The Synthetic Uses of Carboxylic Acids and Their Derivatives PDF

CHAPTER 11
The synthetic uses of carboxylic

acids and their derivatives
JEFFREY HOYLE
Chemisrry and Sot1 Science Deparrrnent. Nova Scoria Agricultural College. Jruro. Nova Scotra .
Canada. B2N 5f3
I . INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
I 1 . FUNCTIONAL G R O U P INTERCONVERSION OF CARBOXYLIC
ACID DERIVATIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
A . Formation of Alcohols and Ethers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
B. Formation of Aldehydes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
C . Formation of Amines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
D . Formation of Halides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
E. Formation of Nitriles and Isonitriles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
F. Decarboxylations and Decarbonylations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
1. Replacement by hydrogen (RCOX + RH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
2. Formation of alkenes [C(X)-C(C0Y) + C=C . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
G . Interconversion Between Carboxylic Acid Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . 629
I11 . a-FUNCTIONALIZATION OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
A N D THEIR DERIVATIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
IV . CARBON-CARBON BOND FORMATION USING CARBOXYLIC
ACIDS A N D THEIR DERIVATIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
A . Carbon-Carbon Bond Formation at the Carbonyl Group . . . . . . . 635
1. Acylation reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
2. Reactions of acid derivatives with organometallic reagents . . . . . . 641
3 . Acyloin reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
4 . Miscellaneous reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
B. Carbon-Carbon Bond Formation x to the Carbonyl Group . . . . . . 647
1 . Alkylations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
2. Acid derivative condensations with aldehydes and ketones . . . . . . 652
3. Acid derivative condensations with acid derivatives . . . . . . . . . . 658
4 . Radical- and carbene-mediated cyclizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
5. Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
C. Carbon-Carbon Bond Formation at Remote Positions . . . . . . . . . 666
1. a-Bond formation by Michael reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
2. P-Bond formation by other reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
3. Positionallv more remote bond-formation reactions . . . . . . . . . . 671
Supplemenl B : The Chemistry of Acid Derivatives. Vol . 2
Edited by S . Patai 0 1992 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
615
616 Jeffrey Hoyle
V. PREPARATION OF HETEROCYCLIC C O M P O U N D S BY C-Y

BOND FORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
A. Lactones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
1. From w-hydroxy acid derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
2. From w-halo acid derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 676
3. By halolactonization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
4. From cyclopropanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
B. Lactams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
C. Other Heterocyclic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 1
VI. OTHER SYNTHETIC USES OF CARBOXYLIC ACID DERlVA IVES 685
A. In Diels-Alder Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 686
B. In Aromatic Ortho Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 687
C. As Transfer Reagents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Y
... 688
D. Resolution of Chiral Amines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
VII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
VIII. REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689
1. INTRODUCTION
The synthesis of complex, polyfunctional organic molecules, in a stereocontrolled
manner, is surely one of the wonders of modern chemistry. The beauty and elegance
of the methodologies devised and reported in the literature, especially by the world’s
major synthetic groups, often leaves one totally spellbound upon first reading.
A cursory glance at almost any modern synthetic sequence will convince the reader
of the central importance of carboxylic acid derivatives as sources of chiral starting
materials, as key intermediates and as target molecules. The reader is referred to the
excellent Art in Organic Synthesis by Arnand, Bindra and Ranganathan’ which
chronicles key syntheses that have been successfully completed over the last few decades.
This work amply indicates the central role of acid derivatives in synthetic organic
chemistry.
An excellent review2 on the synthesis of natural pheromones has shown the impor-
tance of naturally occurring, optically active, carboxylic starting materials such as
a-amino acids, tartaric and citronellic acid. The review has also shown the importance
of acid-derived functional group interconversions, of lactonization as a key synthetic
step, of fractional crystallization of acidshases for enantiomeric separation and of the
many carbonxarbon bond-forming reactions which are possible with acid derivatives.
Many other workers have espoused the use of other acid derivatives as synthetic
substrates, such as glutamic acid3 and sugar lactones4, and have extolled the virtues of
carboxylic acid derivatives in all aspects of synthetic chemistry.
Thus, carboxylic acids and their derivatives are probably the most versatile tools
available to the synthetic organic chemist. Conversions to amines, aldehydes, alcohols,
ethers, halides and hydrocarbons may be readily performed. In some cases a carbon
atom is lost giving ‘nor functionalities’. In addition, interconversion between the different
acid derivatives is easy to achieve. a-Functionalization of carboxylic acid derivatives
may also be performed readily as may decarboxylation and decarbonylation. However,
the major synthetic importance of acids and their derivatives arises from the ease by
which they may be used in carbonxarbon bond-forming reactions and in the prepara-
tion of heterocycles.
In this review all the above-mentioned, useful synthetic processes will be discussed in
detail with examples taken mainlv from the chemical literature since 1980.
The present work does not cover the use of acyl silanes in synthesis and the reader
is referred to the reviews of Age?, Bullman Page and coworkers6 and Ricci and
11. Synthetic uses of carboxylic acids 617
Degl’Innocenti’. Similarly, as regards the chemistry of selenium, tellurium and tin

analogues of carboxylic acid derivatives the reader is referred to leading references in
the Nor does this chapter cover the chemistry of orfho esters which have
been reviewed elsewhereI3, or the chemistry of ketenes (which may be derived from
acids) which have been the subject of a volume in the ‘Functional Groups’ series14 and
numerous review^^^^'^.
Preparations of acid derivatives themselves have been covered in great detail else-
where, in The Chemistry of the Functional Group series, and the reader is referred to
these works for details’ However, a brief discussion of acid derivative interconver-
sions is presented in Section II.G, for completeness of the present work.
This review covers the chemical literature up to the beginning of 1991.
II. FUNCTIONAL GROUP INTERCONVERSION OF CARBOXYLIC

