DOI: 10.1002/fuce.
200600052
Fuel Cell or Battery:
Electric Cars are the Future
J. Van Mierlo1*, and G. Maggetto2
1
Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Department of Electrical Engineering and Energy Technology (ETEC), Pleinlaan 2, BE-1050 Brussels, Belgium
2
AVERE, European Association for Battery, Hybrid and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles, Pleinlaan 2, BE-1050 Brussels, Belgium
Received December 19, 2006, accepted March 2, 2007
Abstract
Battery and hybrid vehicles are today’s sustainable mobility
solutions, preparing a future shared with a hydrogen econ-
omy. The summary report of the EU High Level Group for
Hydrogen and Fuel Cells, presented in June 2003, develops
a vision on the contribution that hydrogen and fuel cells
could make to the realization of sustainable energy systems
in the future [1].
However, it seems necessary to emphasize that, as it is a
long-term vision (2000-2050), there is a need to take strong
action in the short- and medium-term in order to address
current environmental and energy concerns.
As stated in the Commission’s November 2000 Green
Paper on security of supply [2], in 1998 energy consumption
in the transport sector was responsible for 28% of the emis-
sions of CO2, the main greenhouse gas. According to the lat-
est estimates, current CO2 emissions from transport are
expected to increase by around 50%.
It is both an ecological necessity and a technological
challenge to reduce the dependence on oil, from the current
level of 98%, by using alternative fuels and improving the
energy efficiency of the various methods of transport [3].
It is planned that the hydrogen economy will only start
around 2020, at the earliest, and to be established around
1 Introduction
The electric vehicle is an optimum solution for urban mo-
bility as it emits no exhaust fumes. Particularly in cities and
in adverse climatic conditions, traffic-generated emissions are
degrading air quality up to the point where the physical
health of the population is directly threatened. Several cities
have already had to apply repeatedly drastic traffic restric-
tions. The electric vehicle is also ideally suited for integration
into new traffic management concepts, such as automatic
rent-a-car systems and goods distribution centres, or small
buses for city-centre services.
FUEL CELLS 07, 2007, No. 2, 165–173
REPORT
2050. Fortunately, many of the electric drive technologies
common with hydrogen drive systems are already in devel-
opment today and implemented in battery or hybrid electric
vehicles.
Two transport technologies are ready to play a significant
role in this context: the battery electric vehicle and the ther-
mal hybrid electric vehicle. They are the missing link with a
future hydrogen transportation economy. It is an established
fact that, from a well to wheel emission point of view, the
results are positive and in favour of battery electric vehicles
[4]. Important and recent studies on the environmental bal-
ance of battery electric vehicles show substantial emission
and primary energy benefits, and thus CO2 reduction, when
compared with conventional cars [4, 5].
The battery electric vehicles and thermal hybrid electric
vehicles are considered as the bridge to the future hydrogen
transport economy. In any case, the hydrogen and electricity
vectors should be used in the most appropriate and effective
way to ensure, for the various applications, the optimum
mix of the primary energy sources at a European level.
Keywords: Battery Electric Vehicle, Emissions, Energy Con-
sumption, Fuel Cell Vehicle, Hybrid Vehicle
For all these reasons, often with the support of the EU
Commission and some member states, an increasing number
of cities and environmentally concerned companies have
introduced electric vehicles into their fleets. Today, there is a
clear necessity to generalize the support organized at a Eur-
opean level in preparing for movement towards hydrogen
electric vehicles.
Energy storage remains a key point. The development of
alternative battery systems shows the possibility of making a
–
[*] Corresponding author, jvmierlo@vub.ac.be
© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim 165

real technical and economic breakthrough in the short- or me-
REPORT
dium-term, consistent with important market developments.
New battery types, such as high-temperature batteries,
nickel-metal hydride batteries, and lithium-based batteries
are already on the market or will be available in the coming
years. Due to their extremely high energy density, they will
offer unprecedented vehicle ranges, of up to 250 km [6].
