Resources, Conservation and Recycling 41 (2004) 293–306

An overview of waste materials recycling in the

Sultanate of Oman
R. Taha∗ , A. Al-Rawas, K. Al-Jabri, A. Al-Harthy,
H. Hassan, S. Al-Oraimi
Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, Sultan Qaboos University,
P.O. Box 33, Al-Khod, PC 123, Oman

Received 8 November 2002; received in revised form 25 September 2003; accepted 31 October 2003

Abstract

Various wastes and by-product materials are generated in the Sultanate of Oman including reclaimed
asphalt pavement (RAP) aggregate, demolition concrete, cement by-pass dust (CBPD), copper slag,
petroleum-contaminated soils (PCS), discarded tires, incinerator ash, and others. Recycling of such
materials in construction is not practiced. Research data are also minimal into the potential use of
selected materials in construction applications. This paper will present the results of several laboratory
studies conducted into the use of PCS in asphalt concrete mixtures; on the use of CBPD in soil
stabilization and flowable fill mixtures; on the utilization of copper slag and CBPD as cementitious
materials; on the use of incinerator ash in cement mortars; and on the use of RAP aggregate in road
bases and sub-bases. Laboratory data generally indicate that it is feasible to partially reuse some of
these materials in construction provided that economic incentives and environmental concerns are
taken into consideration.
© 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Waste; By-product; Recycling; Construction; Cementitious; Environment; Oman

1. Introduction

Environmental protection is of great concern in many countries. Environmental regula-

tions are getting more stringent and the tolerance in allowing old techniques of industrial
waste disposal is getting narrower. Recycling of certain waste and by-product materials

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rtaha@squ.edu.om (R. Taha).

0921-3449/$ – see front matter © 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2003.10.005
294 R. Taha et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 41 (2004) 293–306

has become a viable option to be considered in road and building construction. There is
a wealth of data available in the literature on the use of by-product materials in various
applications (Al-Amoudi et al., 1996; Al-Harthy and Taha, 2002; Al-Rawas et al., 2002;
Garg and Thompson, 1996; Konsta-Gdoutos et al., 2002; Lin and Zhang, 1992; Meegoda
and Muller, 1993; Maher and Popp, 1997; Taha et al., 2000; Taha et al., 2001; Taha et al.,
2002).

2. Waste management in Oman

The Sultanate of Oman is an arid country located in the Arabian Peninsula. It has an area of
309,500 km2 with a total population of 2,400,000. Oman’s annual production of solid waste
is about 900,000 tons. There are over 350 waste disposal sites around Oman. Most of these
sites are not properly designed as engineered landfills. Major sources of non-hazardous solid
waste include food and organic products (53%), glass (6.5%), plastic (12.5%), metal (6%),
paper and cardboard (13%) and construction (9%). Various industrial waste materials are
also generated in the country including cement by-pass dust (CBPD) (25,000–30,000 tons
per year), petroleum-contaminated soils (PCS) (19,000 tons per year), and copper slag
(60,000 tons per year). Although the Sultanate of Oman has many environmental laws in
place including one Royal Decree on the conservation of the environment and prevention
of pollution and other Ministerial decisions that regulate the management of non-hazardous
and hazardous wastes, recycling of solid and industrial wastes in not practiced.
Impediments to recycling materials in Oman are many. There are generally no experiences
or studies available concerning the use of such materials as potential substitutes for virgin
aggregates, cement, or sand. Economics of recycling may not well work in all parts of
Oman as the country is rich in mineral and aggregate resources. Also, there are currently
no laws or regulations that specifically encourage the reuse of such materials. Furthermore,
there are no standard specifications regarding the use of non-traditional materials such as
copper slag, cement by-pass dust, reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) aggregate and others
in construction. Finally, contractors are reluctant to use such materials if there no incentives
to do so or have no prior experience with their performance.
In summary, successful recycling of solid and industrial wastes in Oman would require
more economic, environmental and field-based studies. In addition, specification changes,
laws to encourage or mandate recycling, and providing incentives for reuse are necessary
elements to consider in the final analysis.

3. Objective

The main objective of this paper is to present the results of laboratory studies conducted
into the use of:

(a) petroleum-contaminated soils in asphalt concrete mixtures;

(b) cement by-pass dust in soil stabilization;
(c) cement by-pass dust in flowable fill mixtures;
 R. Taha et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 41 (2004) 293–306 295

(d) copper slag and cement by-pass dust as cementitious materials;

(e) incinerator ash in cement mortars; and
(f) reclaimed asphalt pavement aggregate in road bases and sub-bases.

