A SEMINAR REPORT

ON

METAL-MATRIX COMPOSITE PROCESSING

For the partial fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
Submitted By-

HIMANSHU SINGH
Of
4th Year, B.Tech.
Chemical Engineering Department

Submitted To-
Er. Dhananjay Singh
And
Durgesh Pratap

under the auspices of

Department of Chemical Engineering

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,LUCKNOW, INDIA
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our heartfelt gratitude to Mr Durgesh Pratap Singh for their expert guidance
constant inspiration which made possible the compilation of the report. Indeed we consider
ourselves fortunate to have worked under their supervision. He has inspired us at all stages
and spared invaluable time for discussion, whenever we needed it.

We also owe a depth of gratitude to Mr. Dhananjay Singh(Head of Chemical

Engineering Department).His tremendous personal interest ,inspiration,encouraging support
and sound advice went all the way in making this effort in success.

HIMANSHU SINGH

B.TECH 4th YEAR (CHEMICAL ENGINEERING)

WW
 CONTENTS

1. Introduction………………………………………………………………………….
2. Metal Matrix Composites…………………………………………………………….
3. MMC Properties Compared to Other Structural Materials……………………………

3.1 Strength and Stiffness …………………………………………………………

3.2 High-Temperature Properties…………………………………………………..
3.3 Wear Resistance……………………………………………………………….
3.4 Fracture and Toughness……………………………………………………….
3.5 Thermal Properties…………………………………………………………….
4. Classification of MMC…………………………………………………………………
5. Discontinuous Reinforcement…………………………………………………………
6. Continuous Reinforcement…………………………………………………………….
7. Production and Processing of Metal Matrix Composites……………………………..
8. Mechanism of Reinforcement………………………………………………………….
9. Solid State Processing. …………………………………………………………………
10. Applications……………………………………………………………………………
11. Conclusions………………………………………………………………………….
12. References…………………………………………………………………………..
 1. INTRODUCTION

A broad definition of composite is: Two or more chemically distinct materials which when
combined have improved properties over the individual materials. Composites could be
natural or synthetic. Wood is a good example of a natural composite, combination of
cellulose fiber and lignin. The cellulose fiber provides strength and the lignin is the "glue"
that bonds and stabilizes the fiber. Bamboo is a very efficient wood composite structure. The
components are cellulose and lignin, as in all other wood, however bamboo is hollow. This
results in a very light yet stiff structure. Composite fishing poles and golf club shafts copy
this natural design. The ancient Egyptians manufactured composites! Adobe bricks are a
good example. The combination of mud and straw forms a composite that is stronger than
either the mud or the straw by itself.

Composites are combinations of two materials in which one of the material is called the
reinforcing phase, is in the form of fibers, sheets, or particles, and is embedded in the other
material called the matrix phase.

Typically, reinforcing materials are strong with low densities while the matrix is usually a
ductile or tough material. If the composite is designed and fabricated correctly, it combines
the strength of the reinforcement with the toughness of the matrix to achieve a combination
of desirable properties not available in any single conventional material.

Components of composite materials

Reinforcement: fibers Matrix materials Interface

Glass Polymers Bonding surface

Carbon Metals
Organic Ceramics
Boron
Ceramic
Metallic

The essence of the concept of composites is that the load is applied over a large surface area of the
matrix. Matrix then transfers the load to the reinforcement, which being stiffer, increases the
strength of the composite. It is important to note that there are many matrix materials and even
more fiber types, which can be combined in countless ways to produce just the desired properties.
Composites are broadly known as reinforced plastics.