However, a powerful publicised national and European sup-
port is necessary, as well as an effective marketing approach.
The long-range or multi-mission electrically driven vehicle
will become a reality through the development of hybrid
drive trains. Hybrid vehicles combine electric and other drive
systems, such as internal combustion engines, gas turbines,
and fuel cells. The main advantage of this combination is the
permanent interaction between the highly efficient electric sys-
tem and the thermal engine or fuel cell. Here, power batteries or
other power boosters, such as super capacitors, play a key role.
A number of reliable vehicles are coming on the market today
with a large spectrum of hybridization ratios (from start and
stop systems to a full hybrid power train).
Due to the inbuilt dual function, hybrid vehicles have a
longer range than battery powered electric vehicles. They can
offer the option of running on electricity alone in urban envi-
ronments, generating zero emissions at this time. Some of
these vehicles can be plugged-in, effectively using conven-
tional or renewable sources of energy.
Hybrid technology is now particularly favoured for heavy-
duty vehicles, such as city-buses, and leads to a 20 to 30%
reduction in both energy consumption and associated emis-
sions.
2 Facts Related to the Mobility of People and
Goods
2.1 Employment – Economy
The European transport industry is an important economy
sector, as stated by the following data (for the 15 EU member
states): 14 million workers or employees (i.e., 10% of the
active population) with less than 6 million in transport ser-
vices, 2 million in the equipment sector, and 6 million in
transport connected activities. Fourteen percent (14%) of
families’ revenue is devoted to transport. The modal distribu-
tion of people mobility, expressed in passenger kilometres
(p.km), is as follows: 79% by car, 8% by bus, 7% by air, 6% by
rail, and less than 1% by tram or underground. The modal
distribution of goods transport, formulated in ton kilometres
(t.km), shows a different picture: 43% by road, 41% by sea,
9% by rail, 4% by inland waterways, and 3% by pipelines
[7, 8].
2.2 Growth
European passenger transport is forecast to grow by 19%
up to 2010, resulting from 16% for road transport and 90% for
air transport. The growth in goods transport is 38%, resulting
166 © 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Mierlo et al.: Fuel Cell or Battery: Electric Cars are the Future
from 50% for road transport and 34% for maritime transport.
This growth means an increase, for cars, of 15% between 2000
and 2010, and of 21% up to 2020 [7, 8].
The growth of the number of cars worldwide is more wor-
rying. At the 2030 horizon, the number of road vehicles in the
OECD countries (800 million vehicles) will be the same as in
the rest of the world, which means a doubling of today’s
worldwide vehicle number. In addition, this corresponds to a
65% growth in the OECD countries, resulting from a 2%
annual growth [9, 10].
2.3 Energy
The energy efficiency of the different means of transporta-
tion varies strongly as a result of the thermodynamic laws,
type of technology, and power level.
The fact that the energy efficiency of a car in the city falls
below 15% doesn’t appear to worry anybody (but 80% of cars
are driven in the cities!) notwithstanding the fact that this
means that from a 50 litter fuel tank only 7.5 litres are useful
and the remaining 42.5 litres are transformed into heat and
pollutants. Amongst today’s fuels, diesel is the most efficient,
followed by gasoline and the gaseous fuels (natural gas and
LPG).
Caution is required during the evaluation of the energy con-
sumption of any means of transport. Indeed an empty vehicle is
wasteful and there is a clear necessity to evaluate its efficiency
with regard to its function, i.e., moving people or goods.