4. Petroleum-contaminated soils use in asphalt concrete mixtures

Petroleum-contaminated soils (PCS) consist of natural sands, silts, and clays mixed with
petroleum products. In oil-producing countries, PCS are produced as a result of oil spills
on clean sand or from the clean-up of oil tanks. In Oman, more than 19,000 tons of PCS are
generated annually. The present method of treating such materials is land farming. Sludge
farms have been provided at Fahud and Marmul oil fields. The objective of this process is
to reduce the oil content below 3%. However, land farming is not entirely efficient as this
oil content target in the treated soil is not always met.
In this application, PCS were investigated for use as fine aggregates in hot mix asphalt
concrete (HMAC) mixtures. Initially, aggregate blending was performed as to meet the
Omanian specifications for a class B asphalt concrete wearing course. Fig. 1 shows various
aggregate blending curves for the three mixtures (0, 10, and 20% PCS) along with the upper
and lower limits band requirements for a class B HMAC. The use of up to 20% PCS in the
mix did not pose any problems in meeting aggregate blending requirements.
The Marshall mix design method (ASTM D1559) was used in the preparation of HMAC
samples. Three samples were prepared for each asphalt content. Tests conducted include
bulk specific gravity, Rice specific gravity, stability, and flow. Parameters calculated include
unit weight, percent air voids (AV), percent voids in mineral aggregate (VMA), and percent
voids filled with asphalt (VFA). A summary of test results is presented in Table 1. The
stability of the control mix (0% PCS) was higher than the 10 and 20% PCS-substituted
mixes. However, such mixes still met the minimum stability requirement of 14 kN for a
Class B HMAC wearing course. The flow values for the PCS mixes were higher than the
control mix but still within the allowable specifications. The VMA for the 20% PCS mix
(14.8%) was slightly lower than an allowable minimum specification value of 15%. The

Fig. 1. Aggregate blending curves for class B hot mix asphalt concrete.
296 R. Taha et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 41 (2004) 293–306

Table 1
Summary of asphalt concrete mix design data
Asphalt concrete property Allowable specificationsa Control 10% PCS 20% PCS

Density (g/cm3 ) None 2.490 2.480 2.485

Stability (kN) 14 (min) 20.2 18.0 17.0
AV (%) 3.5–5.5 5.0 4.1 5.0
VMA (%) 15 (min) 15.2 15.5 14.8
VFA (%) 63–75 67 72 65
Flow (mm) 2–4 3.1 4.0 4.0
Optimum AC (%) 3.5–5.5 4.3 4.4 3.7
a Omanian specifications for a class B asphalt concrete wearing course.

optimum asphalt content for the 20% PCS mix was 3.7%, which is lower than the control
mix (4.3%). This could result in cost savings per ton of asphalt concrete produced. The mix
design data generally indicate that it would be feasible to use petroleum-contaminated soils
in asphalt concrete mixtures.

5. Use of cement by-pass dust in soil stabilization

Cement by-pass dust (CBPD) or cement kiln dust is a by-product of the manufacture
of Portland cement. It is generated during the calcining process in the kiln. Total lime
(CaO) constitutes more than 60% of CBPD composition. Oman Cement Company (OCC)
generates about 25,000–30,000 tons of CBPD every year. Some CBPD is recycled back
with the clinker. However, most of the material is disposed of on-site without any further
reuse or reclamation.
In this application, CBPD was investigated for use as a stabilizing material of an inorganic
silt with high plasticity (MH). The soil is also classified as A-7-6 soil in accordance with
the AASHTO classification system. The soil consists of 40% gravel and sand, 40% silt, and
20% clay. The soil showed a relatively high plasticity index of 20.4% and a clay activity of
1.03. The soil is also characterized by the presence of high content of montmorillonite clay
minerals (∼43%), high cation exchange capacity (∼70 meq/100 g), high content of sodium
cation (∼41%), and low content of calcium cation (∼6%).
The soil was stabilized with 0, 3, 6, and 9% CBPD. Mixtures were subjected to the
following tests: (1) Atterberg limits, (2) pH, (3) compaction, (4) California bearing ratio
(CBR), (5) swell percent, and (6) swell pressure. Table 2 presents the pH and Atterberg