Fig. 1 : Characteristics of Fibers and Matrix materials

2. Metal Matrix Composites

Metal matrix composites (MMCs) usually consist of a low-density metal, such as aluminum
or magnesium, reinforced with particulate or fibers of a ceramic material, such as silicon
carbide or graphite. Compared with unreinforced metals, MMCs offer higher specific
strength and stiffness, higher operating temperature, and greater wear resistance, as well as
the opportunity to tailor these properties for a particular application. However, MMCs also
have some disadvantages compared with metals. Chief among these are the higher cost of
fabrication for high-performance MMCs, and lower ductility and toughness. Presently,
MMCs tend to cluster around two extreme types. One consists of very high performance
composites reinforced with expensive continuous fibers and requiring expensive processing
methods. The other consists of relatively low-cost and low-performance composites
reinforced with relatively inexpensive particulate or fibers. The cost of the first type is too
high for any but military or space applications, whereas the cost/benefit advantages of the
second type over unreinforced metal alloys remain in doubt.

A metal matrix composite system is generally designated simply by the metal alloy
designation of the matrix and the material type, volume fraction and form of the ceramic
reinforcement.
MMCs differ from other composite materials in several ways. Some of these general
distinctions are as follows:
1. The matrix phase of an MMC is either a pure or alloy metal as opposed to a polymer or
ceramic.
2. MMCs evidence higher ductility and toughness than ceramics or CMCs, although they
have lower ductility and toughness than their respective unreinforced metal matrix alloys.
3. The role of the reinforcement in MMCs is to increase strength and modulus as is the case
with PMCs. Reinforcement in CMCs is generally to provide improved damage tolerance.
4. MMCs have a temperature capability generally higher than polymers and PMCs but less
than ceramics and CMCs.
5. Low to moderately reinforced MMCs are formable by processes normally associated with
unreinforced metals.

The metal matrix composites offer higher modulus of elasticity, ductility, and resistance to
elevated temperature than polymer matrix composites. But, they are heavier and more
difficult to process
 Fig. 2 : Typical MMC’s with their applications

3. MMC Properties Compared to Other Structural Materials

3.1Strength and Stiffness

The stiffnesses and strengths of particulate-reinforced aluminum MMCs are significantly

better than those of the aluminum matrix. For example, at a volume fraction of 40 percent
silicon carbide particulate reinforcement, the strength is about 65 percent greater than that of
the 6061 aluminum matrix, and the stiffness is doubled.Particulate-reinforced MMCs, which
are isotropic materials, have lower strength than the axial strength (parallel to the direction of
continuous fiber reinforcement) of advanced polymer matrix composites (PMCs). However,
they have much better strength than the transverse strength (perpendicular to the direction of
continuous fiber reinforcement) of PMCs. The stiffness of particulate MMCs can be
considered to be about the same as that of PMCs.
Unlike particulate-reinforced MMCs and monolithic metals in general, fiber-reinforced
MMCs can be highly an isotropic, having different strengths and stiffnesses in different
directions. The highest values of strength and stiffness are achieved along the direction of
fiber reinforcement. In this direction, strength and stiffness are much higher than in the
unreinforced metal . In fact, the stiffness in the axial direction can be as high as six times that
of the matrix material in a graphite fiber/aluminum matrix composite. However, in the
transverse directions, strength values show no improvement over the matrix metal.
Transverse strengths and stiffnesses of continuous fiber-reinforced MMCs compared to
PMCs are very good, thereby giving MMCs an important advantage over the leading PMCs
in structures subject to high transverse stresses. High values of specific strength and specific
stiffness (strength and stiffness divided by density) are desirable for high-strength, low-
weight applications such as aircraft structures. Typically, particulate MMCs have somewhat
better specific strength and specific stiffness than the matrix metal, and fiber-reinforced
MMCs have much better specific strength and specific stiffness than the matrix metal.
Unfortunately, MMCs have a higher density than PMCs, making specific strength and
specific stiffness lower than those for PMCs in the axial direction. Transverse specific
strength and specific stiffness of MMCs are still better than those of PMCs.