Taking the following filling rate as a reference: 35% for
cars (1.4 persons per vehicle), 40 to 70% for trains, 60% for
intercity buses and national flights, the comparative results
listed hereunder are obtained [11]:
(i) For passenger transport:
● the train uses 15 to 50% less primary energy than the car;
● the intercity bus, lighter than the train, reaches about 70%
of the energy consumption of the latter and 42% of the
consumption of the car;
● the airplane is at 60% of the car but at 300% of the fast
train (not valid for high speed trains); but for airplanes
time plays an important economic role;
● in the city, the underground easily consumes 50% less
than the car;
(ii) For goods transportation mass and volume have to be
considered [11]:
● the boat used for inland transport can reach 200% of the
consumption of rail because of its diesel motorisation;
● rail transport reaches 40–50% of road transport consump-
tion.
Whichever transportation case is considered, it is neces-
sary to take the energy consumption of all transportation
means used between origin and destination into account. The
duration of a trip has a non negligible importance for the eco-
nomic evaluation.
The data given above are only indicative as they result from a
number of typical trips. They demonstrate the necessity to ana-
lyse the trips per category, as well as the necessity to compare
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Mierlo et al.: Fuel Cell or Battery: Electric Cars are the Future
Fig. 1 Oil demand and supply.
the potential energy benefit of the different means of transporta-
tion. The benefit of rail (tram, underground) is the result of the
combination of two important factors: the transport capacity
and the use of electric energy, thanks to the efficiency of the elec-
tric drive system (power electronics and electric motor).
Long distance transportation (more than 2,000 km) is con-
sidered in a different way, since the choice of the transporta-
tion means is a function of the object that has to be trans-
ported. 90% of the export trade of the EU (referring to the
volume of goods) is performed by maritime transport, which
also covers 41% of EU internal goods transportation.
The use of energy by today’s transport systems clearly
demonstrates low efficiency use.
2.4 Evolution of the EU Energy Supply
The energy dependence of the EU has evolved from 60%
in 1973 down to 50% in 1999. This could reach 70% within 20
to 30 years, corresponding to 90% for oil, 70% for natural gas,
and 100% for coal. Again, this will be in increasing trend in
the extended EU [2].
Recently, oil companies revised their oil reserve, forecast-
ing an end to cheap oil (or oil as an energy source?) towards
2030–2040. This is confirmed by other independently pub-
lished data. Referring to the IEA, Figure 1, the maximum oil
production could be reached within 10 to 15 year, naturally
followed by a production decrease and demand exceeding
the available supply [12].
Consequently, a price increase is to be expected together
with geopolitical tensions. Even the exploitation of less acces-
sible and/or lower quality reserves will not alleviate this situ-
ation. The conditions prevailing for natural gas are the same
but with a somewhat longer delay (10–20 years).
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2.5 Emissions
The environmental state of the earth is determined by the
superposition of all local emissions, some are controllable
(transport, electricity production, industry, etc.), whilst others
cannot be controlled (volcanoes, radiance of sun, etc.). Limit-
ing the contribution of transport to pollution can only be per-
formed through local and regional actions, whose success is
strongly dependent on the awareness of the people con-
cerned.
The gradual introduction of the mandatory European
emission standards, EURO I, EURO II, EURO III, EURO IV,
and EURO V will lead to the control of the CO, NOx, hydro-
carbon, and particulate emissions. They will be reduced in
the EU and in the other OECD countries, despite the increase
in the automotive fleet and distance covered. A significant
increase, of between 45% and 55%, is expected for the differ-
ent pollutants in the rest of the world [12].
The emissions of the electricity-producing sector are
clearly more and more under control, which is a very positive
situation for most of the public transport systems (trains,
trams, underground, trolleybuses, and electric mini- and midi
buses).
The case of CO2 emissions is totally separate, due to its
proportional connection with the performed p.km for people
mobility and t.km for goods transport. The efficiency of the
internal combustion engine (ICE) can still increase somewhat
over the next ten years (but with costly investment), but the
thermodynamic limits are being reached and consequently
asymptotic values are being approached. In any case, it is
worth noting that the mean yearly emissions of a car is 4 to
5 tons of CO2, corresponding to four to five time the mass of
a 1,000 kg vehicle.
© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim 167
 Mierlo et al.: Fuel Cell or Battery: Electric Cars are the Future

The automotive industry (ACEA) has committed itself to 3.1.3 Hybrid Systems
REPORT

reducing CO2 emissions from 190 g km–1 in 1995 to

120 g km–1 in 2012, in order to counterbalance the increase of
the p.km [13].
An IFEU study for Belgium (that could also be valid as a
mean situation for the rest of the EU) forecasts an increase in
CO2 emissions of 6 to 10% between 2000 and 2020. This corre-
sponds to an annual increase of 0.3% to 0.55% and results
from the combination of better vehicle performance and an
increase of the total number of kilometres driven [14].
The yearly increase in C02 emissions was 1.7%, between
1990 and 2000, and is expected to be 0.86% between 2000 and
2020. Alternatively, a total increase of 40% is predicted by an
OECD analysis [10].
In the EU, 28% of emissions are transport related, while it
is forecast that 90% of the total emissions increase will have
the same origin. Worldwide, the forecast increase is even
more dramatic: not less than 110 to 120% [11].
3 Technical Evolution of Transport Means
Two important factors that will influence the technology
of future transport means are:
(i) access to energy
(ii) state of the environment
Two type of motorisation will drive the future for land
and maritime transport:
(i) thermal drives;
(ii) electrical drives, associated with thermal drives, bat-
teries, fuel cells or with a combination of the latter.
This partitioning of tasks is fundamental to the family of
hybrid solutions but is only feasible thanks to the support of
power electronics, even in pure thermal solutions.
3.1 A Short Analysis of Propulsion Technology
The association of ICE’s and electric motors leads to
hybrid systems, which fall under four basic structures:
The series hybrid only has an electric propulsion system
(power electronic converter, electric motor(s), differential,
wheels) electrically fed by one, two or three sources, con-
nected in parallel (Figure 2 and Figure 3).
In the thermal series hybrid, one of the sources is com-
posed of a fuel tank (diesel, gasoline, and gas), an ICE or gas
turbine driving an alternator, and a power electronic convert-
er (rectifier-charger). A battery and/or power unit (flywheel
system or super capacitor) are connected in parallel to this
source and deliver power as required and can also recover
the braking energy. If these units are not present then the
structure is the commonly named “diesel-electric”.
In the case where a fuel cell is used instead of an ICE or gas
turbine system, the following are present: the fuel cell system
(hydrogen tank or reformer), connected in parallel to a bat-
tery and/or power unit (flywheel system or super capacitor).
This power unit delivers power at due times and can also
recover the braking energy. Energy recovery while braking is
a major feature of these systems only when a battery, super
capacitor or flywheel, or a combination of these elements is
implemented.
The parallel hybrid system combines electric traction and
ICE traction (see Figure 4). The “fuel tank-ICE” system com-
bines its mechanical output energy with the mechanical
energy provided by the battery-power electronic converter-
electric motor system. Both are mechanically coupled at the
level of the transmission to drive the wheels. No fuel cell
alternative solution has been considered for this structure for
obvious technical reasons. The “start-stop” and the “mild
hybrid” systems are possible exceptions. Energy recovery
while braking is also a major feature of these systems.

3.1.1 Systems with ICE Motorisation

The energy chain is composed of a fuel tank (gasoline, die-
sel or gas), an ICE (electronically controlled), a transmission
(also electronically controlled), a differential, and the wheels.
A coupling-decoupling system is needed to allow for stops,
or sufficient torque while starting or changing gear.

3.1.2 Electric Systems

Fig. 2 Series hybrid drive train.
The energy chain is composed of a battery, a power elec-
tronic converter, an electric motor (or wheel motors), a differ-
ential, and the wheels. In this case, a fuel cell system that
could replace the battery is a possible alternative solution for
the future. No coupling-decoupling system is needed and
maximum torque is developed at start-up.