Table 2
Physical properties of cement by-pass dust stabilized soil mixtures
Mixture pH Liquid limit (%) Plastic limit (%) Plasticity index (%)

Untreated soil 9.3 49.9 29.5 20.4

3% CBPD 10.9 65.2 37.6 27.6
6% CBPD 11.0 60.4 40.7 19.7
9% CBPD 11.1 56.3 38.9 17.4
 R. Taha et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 41 (2004) 293–306 297

Fig. 2. Compaction curves for cement by-pass dust stabilized soil mixtures.

limits data obtained on the four mixtures. Tests were conducted in accordance with ASTM
D4318. The data indicate that as CBPD content increases, the pH values tend to increase
although not significantly. The initial increase in pH from 9.3 (untreated soil) to 10.9 (3%
CBPD) is appreciable. This is primarily due to the lime presence in CBPD. The dust addition
to the soil also seems to increase the liquid and plastic limits while the plasticity index tends
to decrease. The only exception is the soil stabilized with 3% CBPD where there was an
increase in the plasticity index value. This indicates that higher additions of CBPD will be
more beneficial in stabilizing expansive soils. This is probably due to the higher release rate
of Ca++ , Si++ , and Al+++ cations with increased CBPD usage.
Modified Proctor compaction tests (ASTM D1557) were conducted on the four mixtures
(Fig. 2). Generally, there is a slight decrease in the optimum moisture content and maximum
dry density values with the addition of CBPD. A reduction in dry unit weight is generally
expected for soil-lime mixtures when compared with untreated soils (Little et al., 1987).
CBPD stabilized soil exhibited a similar trend.
The California bearing ratio (CBR) test (ASTM D1883) was conducted on the four mix-
tures. In this test, the CBR of a compacted soil is determined by comparing the penetration
load of the tested soil to that of a standard high quality crushed stone rock. A summary
of the CBR and swelling results are presented in Table 3. The data indicate that as CBPD
content is increased, there is an increase in the CBR and a decrease in swelling.

Table 3
California bearing ratio test results for cement by-pass dust stabilized soil mixtures
Mixture type California bearing ratio (%) Swelling (%)

Untreated soil 0.7 3.8

3% CBPD 4.5 2.3
6% CBPD 10.9 0.2
9% CBPD 13.1 0.1
298 R. Taha et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 41 (2004) 293–306

Table 4
Swelling potential test results for cement by-pass dust stabilized soil mixtures
Mixture Swell percent Total swell pressure (kPa)

Untreated Soil 11.6 249.0

3% CBPD 5.1 259.2
6% CBPD 6.9 261.6
9% CBPD 4.1 202.3

There is no standard procedure acceptable universally for carrying out swell percent
and swell pressure testing. However, the loaded-swell and constant volume methods are
commonly referred to for measuring swell percent and swell pressure, respectively. Swell
percent is a measure of the vertical deformation of a soil sample when its’ moisture content
increases. Swell pressure is the pressure needed to bring the soil sample back to its’ original
height after swelling or the pressure needed to keep the sample’s volume constant when
water is added to it. A summary of the swell percent and swell pressure data is presented in
Table 4. The untreated soil exhibited a relatively high swell percent (∼11.6%). Generally,
there is a decrease in swelling as CBPD content is increased. Soil stabilized with 9% CBPD
produced the least swelling (a reduction of 65%). This is primarily due to the release of
more silica, alumina, and calcium oxide at higher CBPD contents. Also, for the soil sample
stabilized with 9% CBPD, the swell pressure value was lower than those soil samples
stabilized with 3 and 6% CBPD and significantly lower than the value obtained for the
untreated soil.