3.2 High-Temperature Properties

MMCs offer improved elevated-temperature strength and modulus over both PMCs and
metals.
Reinforcements make it possible to extend the useful temperature range of low density metals
such as aluminum, which have limited hightemperature capability. MMCs typically have
higher strength and stiffness than PMCs at 200 to 300° C (342 to 5720 F), although
development resins with higher temperature capabilities may be eroding this advantage. No
other structural material, however, can compete with ceramics at very high temperature.
Fiber-reinforced MMCs experience matrix/reinforcement interface reactions at high tempera-
tures. In addition, the transverse high-temperature strength of fiber-reinforced MMCs is only
as good as that of the matrix metal, since mechanical properties in the transverse direction are
dominated by the matrix and the fiber/matrix interface.

3.3Wear Resistance

Wear resistance of MMCs is excellent compared to that of monolithic metals and PMCs,
owing to the presence of the hard ceramic reinforcements. For instance, in one test, the
abrasive wear of 2024 aluminum under a 1 kilogram load was shown to be 6 times greater
than the wear of the same alloy containing 20 percent volume fraction of silicon carbide
whiskers.8 An alumina-silicfiber-reinforced aluminum piston used in Toyota automobiles
demonstrated an 85 percent improvement in wear resistance over the cast iron piston with
nickel insert used previously.

3.4Fracture and Toughness

There is a wide variation in fracture toughness among MMCs, although it is generally lower
than that of the monolithic metal. Fracture toughness can vary between 65 and 100 percent of
the fracture toughness of the monolithic metal alloy.Lower toughness is a trade-off for higher
strength and stiffness. Particulate-reinforced MMCs have a lower ultimate tensile strain than
the unreinforced metals which may be important in some applications. This brittleness can
complicate the design process and make joining more difficult as well. Comparison to PMCs
is difficult, because the toughness of PMCs is very temperature-dependent.

3.5Thermal Properties

The introduction of silicon carbide particulate into aluminum results in materials having
lower coefficients of thermal expansion, a desirable property for some types of applications.
By choosing an appropriate composition, the coefficient of thermal expansion can be near
zero in some MMCs. MMCs also tend to be good heat conductors. Using high thermal
conductivity graphite fibers, aluminum-matrix or copper-matrix MMCs can have very high
thermal conductivity, compared with other types of composites.
 4. Classification of MMC

Metal matrix composites can be classified in various ways. One classification is the
consideration of type and contribution of reinforcement components in particle-, layer-, fiber-
and penetration composite materials. Fiber composite materials can be further classified into
continuous fiber composite materials (multi- and monofilament) and short fibers or, rather,
whisker composite materials.

Fig .3 : MMC’s classification

5. Discontinuous Reinforcement

There are two types of discontinuous reinforcement or MMCs: particulate and whiskers. The
most common types of particulate are alumina, boron carbide, silicon carbide, titanium
carbide, and tungsten carbide. The most common type of whisker is silicon carbide, but
whiskers of alumina and silicon nitride have also been produced. Whiskers generally cost
more than particulat. For in stance, silicon carbide whiskers cost $95 per pound, whereas
silicon carbide particulate costs $3 per pound. Cost projections show that although this
difference will decrease as production volumes increase, particulate will always have a cost
advantage.
In terms of tailorability, a very important advantage in MMC applications, particulate
reinforcement offers various desirable properties. Boron carbide and silicon carbide, for
instance, are widely used, inexpensive, commercial abrasives that can offer good wear
resistance as well as high specific stiffness. Titanium carbide offers a high melting point and
chemical inertness which are desirable properties for processing and stability in use.
Tungsten carbide has high strength and hardness at high temperature. In composites, a
general rule is that mechanical properties such as strength and stiffness tend to increase as
reinforcement length increases.Particulate can be considered to be the limit of short fibers.
Particulate-reinforced composites are isotropic, having the same mechanical properties in all
directions.
In principle, whiskers should confer superior properties because of their higher aspect ratio
(length divided by diameter). However, whiskers are ‘brittle and tend to break up into shorter
lengths during processing. This reduces their reinforcement efficiency, and makes the much
higher cost of whisker reinforcement hard to justify. Development of improved processing
techniques could produce whisker-reinforced- MMCs with mechanical properties superior to
those made from particulates. Another disadvantage of using whisker reinforcement is that
whiskers tend to become oriented by some processes, such as rolling and extrusion,
producing composites with different properties in different directions (anisotropy)
Anisotropy can be a desirable property, but it is a disadvantage if it cannot be controlled
precisely in the manufacture of the material. It is also more difficult to pack whiskers than
particulate, and thus it is possible to obtain higher reinforcement: matrix ratios (fiber volume
fraction, v/o) with particulate. Higher reinforcement percentages lead to better mechanical
properties such as higher strength.