Energy recovery, while braking, is a major feature of this
system, if an energy storage system (battery or supercapaci-
tor) is available. Furthermore, the presence of a battery neces-
sitates the use of an on-board or off-board battery charger,
also based on power electronics. Fig. 3 Series hybrid with peak power unit.

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Mierlo et al.: Fuel Cell or Battery: Electric Cars are the Future
Fig. 4 Parallel drive train with torque addition.
Combining the series hybrid structure with the parallel
structure leads to the so-called “combined” or “series-parallel”
structure (see Figure 5). The parallel energy pathway is com-
posed of a tank, an ICE, a transmission, a power electronic
converter, and an electric motor. The series energy pathway
is composed of a tank, an ICE, a transmission, an electric gen-
erator, a power electronic charger, a battery, a power elec-
tronic converter, and an electric motor. Naturally, the differ-
ential is common to both pathways.
There is evidently a continuum of possible solutions, the
value of which have to be assessed from an energy efficiency,
environmental, and economic point of view, as well as from
the technological feasibility and user’s perspective. Simula-
tion software has been developed at the “Vrije Universiteit
Brussel” for the evaluation of these drive trains, in the frame-
work of a PhD thesis, which can be consulted at the following
web address: http://etec.vub.ac.be/VSP/.
3.2 Evolution and Main Technological Characteristics
Numerous electrical subsystems are introduced into cars
and other road vehicles for the comfort of the user. In this sit-
uation, electricity is the energy driver and many elegant solu-
tions are achieved. The features related to safety (for instance
ABS), as well as the drive by wire solutions introduced in
high class cars, are worth mentioning.
3.2.1 Internal Combustion Engines (ICE’s)
Considerable research is still performed to improve their
intrinsic thermodynamic features (though asymptotic regions
are now being reached) and their electronic control. A break-
through is expected from SiC technology in relation to the
necessity to position the electronic components in high tem-
perature areas.
Fig. 5 Combined hybrid drive train.
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EUCAR is still forecasting a dominant position for this
type of motorisation in the next 15 years, with a share of 30 to
40% for diesel and 50 to 65% for gasoline vehicles. Hybrids
and other alternative solutions could reach a share of 15%
after 2010, increasing up to 25% after 2020 [4]. However,
everybody understands that these shares will be strongly
influenced by access to oil, which in fact comes from fossil
sources and is a powerful carrier of hydrogen atoms. The pos-
sibility to decouple energy use from “geo-carbons” is under
serious consideration, relating to the introduction of bio fuels,
carbon atoms from biomass, and organic waste materials,
which all lead to even more powerful carriers of hydrogen
atoms.
3.2.2 Battery Electric-, Hybrid Electric-, Fuel Cell Drive
Systems
Soft hybrid solutions, integrating the electric starter-
generator and allowing the recuperation of braking energy,
seem to be an important step towards future hybridisation.
The association of the electric motor and thermal engine in
a parallel structure allows the use of the engine at its best effi-
ciency, avoiding for instance, the bad impact of a transitory
working period. However, success in only warranted if the
electric motor and its associated power electronics are de-
signed properly. The introduction of alternative vehicles
becomes possible without a dramatic multiplication of the
ground-fuelling infrastructure.
A discussion is arising, in the road transport sector, con-
cerning hybrid technology and the use of only one source of
fuelling for all types of energy. In other words, how should
the on-board electricity used be generated? Obviously, this
can only be achieved from loaded fuel or through a connec-
tion with the mains. Evidently, the answer to this question is
complex.
The electric vehicle is able to produce the highest energy
economy, 40 to 50%, compared to an equivalent thermal vehi-
cle. Nevertheless, this is only true if good system integration
has been realised and this integration has to consider differ-
ent working situations. Indeed, in city use, the electric vehicle
often works at low load and undergoes frequent braking. The
real working pattern of the vehicle has to be taken into
consideration when optimizing system efficiency, which
influences motor and power electronic design.