6. Use of cement by-pass dust in flowable fill mixtures

A flowable fill can be defined as an engineered backfill material containing fine aggre-
gates, Portland cement, water and a by-product material. Flowable fills are characterized by
very high workability and low density and strength, which allow for self-compaction. They
are widely used in backfilling applications and other road-cuts, but can also be used for road
bases, mud slabs and slope stabilization. By-product materials such as fly ash, ground gran-
ulated blast furnace slag (ggbfs), and waste foundry sand are usually used in flowable fill
mixes in order to reduce the cost and ensure low maximum compressive strengths. Flowable
fill reduces construction costs since no vibration or tamping is required to compact the ma-
terial as well as it limits settlement and eliminates maintenance costs. Other benefits gained
from using flowable fills are improved worker safety because trench exposure is limited,
better durability because it’s less permeable than compacted granular backfills, and it can
be used in hard-to-reach places. For design and application purposes, flowable fill materials
usually have a compressive strength of 8274 kPa or less. However, most current flowable fill
applications require a 28-day compressive strength of 689.5 kPa or less. The lower strength
requirement allows for future excavation with conventional excavation equipment.
A literature search indicated that the most widely used industrial waste material in flow-
able fill applications is fly ash, whereas other materials, such as CBPD and copper slag are
not used so far. Thus, in order to investigate the effect of using CBPD on the properties
 R. Taha et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 41 (2004) 293–306 299

Table 5
Description of mix proportions and measured slump values
Material (mixture no.) Mix 1 Mix 2 Mix 3 Mix 4 Mix 5

Cement (kg/m3 ) 30 30 47 45 0
CBPD (kg/m3 ) 0 148 249 82 296
Sand (kg/m3 ) 1.779 1.726 1.503 1.261 1.503
Water (kg/m3 ) 394 297 333 454 333
W/C 13.13 9.90 7.09 10.09 0.00
W/(C + CBPD) 13.13 1.67 1.13 3.57 1.13
Slump (mm) 198 55 248 235 235

of flowable fills, mortars were prepared using cement (C), water (W), sand, and differ-
ent proportions of CBPD with W/(C + CBPD) ratios ranging from 1.13 to 13.13. Table 5
presents a description of the different mixtures prepared in the testing program. Twelve
cubes (70.7 mm × 70.7 mm × 70.7 mm) were cast for each mixture and three samples each
were tested after 7, 14, 28, and 56 days of curing. The main purpose for keeping the samples
for a longer curing period of 56 days is to observe any detrimental effect from the use of
CBPD on the compressive strength of flowable fills. From the five mixes prepared, two
mixes were selected as the optimum mixes.
Results shown in Fig. 3 indicate that the strength of the trial mixes varies quite significantly
because of the considerable difference in the amount of water added to reach the required
slump. The quantities of materials used in each mix would also influence the strength and
slump values. All trial mixes met the required 28-day compressive strength of less than
8275 kPa despite the major variation in strength among these mixes. For all mixes, no
detrimental effect (strength reversal) was observed from CBPD addition. Mix 3 gave the
highest strength, while Mix 1 yielded the lowest strength due to the high water-to-binder
ratio used. Mixes 3 and 5 were chosen as the optimum mixes because of their 28-day

3000

2500
Compressive Strength (kPa)

2000

1500 Mix 1

Mix 2
1000
Mix 3

Mix 4
500
Mix 5

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Curing Period (Days)

Fig. 3. Effect of cement by-pass dust addition on the compressive strength of flowable fill mixtures.
300 R. Taha et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 41 (2004) 293–306

strength values, which were within the recommended limits of 350–3500 kPa, and because
their slump values were acceptable. Although Mix 2 achieved the required strength, it
was discarded from the study due to its low workability. Experimental results showed a
promising future with respect to the use of CBPD in flowable fill applications. However, to
draw comprehensive conclusions, field studies should be conducted in order to investigate
the effects of natural factors such as temperature and humidity on the potential use of CBPD
as a partial replacement for Portland cement in flowable fill applications.