6. Continuous Reinforcement

In fiber reinforcement, by far the most common kind of continuous reinforcement, many
types of fibers are used; most of them are carbon or ceramic. Carbon types are referred to as
graphite and are based on pitch or polyacrylonitrile (PAN) precursor. Ceramic types include
alumina, silica, boron, alumina-silica, alumina-boriasilica, zirconia, magnesia, mullite, boron
nitride, titanium diboride, silicon carbide, and boron carbide.
All of these fibers are brittle, flaw-sensitive materials. As such, they exhibit the phenomenon
of size effect i.e., the strength of these fibers decreases as the length increases. Fiber/matrix
interface coatings offer another
dimension of tailorability to MMCs. Coatings are very important to the behavior of MMCs to
prevent undesirable reactions, improve the strength of the fibers, and tailor the bond strength
between fiber and matrix. A reaction barrier is needed for some fiber/matrix combinations,
particularly when the composite is exposed to high temperatures in processing or service. For
example, boron fiber can be coated with boron carbide and silicon carbide reaction barriers to
prevent diffusion and chemical reactions with the matrix that decrease the strength of the
composite.
Alumina fibers can be given a surface coating of silica to improve tensile strength. Coatings
can also be used to tailor the bond strength between fiber and matrix. If adhesion between
fiber and matrix is too good, cracks in the matrix propagate right through the fibers, and the
composite is brittle. By reducing the bond strength, coatings can enhance crack deflection at
the interface, and lead to higher energy absorption during fracture through fiber pullout
mechanisms. Sometimes a coating is needed to promote wetting between the matrix and the
fiber, and thereby achieve a good bond. Graphite can be coated with titanium diboride in
order to promote wetting. processing techniques, as well as coatings, can be used to control
deleterious fiber/matrix interactions. The application of pressure can be used to force intimate
contact between fiber and matrix and thus promote wetting; squeeze casting is one process
that does this. A less common type of continuous reinforcement is wire reinforcement. Wires
are made of such metals as titanium, tungsten, molybdenum, beryllium, and stainless steel.
Such wires offer some tailorability for certain niche applications; for example, tungsten wire
offers good high-temperature creep resistance, which is an advantage in fighter aircraft jet
engines and other aerospace applications.