The same approach is valid for the design of the battery
charger for which two charging situations can occur: normal
charging conditions and end of charge. The time-share
between these two working conditions surely has an impor-
tant impact on the resulting efficiency and the charger elec-
tronics will have to be designed accordingly. No good electric
vehicle could be developed without considering these work-
ing conditions. Many examples of poor design have been put
on the road in the past.
Thermal hybrid electric vehicles may lead to 30 to 40% energy
economy, compared to an equivalent thermal vehicle. However,
this is dependent on the grade of hybridisation, the same inte-
© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim 169
 Mierlo et al.: Fuel Cell or Battery: Electric Cars are the Future

gration considerations as for the electric vehicle, and the most production of hydrogen is 13.7 to 21.9% of the primary
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efficient use of electric energy delivered by the mains. nuclear energy.

Diesel-electric motorisation, when used for urban buses, ● Hydrogen could be an innate result of electricity produc-
offers very good flexibility for the drive system, mainly in tion in the case where a fusion power plant could be im-
starting and acceleration conditions. However, the multiplica- plemented.
tion of the efficiency of the different components of the drive ● Solar energy accumulates 15% from the solar panels,
train leads to a supplementary energy consumption of 10 to hopefully 95% for the associated power electronics, and
20%, compared to an equivalent thermal vehicle. In this case, 50 to 80% for electrolysis and resulting in 7.1 to 11.4% of
this loss of energy is very difficult to compensate for, even the free available solar energy.
with good drive train integration. It is clear that the global energy efficiency of the above
Finally, it is observed that the intelligent use of a charging listed hydrogen pathways, as well as the associated CO2
period from the mains cannot lead to substantial energy emissions remains an open question. Complementary to the
economy and CO2 emission reduction without creating the efficiencies already given, the following data values can also
necessity of implementing a large and costly new infrastruc- be considered separately or grouped [11]:
ture. This statement is not yet well understood (or is ● production of electrical energy in power plants: 35 to 60%,
obviously rejected for profit considerations) by car manu- ● industrial electrolysis: 50 to 80%,
facturers or energy stakeholders. ● hydrogen compression on-board the vehicle: about 75%,
Fuel cell electric vehicles are considered carefully from the ● off-board methane reforming: about 75% for the reform-
viewpoint of energy economy because of the use of hydrogen. ing process and 75% for compression and distribution,
Hydrogen is a clean energy vector in the same way electricity ● methanol reforming on-board the vehicle: 75%,
is, but it has to be produced, as electricity has to be produced, ● hydrogen compression and distribution after methanol re-
from different primary energy sources. This is the real forming: 65 to 80%.
challenge. An analysis of all these efficiencies is summarised in
Another challenge is the clear duality existing in many Figure 6.
cases between hydrogen and electricity. The PEMFC (Proton In 2003 the EU hydrogen high level expert group produced
Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell) is clearly the best choice for a report forecasting the different stages for the implementa-
road transport. Comparing two equivalent vehicles, thermal tion of the hydrogen energy vector [16]:
and fuel cell, today’s optimal efficiencies can be listed for the ● up to 2020: technological research and demonstration
drive train efficiency evaluated for the same driving cycle [5]: fleets and infrastructure,
● 42% for a fuel cell using compressed hydrogen, ● in the period 2020 – 2030: implementation of a large
● 32% for a fuel cell fed by hydrogen produced by an on- demonstration fleet and infrastructure, together with the
board methanol reformer, start of real economical use,
● 25% for an equivalent diesel driven vehicle, ● after 2030: market development.
● 20% for an equivalent gasoline driven
vehicle.
Important energy economy can effec-
tively be realised in the tank to wheel
(T-t-W) pathway but the production effi-
ciency of hydrogen or methanol, which
has not been considered sufficiently.
Well to wheel (W-t-W) analyses are of
utmost importance here [15].