7. Use of Copper slag and cement by-pass dust as cementitious materials

Copper slag (CS) is a by-product material generated from the process of manufacturing
copper. As the copper settles down in the smelter, as it has a higher density, impurities
stay in the top layer and then are transported to a water basin with a low temperature for
solidification. The end product is a solid, hard material that goes to the crusher for further
processing. Oman Mining Company (OMC) produces an annual average of 60,000 tons of
CS. The slag is not effectively utilized although some of this product is used commercially
as an abrasive material to remove paints and other paint-like materials.
In this application, CS and CBPD were investigated for use as partial replacements
for Portland cement in mortar mixtures. Physical properties of ordinary Portland cement
(OPC), CS, and CBPD are presented in Table 6. The data indicate that CBPD has the highest
fineness (i.e. surface area), which is advantageous when considering using such material
as a cementitious material, but at the same time it will demand a higher water content,
whereas CS has the lowest fineness, which is a characteristic of low surface area. Also, the
initial setting time for CS powder alone is delayed by more than double the time of the
initial setting determined for OPC, although the initial setting time for CBPD is delayed
by approximately 40 min. This is primarily due to the low CaO content (6.1%) present in
copper slag, whereas CBPD is characterized by high total CaO content (63.8%).
Chemical analyses of CS, CBPD, and OPC are presented in Table 7. Total CaO content
contributes to nearly 63% of the chemical composition of OPC and CBPD, whereas CS
has a very low CaO content of approximately 6%. This indicates that CS alone is not
chemically a very reactive material to be used as a cementitious material because sufficient
quantity of CaO must be available to achieve the required rate of hydration and to achieve
the required early age strength. On the other hand, CS has high concentrations of SiO2 and
Fe2 O3 compared with OPC and CBPD.
Various mortar mixtures were prepared using combinations of sand, water, lime, OPC,
CS, and CBPD. Mortars were designed in accordance with Omanian standard (OS26-1981).

Table 6
Physical properties of copper slag, ordinary Portland cement and cement by-pass dust
Test type (material) Copper slag Ordinary Portland cement Cement by-pass dust

Fineness (cm2 /g) 1.261 3.357 4.824

Specific gravity 3.45 3.15 2.4
Initial setting time (min) 250 110 150
 R. Taha et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 41 (2004) 293–306 301

Table 7
Chemical composition of copper slag, ordinary Portland cement and cement by-pass dust
Component Copper Ordinary portland Cement by-pass
slag (%) cement (%) dust (%)
SiO2 33.05 20.85 15.84
Al2 O3 2.79 4.78 3.57
Fe2 O3 53.45 3.51 2.76
CaO 6.06 63.06 63.76
MgO 1.56 2.32 1.93
SO3 1.89 2.48 1.65
K2 O 0.61 0.55 2.99
Na2 O 0.28 0.24 0.33
TiO2 0 0.25 0.48
Mn2 O3 0.06 0.05 0.07
CI 0.01 0.01 1.09
Loss on ignition 0 1.75 5.38
IR 0 0.21 0
CuO 0 0 0
Al2 O3 + SiO2 + Fe2 O3 89.29 29.14 22.17

A water-to-binder ratio of 0.4 was used. The specified cube compressive strength values for
cement mortars are 15 and 23 MPa at 3 and 7 days, respectively. Fig. 4 shows the optimum
compressive strengths obtained from the different mixes along with the compressive strength
of the control mixture (i.e. OPC + sand + water). Fig. 4 indicates that the compressive
strengths for cement mortars obtained using CS alone or when using lime as an activator are
generally lower than the compressive strength of the control mix. However, the use of CBPD
as a partial replacement for OPC or as an activator for CS has resulted in an improvement in
the compressive strength of cement mortars at all curing ages. The compressive strength is
higher than that of the control mix. Thus, Fig. 4 suggests that CBPD would perform better
than CS in concrete when utilized as a partial Portland cement replacement. Also, the use
of CBPD as an activating agent with CS would enhance quite significantly the compressive

45
Compressive Strength (MPa)

40

35

30
Control

25 5%CS
5% CBPD
20 1.5% lime+3.5%CS
1.5% CBPD + 13.5% CS
15
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Curing Time (Days)

Fig. 4. Comparison between the effect of different materials on the compressive strength of cement mortars.
302 R. Taha et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 41 (2004) 293–306

strength of cement mortars. Among all mixes, the mix containing 5% CBPD + 95% OPC
yielded the highest 90 days compressive strength of 41.7 MPa in comparison with 40 MPa
for the mix containing 1.5% CBPD + 13.5% CS + 85% OPC.