7. Production and Processing of Metal Matrix Composites

Metal matrix composite materials can be produced by many different techniques. The focus
of the selection of suitable process engineering is the desired kind, quantity and distribution
of the reinforcement components (particles and fibers), the matrix alloy and the application.
By altering the manufacturing method, the processing and the finishing, as well as by the
form of the reinforcement components it is possible to obtain different characteristic profiles,
although the same composition and amounts of the components are involved. The production
of a suitable precursor material, the processing to a construction unit or a semi-finished
material (profile) and the finishing treatment must be separated. For cost effective reasons
prototypes, with dimensions close to the final product, and reforming procedures are used,
which can minimize the mechanical finishing of the construction units.
In general the following product engineering types are possible:
• Melting metallurgical processes
– infiltration of short fiber-, particle- or hybrid preforms by squeeze casting, vacuum
infiltration or pressure infiltration
– reaction infiltration of fiber- or particle preforms
– processing of precursor material by stirring the particles in metallic melts, followed
by sand casting, permanent mold casting or high pressure die casting.
• Powder metallurgical processes
– pressing and sintering and/or forging of powder mixtures and composite
powders
– extrusion or forging of metal-powder particle mixtures
– extrusion or forging of spraying compatible precursor materials
• Hot isostatic pressing of powder mixtures and fiber clutches
• Further processing of precursor material from the melting metallurgy by thixocasting
or -forming, extrusion, forging, cold massive forming or super plastic
forming
• Joining and welding of semi-manufactured products
• Finishing by machining techniques
• Combined deformation of metal wires (group superconductors).
Melting metallurgy for the production of MMCs is at present of greater technical importance
than powder metallurgy. It is more economical and has the advantage of being able to use
well proven casting processes for the production of MMCs. Figure 1.6 shows schematically
the possible methods of melting metallurgical production. For melting metallurgical
processing of composite materials three procedures
are mainly used:
• compo-casting or melt stirring
• gas pressure infiltration
• squeeze casting or pressure casting.

Both the terms compo-casting and melt stirring are used for stirring particles into a light alloy
melt. Figure 1.7 shows the schematic operational sequence of this procedure. The particles
are often tend to form agglomerates, which can be only dissolved by intense stirring.
However, here gas access into the melt must be absolutely avoided, since this could lead to
unwanted porosities or reactions. Careful attention must be paid to the dispersion of the
reinforcement components, so that the reactivity of the components used is coordinated with
the temperature of the melt and the duration of stirring, since reactions with the melt can lead
to the dissolution of the reinforcement components. Because of the lower surface to volume
ratio of spherical particles, reactivity is usually less critical with stirred particle reinforcement
than with fibers. The melt can be cast directly or processed with alternative procedures such
as squeeze casting or thixocasting. Melt stirring is used by the Duralcan Company for the
production of particle-strengthened aluminum alloys. At the Lanxide Company a similar
process is used, with additional reactions between the reinforcement components and the
molten matrix being purposefully promoted to obtain a qualitatively high-grade composite
material In the reaction procedures of the Lanxide Company it may be desirable that the
reinforcement component reacts completely with the melt to form the component in situ,
which then transfers the actual reinforcement effect to the second phase in the MMC.

Fig 4 : Liquid state processing of MMC’s

In gas pressure infiltration the melt infiltrates the preform with a gas applied from the outside.
A gas that is inert with respect to the matrix is used. The meltingof the matrix and the
infiltration take place in a suitable pressure vessel. There are two procedure variants of gas
pressure infiltration: in the first variant the warmed up preform is dipped into the melt and
then the gas pressure is applied to the surface of the melt, leading to infiltration. The
infiltration pressure can thereby be coordinated with the wettability of the preforms, which
depends, among other things, on the volume percentage of the reinforcement. The second
variant of the gas pressure infiltration procedure reverses the order: the molten bath is pressed
to the preform by the applied gas pressure using a standpipe and thereupon infiltrates the
bath. The advantage of this procedure is that there is no development of pores when
completely dense parts are present. Since the reaction time is relatively short with these
procedures, more reactive materials can be used than e.g. with the compo-casting. In gas
pressure infiltration the response times are clearly longer than in squeeze casting, so that the
materials must be carefully selected and coordinated, in order to be able to produce the
appropriate composite material for the appropriate requirements.

Fig 5: Schematic operational sequence during melt stirring.