Many pathways are being considered
to produce hydrogen [11]:
● Water electrolysis starting from elec-
tricity produced from hydraulic (Nor-
way, Canada), nuclear (France), solar
or wind energy. A 50 to 80% effi-
ciency is obtainable by an industrial
electrolysis production unit.
● For the case of a 32% efficient nuclear
power plant delivering electricity to a
90% efficient distribution system, a
95% efficient power electronic energy
controller, and a 50% efficient electro-
lysis unit, the end efficiency for the Fig. 6 Well-to-wheel efficiencies: hydrogen vs. electricity.

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Mierlo et al.: Fuel Cell or Battery: Electric Cars are the Future
Fig. 7 Road map for environmentally friendly vehicles with electric propulsion systems.
Evidently, this roadmap is matched to the duration of
access to cheap oil and indicates the steps necessary to reach
a situation for a viable and sustainable hydrogen economy.
It is a long-term viewpoint. However, it neglects the short
and medium-term situation, with the increasing geopolitical
tension around oil. Moreover, it neglects possible competition
between different energy vectors: hydrogen, electricity, bio
fuels, synthetic fuels, etc., and the corresponding transporta-
tion technology.
There is an absolute necessity to consider today’s techno-
logies and their evolution in the short-, medium-, and long-term,
together with the emergence of long-term hydrogen technology.
This is the best way to define continuity for our national indus-
tries. As an example, let us consider the “Road Map for Environ-
mentally Friendly Vehicles with Electric Propulsion Systems”,
given in Figure 7 [17]. All systems are taken into consideration.
The ICE serves as a reference.
Battery and hybrid electric vehicles offer clear short- and me-
dium-term solutions, with a large number of common compo-
nents. These common components must be defined and are of
the utmost importance for our industry. An exhaustive list will
be the result of studies and of national and EU research pro-
grammes. The following can already be pointed out:
● batteries,
● super capacitors,
● power electronic converters,
● electric motors,
● voltage levels, 36/42V, high voltage(s) for drive systems,
● components for auxiliaries,
● etc.
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Finally yet importantly, it is evident that a large number of
these components will be common with the “hydrogen” solu-
tions because of the absolute necessity to develop compo-
nents for the largest possible market.
4 Conclusions
4.1 Battery and Hybrid Vehicles are Today’s Sustainable
Mobility Solutions, Preparing a Future Shared with a Hydrogen
Economy
The summary report of the High Level Group for Hydro-
gen and Fuel Cells presented in June 2003 developed a vision
on the contribution that hydrogen and fuel cells could make
to the realization of sustainable energy systems in the future.
However, it seems necessary to emphasize that, as it is a
long-term vision, there is a need to take strong action in the
short- and medium-term, in order to address current environ-
mental and energy concern.
4.2 Energy and Environmental Challenges for Transportation
As stated in the Commission’s November 2000 Green
Paper on security of supply, in 1998 energy consumption in
the transport sector was responsible for 28% of CO2emissions,
the main greenhouse gas. According to the latest estimates,
CO2 emissions from transport can be expected to increase by
around 50% to reach 1113 billion tons by 2010, compared with
the 739 million tons recorded in 1990, 84% of which were at-
tributed to road transport [18].
© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim 171

It is both an ecological necessity and a technological chal-
REPORT
lenge to reduce the dependence on oil from the current level
of 98%, by using alternative fuels and improving the energy
efficiency of transport. It is planned that the hydrogen econ-
omy will begin around 2020, at the earliest, and will be estab-
lished by around 2050. Fortunately, much of the common
electric drives technology preparing for a future shared with
a hydrogen economy are already in development today.
Two transport technologies are currently ready to play a
significant role in this context: the battery electric vehicle and
the thermal hybrid electric vehicle. They are the missing link
to a possible hydrogen transportation economy.
The technology developed for the battery electric vehicle
is, without any doubt, a basic technology for mainly fuel cell
vehicles.