8. Use of incinerator ash in cement mortars

Incinerator ash results from burning municipal solid waste and has two components,
bottom ash and fly ash. Bottom ash and fly ash constitute approximately 80 and 20%,
respectively of the total burnt ash (Rivard-Lentz et al., 1997). Considerable research work
has been carried out on the reuse of bottom ash and fly ash as individual materials; however,
it appears that there is little work published on the use of combined incinerator ash. This
study investigated the potential use of incinerator ash as a partial replacement for cement
or sand in mortars.
The incinerator ash used in this work was collected over a period of one week from
the incinerator compound of Sultan Qaboos University (SQU) in order to examine the
variability of its physical ad chemical properties. The grain size distribution of five samples
showed that the ash falls in the sand size range (0.075–4.75 mm). The specific gravity and
fineness of the incinerator ash were 2.73 and 4300 cm2 /g, respectively. A chemical analysis
was performed to determine the silica, alumina, iron, and calcium oxide contents in the ash.
All tests were performed in accordance with Omanian Standard OS25-1979. The total sum
of the silica, alumina, and iron oxide for four samples ranged from 48.44 to 51.95% with
an average of 49.95%. The ash falls under Class C fly ash according to ASTM Standard
C618 (1980). Chemical tests also showed that arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium and
lead were present and none of them exceeded the USEPA threshold limits. Therefore,
SQUs incinerator ash was categorized as a non-hazardous waste. Ordinary Portland Cement
was brought from OCC. The specific gravity and fineness of the cement were 3.15 and
3357 cm2 /g, respectively. The sand used in this study was obtained from Al-Khod area. It
passed 850 ␮m sieve and retained on 600 ␮m sieve. The specific gravity of the sand is 2.65.
In the testing program, two sets of mixes were prepared. For the first set, cement and water
quantities were fixed while incinerator ash was used at 0, 10, 20, 30 and 40% replacement by
weight for sand. In the second set, incinerator ash was used at 0, 10, 20 and 30% replacement
by weight for cement while sand and water quantities were kept constant. The cement, sand,
and water mixing proportions were 1:3:0.7, respectively. Mortars were prepared according to
Omanian Standard OS26-1981. Specimens were compacted in three layers using a vibrating
table. After 24 h, specimens were removed from the molds and submerged in a water tank for
testing at 3, 7, 14 and 28 days. Twelve cubes (70.7 mm×70.7 mm×70.7 mm) were prepared
for each incinerator ash content (three samples for each curing period) for compressive
strength and density determination. A total of 96 cubes were tested in this study. The physical
tests performed on the mortar samples included slump (ASTM C143-98), compressive
strength (Omanian Standard OS26-1981), and density (ASTM C642-97).
Table 8 presents the data obtained on those mixes where incinerator ash was substituted
for sand (first set). The workability of the mixes decreased with an increase in ash content.
A slump of zero mm was obtained at 30% incinerator ash substitution for sand. Specimens
containing up to 30% incinerator ash produced higher compressive strength values than the
 R. Taha et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 41 (2004) 293–306 303

Table 8
Test results obtained on mixes where incinerator ash was used as a replacement for sand and cement
Percent ash Slump Compressive strength (N/mm2 ) Density (kg/m3 )
replacement (mm)
3 days 7 days 14 days 28 days 3 days 7 days 14 days 28 days

Sand replacement
0 89 11.7 22.1 25.4 30.5 2.254 2.268 2.278 2.274
10 76 15.9 25.8 30.5 34.8 2.194 2.170 2.167 2.124
20 25 17.5 26.1 31.2 36.4 2.139 2.139 2.124 2.124
30 0 19.7 26.5 30.9 31.3 2.069 2.070 2.055 2.056
40 0 20.0 25.8 24.7 35.2 2.028 2.014 2.014 2.027
Cement replacement
0 64 13.2 18.0 22.2 27.3 2.151 2.163 2.205 2.167
10 55 12.0 16.8 20.3 24.5 2.181 2.194 2.181 2.222
20 75 12.2 18.0 25.2 27.4 2.165 2.212 2.165 2.198
30 70 10.8 16.8 18.8 NA∗ 2.125 2.083 2.097 NA∗
∗ NA: not available.

control mix (0% incinerator ash) for all curing periods, whereas specimens containing 40%
incinerator ash showed higher compressive strength results only for 3, 7, and 28 days curing
periods. Based on the 28 days strength results alone, the 20% incinerator ash replacement
for sand produced a maximum strength value of 36.4 N/mm2 . The compressive strength
in these mixes is attributed to both the continued hydration of Portland cement and the
pozzolanic reactions between the incinerator ash and the calcium hydroxide component of
Portland cement. The density decreases with an increase in ash content (Table 8) due to the
low specific gravity of the incinerator ash.
Table 8 also shows the results obtained on those mixes where incinerator ash was sub-
stituted for cement (second set). At 10% incinerator ash, the slump value of 55 mm was
lower than that of the control mix (64 mm), whereas at 20 and 30% ash replacement for
cement, the slump values were higher (75 and 70 mm, respectively). Specimens containing
20% incinerator ash replacement for cement produced a slightly lower compressive strength
than the control mix after 3 days curing period. Higher strength values were obtained at
14 and 28 days curing periods. Specimens with 10 and 30% incinerator ash yielded lower
compressive strength values than the control mix. A maximum strength of 27.4 N/mm2
was determined for 20% ash replacement for cement after 28 days of curing. The density
decreases with an increase in ash content (Table 8).