 Fig 6: Gas pressure infiltration technique

Squeeze casting or pressure casting are the most common manufacturing variants for MMCs.
After a slow mold filling the melt solidifies under very high pressure, which leads to a fine-
grained structure. In comparison with die-casted parts the squeeze-casted parts do not contain
gas inclusions, which permits thermal treatment of the produced parts. One can differentiate
between direct and indirect squeeze casting (Fig. 1.9). With direct squeeze casting the
pressure for the infiltration of the prefabricated preforms is applied directly to the melt. The
die is thereby part of the mold, which simplifies the structure of the tools substantially.
However, with the direct procedure there is a disadvantage in that the volume of the melt
must be determined exactly, since no gate is present and thus the quantity of the melt
determines the size of the cast construction unit. A further disadvantage is the appearance of
oxidation products, formed in the cast part during dosage. In contrast, in indirect squeeze
casting, where the melt is pressed into the form via a gate system, the residues will remain in
this gate. The flow rate of the melt through a gate is, due to its larger diameter, substantially
less than with die casting, which results in a less turbulent mold filling and gas admission to
the melt by turbulences is avoided. Both pressure casting processes make the production of
composite materials possible, as prefabricated fiber or particle preforms are infiltrated with
melt and solidify under pressure. A two-stage process is often used. In the first stage the melt
is pressed into the form at low pressure and then at high pressure for the solidification phase.
This prevents damage to the preform by too fast infiltration. The squeeze casting permits the
use of relatively reactive materials, since the duration of the infiltration and thus the response
time, are relatively short. A further advantage is the possibility to manufacture difficultly
shaped construction units and to provide partial reinforcement, to strengthen those areas
which are exposed to a higher stress during service.

Fig 7 : Direct and indirect squeeze casting

8. Mechanism of Reinforcement

The characteristics of metal matrix composite materials are determined by their

microstructure and internal interfaces, which are affected by their production and thermal
mechanical prehistory. The microstructure covers the structure of the matrix and the
reinforced phase. The chemical composition, grain and/or sub-grain size, texture,
precipitation behavior and lattice defects are of importance to the matrix. The second phase is
characterised by its volume percentage, its kind, size, distribution and orientation. Local
varying internal tension due to the different thermal expansion behavior of the two phases is
an additional influencing factor.
With knowledge of the characteristics of the components, the volume percentages, the
distribution and orientation it might be possible to estimate the characteristics of metallic
composite materials. The approximations usually proceed from ideal conditions, i.e. optimal
boundary surface formation, ideal distribution (very small number of contacts of the
reinforcements among themselves) and no influence of the component on the matrix
(comparable structures and precipitation behavior). However, in reality a strong interaction
arises between the components involved, so that these models can only indicate the potential
of a material. The different micro-, macro- and meso-scaled models proceed from different
conditions and are differently developed. A representation of these models can be seen in . In
the following, simple models are described, which facilitate our understanding of the effect of
the individual components of the composite materials and their form and distribution on the
characteristics of the composite.

Fig 8: Schematic presentation of elastic constants in composite materials

Simply, we can consider a fiber and/or a plate model. Depending on the load direction,
different elastic constants in the metallic composite material can result. Figure 8 illustrates
the two different models and shows the resulting E and G moduli as a function of the load.
 9.Solid State Processing

8.1Powder blending and consolidation (PM processing):

Blending of aluminium alloy powder with ceramic short fibre/whisker particle is versatile
technique for the production of AMCs. Blending can be carried out dry or in liquid
suspension. Blending is usually followed by cold compaction, canning, degassing and high
temperature consolidation stage such as hot isostatic pressing (HIP) or extrusion. PM
processed AMCs, contain oxide particles in the form of plate-like particles of few tens of nm
thick and in volume fractions ranging from 0·05 to 0·5 depending on powder history and
processing conditions. These fine oxide particles tends to act as a dispersion-strengthening
agent and often has strong influence on the matrix properties particularly during heat
treatment.