4.3 Battery Electric Vehicles, an Available Sustainable Solution
for Urban Mobility
It is an established fact that from a well-to-wheel emission
point of view, research is in favour of the battery electric vehi-
cle. Important and recent studies on the environmental bal-
ance of battery electric vehicles showed substantial emission
and primary energy benefits and thus CO2 reduction, when
compared to conventional cars [19].
The electric vehicle is an optimum solution for urban mo-
bility, as it emits no exhaust fumes.
In cities and in adverse climatic conditions, in particular,
traffic-generated emissions degrade air quality, up to the
point where the physical health of the population is directly
threatened. Several cities have already had to apply repeat-
edly drastic traffic restrictions.
The electric vehicle is also ideally suited for integration
into new traffic management concepts, such as automatic
rent-a-car systems and goods distribution centres, or small
buses for city-centre services. These measures emphasize the
synergies between different transport methods and contri-
bute to the relief of traffic congestion. Again, the electric vehi-
cle, through its respect for the environment, allows access to
historic city centres and contributes to the reduction of air
and noise pollution.
An increasing number of cities and environmentally con-
cerned companies have introduced electric vehicles into their
fleets for all of the above reasons, often with the support of
the EU Commission and some member states.
4.4 Batteries, the Challenge
Energy storage remains a key point. The development of
alternative battery systems shows the possibility of making a
real technical and economic breakthrough in the short- or me-
dium-term, consistent with important market development.
New battery types, such as high-temperature batteries,
nickel-metal hydride batteries, and lithium-based batteries
are already on the market or will be available in the coming
years. Due to their extremely high energy density, they offer
172 © 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
Mierlo et al.: Fuel Cell or Battery: Electric Cars are the Future
unprecedented vehicle ranges, even up to 250 km. However,
a powerful public national and European support is neces-
sary, as well as an effective marketing approach.
4.5 Thermal Hybrid Electric Vehicles Combining Long-Range
and Energy Efficiency
The long-range or multi-mission electrically driven vehicle
will become a reality through the development of hybrid
drive trains. Hybrid vehicles combine electric and other drive
systems, such as internal combustion engines, gas turbines or
fuel cells.
The main advantage of this combination is the permanent
interaction between the highly efficient electric system and
the thermal engine. This leads to efficient energy manage-
ment, as well as the recovery of the kinetic energy while brak-
ing. Here too, the batteries or other power boosters, such as
super capacitors or flywheels, play a key role. A number of
reliable vehicles are coming on the market today with a large
spectrum of hybridisation ratios (from start and stop systems
to a full hybrid power train).
Due to the inbuilt dual function, hybrid vehicles have a
longer range than battery electric vehicles. They can offer the
option of running on electricity alone in urban environments
and so are locally zero emission. Some of these vehicles can
be plugged-in using conventional or renewable sources of
energy in an effective way.
The hybrid technology is now particularly favoured for
heavy-duty vehicles such as city-buses and leads to a 20 to
30% reduction in both energy consumption and associated
emissions.
For private cars, the deployment of hybrid drive trains is a
logical way to reduce fuel consumption and CO2 emissions.
Battery and hybrid electric vehicles are able to ensure a
sustainable mobility solution, preparing a future shared with
the hydrogen economy.
At the present phase of their development, electric and
hybrid vehicles still need support from public authorities, so that
the market can reach a size allowing its natural development.
4.6 Components Development
R&D development efforts are also needed for higher
efficiency and lower cost electric drive systems (batteries, power
electronics, etc.). These components will also be needed for fuel
cell vehicles in the long-term, though there will also be the need
for specific components (compressors, pumps, connectors, pres-
sure valves, membranes, tanks, reformers, etc.).
List of Symbols
ABS Antilock brake system
ACEA Association of European Automobile Manufac-
turers
AVERE European Association for Battery, Hybrid and Fuel
Cell Electric Vehicles
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Mierlo et al.: Fuel Cell or Battery: Electric Cars are the Future

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