9. Use of reclaimed asphalt pavement aggregate in road bases and sub-bases

Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) is a bituminous pavement that have been recovered,
usually by milling, and is to be used in part or as a whole in a new pavement by mixing it
with other virgin aggregate or asphalt, cement, lime, or other materials. Recycling of RAP
in Oman and neighboring countries could be become economically attractive because of
aggregate shortage in certain regions and because of major road rehabilitation, which would
provide the RAP aggregate for reuse.
304 R. Taha et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 41 (2004) 293–306

Table 9
Physical properties of RAP and virgin aggregates
Property RAP Virgin aggregate

Moisture content (%) 0.23 0.86

Specific gravity (SSD) 2.12 ND∗
Water absorption (%) 1.0 ND∗
Sand equivalent (%) 97 67
Los angeles abrasion (%) 33.6 18.8
∗ ND: not determined.

In this application, RAP and virgin aggregate blends were evaluated for use as road
base and sub-base materials for highway construction. Sieve analyses were performed on
RAP and virgin aggregates in accordance with AASHTO T27. Testing showed that RAP
was classified as well-graded gravel (GW), whereas virgin aggregate was a mixture of
well-graded sands and gravelly sands with little or no fines (SW). Both RAP and virgin
aggregates were essentially non-plastic. Table 9 presents a summary of the moisture content,
specific gravity, water absorption, sand equivalent, and toughness data obtained on both
materials.
Various blends were prepared using 100/0, 80/20, 60/40, 20/80, and 0/100% RAP to virgin
aggregates. Compaction testing was performed by the modified Proctor testing procedure
(AASHTO T180). Fig. 5 indicates the relationships between dry density and moisture
content for all mixes. As more RAP aggregate is added to a blend, the maximum dry
density tends to decrease. The maximum dry density of 100% RAP aggregate was about
83% of the maximum density of 100% virgin aggregate.
California bearing ratio (CBR) testing was also conducted on the above blends. The
objective of this test is to determine the bearing value of soils and soil-aggregate mixtures
when they are compacted in the laboratory at their optimum moisture contents. The test
was performed in accordance with AASHTO T193. However, the test was conducted on

2.3

2.2
Dry Density (g/cm3)

2.1

1.9 100% RAP

80% RAP
60% RAP
1.8
40% RAP
20% RAP
1.7
100% Virgin Agg.

1.6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Moisture Content (%)

Fig. 5. Compaction results for different RAP and virgin aggregate mixtures.
 R. Taha et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 41 (2004) 293–306 305

120

100

80
CBR (%)

60

40

20

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
% RAP in Mix

Fig. 6. California bearing ratio values of various RAP and virgin aggregate blends.

unsoaked specimens and CBR values were calculated based on the standard virgin aggregate
used in the testing program. CBR values obtained on all blends are presented in Fig. 6. A
low CBR value of 11% was determined for 100% RAP aggregate. As the percentage of
virgin aggregate in the mix increases, the CBR value increases. When 20% virgin aggregate
is added to RAP, the CBR value increases to 26%. Possible reasons for this increase in CBR
may be due to better load transfer among between particles of the virgin aggregate and
the slip surfaces developed between the asphalt-coated particles of the RAP. Furthermore,
as virgin aggregate content in the blend increases, better interlocking between aggregate
particles will develop. This will lead to further increases in the shear strength of the blend.

10. Conclusions

Different wastes and by-product materials are produced in the Sultanate of Oman. Such
materials include reclaimed asphalt pavement aggregate, cement by-pass dust, copper slag,
petroleum-contaminated soils, incinerator ash, and others. Recycling of such materials in
road and building construction is not practiced. Promising laboratory results indicate the po-
tential reuse of such materials in asphalt concrete paving mixtures, road bases and sub-bases,
soil stabilization, and as cementitious materials. Successful utilization of such materials
would require more detailed economic and environmental analyses.

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