References

Kalyuga, S. (2014). The expertise reversal principle in multimedia learning. In The Cambridge Handbook of
Multimedia Learning (2nd ed., pp. 836-870). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
In this chapter, the author, Slava Kaylyuga, discusses research and theory as it pertains to the expertise
reversal principle in multimedia learning. The expertise reversal theory explains how prior knowledge has an
impact on learning that is supplemented by multimedia instructions. I find this information important because
it helps instructional designers understand there are limitations to the effectiveness of design principles when
the learners level of knowledge is taken into consideration. The implication for instructions: instructional
designers should have an understanding of the level of knowledge the learners has in order to design material
that does not waste the learners time by processing redundant material.

Pashler, H., McDaniel, M., Rohrer, D., & Bjork, R. (2008). Learning Styles. Psychological Science in the
Public Interest, 9(3), 105-119.
In this article, the authors Harold Pashler, Mark McDaniel, Doug Rohrer, Robert Bjork discuss the
effectiveness of using learning style assessments to tailor instruction. The authors wanted to see if using
learning styles assessments, which allows peoples to answer a series of questions to identify the way in
which they learne better have utility in the education field. The authors set out to determine through evidence
whether or not the preference for learning a certain way has any merit. I find this information important
because there are clearly differences in how much information can be processed by individuals and if this can
be improved through the use of learning style assessment, then instructions can be much more efficient.
Many learning theories highlight the impact that schema will have on learning and the memory capacity of
the learner, however, the preference for receiving the information a certain way has not yielded conclusive
information to date calling into questions the utility of the assessments. The implication for instruction:
designers should not put much reliability in the data gathered from learning style assessments because the
preference for learning a certain way as reported by the learner is inherently bias, simplistic and not
evidence-based.

Plass, J. L., Leutner, D., & Kalyuga, S. (2010). Individual differences and cognitive load theory. In Cognitive
Load Theory (pp. 65-87). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
In this chapter, the authors, Jan L. Plass, Slava Kalyuga, and Delev Leutner discuss how cognitive load
differs in individuals. The authors set out to understand the characteristic of learners and how those
characteristics affect the amount of available working memory. The differences in learners were categorized
by information gathering, information processing and regulation of processing. These categories allow the
authors to see how individual differences could influence working memory. I find this information important
because it reinforces other research in this module relating to individuals and learning. The authors
highlighted the role of prior knowledge or the expertise reversal effect in causing cognitive load. The prior
knowledge of an individual will have an impact on attention and how much time is used in processing and
retrieving information from long term memory to make connections with new information. The information
in the chapter also affirms the issue of relying on learning style assessments to explain the differences in
individuals. The implication for instruction: instructional designers should be aware of differences in
individuals when designing multimedia material. Poorly design material can lead to extraneous cognitive
load and wasted instructional time.

Wiley, J., Sanchez, C. A., & Jaeger, A. J. (2014). The individual differences in working memory capacity
principle in multimedia learning. In The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning (2nd ed., pp. 872-
905). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
In this chapter, the authors, Jennifer Wiley, Christopher Sanchez, and Allison Jaeger discuss how individual
differences in working memory capacity impacts multimedia learning. The authors contend that multimedia
learning is a complex task and those learners with low working memory capacity may need additional
support in focusing their attention on what is relevant in the lesson. I find this information important because
it is similar in some regard to Kalyuga' s expertise reversal effect(2012) in that the designers should have
some awareness of the level of knowledge and learning capabilities of the leaners. The implication for
instruction: Instructional designers should be aware that additional support may be needed for learners with
low working memory capacity when designing multimedia materials.