8.2 Diffusion bonding:

Mono filament-reinforced AMCs are mainly produced by the dif- fusion bonding (foil-fibre-
foil) route or by the evaporation of relatively thick layers of alu- minium on the surface of the
fibre. 6061 Al-boron fibre composites have been produced by diffusionbondingviathefoil-
fibre-foilprocess.However,theprocessismorecommonlyused to produce Ti based fibre
reinforced composites. The process is cumbersome and obtaining high fibre volume fraction
and homogeneous fibre distribution is difficult. The process is not suitable to produce
complex shapes and components.
8.3 Physical vapour deposition:
The process involves continuous passage of fibre through a region of high partial pressure of
the metal to be deposited, where condensation takes place so as to produce a relatively thick
coating on the fibre. The vapour is produced by directing a high power electron beam onto
the end of a solid bar feed stock. Typical deposition rates are 5–10µm per minute. Composite
fabrication is usually completed by assembling the coated fibres into a bundle or array and
consolidating in a hot press or HIP operation. Composites with uniform distribution of fibre
and volume fraction as high as 80% can be produced by this technique.
 10.Applications

Current markets for MMCs are primarily in military and aerospace applications.
Experimental MMC components have been developed for use in aircraft, satellites, jet
engines, missiles, and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) space
shuttle. The first production application of a particulate-reinforced MMC in the United States
is a set of covers for a missile guidance system. The most important commercial application
to date is the MMC diesel engine piston This composite piston offers better wear resistance
and high-temperature strength than the cast iron piston it replaced. This development is very
impor- tant because it demonstrates that MMCs are at least not prohibitively expensive for a
very cost sensitive application. Other commercial applications include cutting tools and
circuit-breaker contacts.
Metal matrix composites with high specific stiffness and strength could be used in
applications in which saving weight is an important factor. Included in this category are
robots, high-speed machinery, and high-speed rotating shafts for ships or land vehicles. Good
wear resistance, along with high specific strength, also favors MMC use in automotive engine
and brake parts. Tailorable coefficient of thermal expansion and thermal conductivity make
them good candidates for lasers, precision machinery, and electronic packaging. However,
the current level of development ef- fort appears to be inadequate to bring about com-
mercialization of any of these in the next 5 years, with the possible exception of diesel engine
pistons.
 10.Conclusions

MMCs are just beginning to be used in production applications. In order to make

present materials more commercially attractive, and to develop better materials, the
following research and development priorities should receive attention:

● Cheaper Processes: To develop low-cost,highly reliable manufacturing processes,

re- search should concentrate on optimizing and evaluating processes such as plasma
spraying, powder metallurgy processes, modified casting techniques, liquid metal in-
filtration and diffusion bonding.
● Cheaper Materials: Development of lower cost fiber reinforcements is a major
need. Continued development work on existing materials is important to lower costs
as well.
● Coatings: Research in the area of reinforce- ment/matrix interface coatings is
necessary. These coatings can prevent deleterious chem- ical reactions between
matrix and reinforce- ment which weaken the composite, particu- larly at high
temperature, and optimize the interracial fiber/matrix bond.
 11.References

1. G. Ondracek, Werkstoffkunde: Leitfaden für Studium und Praxis, Expert-Verlag,

Würzburg (1994).
2. TechTrends, International Reports on Advanced Technologies: Metal Matrix
Composites: Technology and Industrial Application, Innovation 128, Paris (1990).
3. T. W. Clyne, P. J. Withers, An Introduction to Metal Matrix Composites,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (1993).
4. K.U.Kainer, Keramische Partikel, Fasern und Kurzfasern für eine Verstärkung
von metallischen Werkstoffen. Metallische Verbundwerkstoffe, K.U. Kainer (Ed.),
DGM Informationsgesellschaft, Oberursel (1994), pp. 43–64.
5. H. Dieringa, K. U. Kainer, MMC
6. K. U. Kainer, Werkstoffkundliche und technologische Aspekte bei der
Entwicklung verstärkter Aluminumlegierungen für den Einsatz in der
Verkehrstechnik, Newsletter TU Clausthal, Issue 82 (1997).