t t h e p a r t i c l e d e n s i t y d i s t r i b u t i m
corresponding t o a s t a t e o f thermal e q u i l i b r i u m
e x i s t s separately for each massive p a r t i c l e ,
without perturbation by t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n associ-
ated w i t h the other p a r t i c l e . This assumptim,
as a f i r s t approximation, i n t h e s p i r i t o f the
discussion above for a s i n g l e massive p a r t i c l e ,
corresponds t o t h e p r i n c i p l e o f l i n e a r superposi-
t i o n f o r t h e u n i f i e d f i e l d . L i k e t h e assumption
made i n t h e preceding discussion f o r the s i n g l e
p a r t i c l e , i t leads t o a f u r t h e r mass flow.
For each p a r t i c l e senses a departure f r a n
t h e e q u i l i b r i u n condition o f gas density which
would e x i s t i f i t were the o n l y l a r g e p a r t i c l e i n 3
 t h e gas. To r e - e s t a b l i s h t h i s condition, 'there I n equation (D), i t has been assumed that
must be a mass f l o w from each element of volume
toward each o f t h e l a r g e p a r t i c l e s u n t i l a sym-
m e t r i c d e n s i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h smaller mean
free path (due t o t h e increased density) and a
l
i smaller region In which t h e d e n s i t y varies i s
established. The r e a c t i o n upon t h e l a r g e p a r t i - An elenentary s o l u t i o n o f (83) i s
cles, o f canpelling t h i s mass flow, i s a force ef(ko'F w*to)e-u* where X z =
u r g i n g the p a r t i c l e s toward one another, t a k i n g
i n t o account t h e symnetry o f t h e processes
ki - %/e2, so t h a t the e f f e c t i v e dianeter @
act ing . o t h e m a i n o f f(n,ro.po)
o f qgngnttude I/& 2 x . i n n is o f t h e order
That is, t h e f i x t o r
e- X governs t h e amplitude o f t h e
Appendix B elementary solution, w i t h

By means o f Rayleigh's method3', i t i s &-.

.I I/cr-P (65)
p o s s i b l e to gain f u r t h e r i n s i g h t i n t o t h e r o l e But 0- measures t h e e f f e c t i v e range o f t h e
played by randm phase s h i f t s i n generating t h a t
Downloaded by KUNGLIGA TEKNISKA HOGSKOLEN KTH on November 12, 2015 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.1981-1608

property of matter-radiation known as i n e r t i a . i n e r t i a l notion; hence, i t f o l l o w s t h a t X ( o r

t h e i n e r t i a 7 mass WI,, 1 i s i n v e r s e l y propor-
L e t N denote t h e t o t a l number Qf canbina- t f o n a l t o (approximately)

e.,
w i t h r e s u l t a n t (xo. yo. 20, i c t o )
(SO&.
-
t i o n s o f n independent u n i t sinusoidal motions
Q. (see footnote of Section 12)
i) t h e square r o o t o f t h e maximum e f f e c t i v e
value of n. and
and l e t
ii) t h e d i m e t e r o f t h e d m a i n o f t h e
A/ FCnA3,s
,*b*odpd@ at#Q!J i n e r t i a l motion.

denote t h e number of combinations l v i n o i n the Appendix C

i n t e r v a l xo, xo+dxo, yo,~~+dyo.~O,zO+ &o,icto+
d(icto). It i s assumed t h a t t h e phases of t h e
v i b r a t i o n s are d i s t r i b u t e d randomly and t h a t both Although t h e f o l l o w i n g considerations admit
N and n are large. o f a more general formulation. t h e analysis w i l l
be d i r e c t e d toward equations o f the type featured
l e t P(xo.yo,zo,icto) be t h e coordinates of a
i n t h i s work:
p o i n t a f t e r each of t h e N canbinations has r e -
ceived one a d d i t i o n a l vibration. so t h a t n OVCPa,+, Wl*,+) (C1)
L increases t o n+l. Then before t h e addition, the The a p p l i c s t l o n t o t h e equations sanetimes
coordinates o f P must have been introduced i n t h e analysis o f Brownian motion
8;- )la-s.atrr64.d
Po-?*

a-- sa
ng." 30 -s. s f n q s i q 4 a I M T .
*ind,,cbsp,
(81)
%'' (i.e. langevin's equation, where i$ i so the
t&'= tC..--so &=N. p o s i t i o n vector o f t h e Brownian p a r t i c l e , p is
a constant, and A ( t ) i s a f l u c t u a t i n g vector
function), w i l l be evident.
and the number i n t h e volume element
dxodyodzod(icto) a f t e r t h e addition, and averag- L e t i t be supposed that,sme boundary condl-
i n g over phases, must be given by t h e l e f t side tiy has been assigned t o V(r.t) f o r t h e p o i n t
Of
~ . one may i n d i c a t e t h e dependence
r = ~ - ~ , ~ t = tThen
N ~s.d&.A@d.lGW/,%; $,rWD, o f V ( r , t ) on t h i s choice by s e t t i n g
4FfHI,**,*,3-.&WJ9 dgf(tk&) V @ , t h V~*,*;Z.*d (C3)
But, upon expanding F(n,xo.yo,zo.icto) in a Any m b i g u i t introduced by the n o t a t i o n I n t r o -
power series about t h e p o i n t (xo,yo,ro.icto) and duced i n (C33. w i l l be avoided by always i n d i c a t -
c a r r y i n g o u t t h e I n d i c a t e d average, one f i n d s i n g t h e arguments o f t h e f u n c t i o n under
t h a t only t e r n s quadratic i n t h e v a r i a b l e s discussion.
.
remain Further, expand 1ng F( n+l ,no .yo. 10.1 c t o)
i n a power series i n t h e neighborhood o f n , and One thenaimagines t h e motion of t h e poten-
equating quadratic terms f i g u r i n g i n (B2). one t i a l f i e l d V(r.t) constantly interrupted, each,
finds time beginning a new w i t h d i f f e r e n t values o f ro
and to. such t h a t
<*.>,a 0
(C4)
<%>,-O
 ~

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