ACID DERIVATIVES
Carboxylic acids and their derivatives are very versatile compounds that may have their
functional groups transformed into a wide range of other functionalities, as shown in
equation 1. All these functional group interconversions are discussed in this section.
Some of these processes involve loss of a single carbon atom in which case ‘nor’
functionalities are formed. The synthetic usefulness of acid derivatives in the production
of lactones and lactams is briefly mentioned in Section II.G, where these functionalities
are formed by reduction, and is covered in detail in Section V since synthetic target
molecules containing these functional groups are so important and widespread in organic
chemistry. It should be noted that acid derivatives may be converted into ketones, but
that this reaction is considered in Section IV since it is a carbon-carbon bond-forming
reaction. Alcohols are also produced by reaction of organometallic reagents with acid
derivatives in carbon-carbon bond-forming reactions and these too are covered in
Section IV.
A. Formation of Alcohols and Ethers

Reduction of carboxylic acid derivatives to alcohol and ether functionalities may be
brought about by a wide range of reducing reagents. These reactions are discussed here.
r
RCH,OH
ROH
I1
R-C-Y
T RCH,OR‘
alkenes RCHO
RH RX
RCH, X = F,CI,Br,I
618 Jeffrey Hoyle
Reaction of carboxylic acids using mild conditions with lithium aluminium hydride
produces primary alcohols, via aldehydes which are themselves difficult to isolate in
many instances (however, see Section 1I.B). Sodium borohydride may also be employed
if used in combination with activators such as N,N-dimethylchloromethyleniminium
chloride". In this case, reduction of the acid group may be performed selectively in the
presence of other reducible groups such as esters, halides, olefins and nitriles (equation
2)23. The carboxylic acid group in an N-protected a-amino acid was reduced to an
alcohol, at O"C, by use of borane in THFZ4.Catalytic hydrogenation at low temperatures
and pressures, with a ruthenium catalyst, has also been used to prepare alcohols from
carboxylic acids".
CI -
CI-NMe,=CHCI NaBH
RCOz H RCOOC=&Me, 4 RCH,OH (2)
I
H
'Nor' alcohols may be obtained, in excellent yield, via radical decarboxylation of

carboxylic acids. The reaction involves the formation of a thiohydroxamate ester
followed by its reaction with a trisphenylsulphide of a Group Va metal (especially
antimony) in the presence of airz6.". This reaction has been used for the conversion of
steroidal acids into alcohols (equation 3)'*.
X = COZH, CHCOZH, CH(CH2)ZCOZH Y = OH, CHOH CH(CH2)zOH

I I I I
CH 3 CH3 CH3 CH3
Reduction of esters and lactones with lithium aluminium hydrideZ9.", lithium boro-
h ~ d r i d e ~ ' . ~sodium
', borohydride with activators33P36 and a wide variety of other
reducing reagents"~' 5 3 7P39 gives
' alcohols as products. For example, alkoxy-substituted
ethyl cyclopropane carboxylates are reduced, in excellent yields, to the corresponding
alcohols (equations 4 and 5)30.40. In some cases, reduction may be performed selectively
in the presence of other reducible functional groups such as halogens and nitro groups3'.
By the lithium aluminium hydride reduction of chiral lactones diols were readily formed.
This methodology has been used to prepare long-chain diols with remote chiral centres
without the need of resolution (equation 6)41.
RoxzEt
Lithium aluminium hydride (LAH) and lithium borohydride reduction of ortho esters
gives an allylic alcohol as major product with, in most cases, a small amount of the
Rod LIAIH,, OH
(4)
expected trio1 (equation 7)42. The allylic alcohol has been shown to be formed by
reduction of a decarboxylated intermediate.
/Co2R'
R-C-C02R'
\
C0,R'
- RC
/CH20H
\
CH2
+ FH20H
R-C-CH,OH
\
CH,OH
(7)
major minor
In general, esters are inert towards reduction by sodium borohydride (without

activators), except when neighbouring group participation assists the process or in the
case of a few aromatic, heterocyclic esters.
The reduction of an ester to an alcohol, followed by acetylation, is often the last step
in the synthesis of lepidopteran, and other, pheromones. This conversion can be
performed either ~ t e p w i s eor
~ ~in. a~ single
~ step (e.g. equation 8)45.
CH3(CH2)3
H
\
FC\
/
H
(CHWO2Me
-I. LAH,A
2. CH,COCI
CH3(CH2)3
\
/c=c\
H
/
H
(CH,),,CH,OCCH,
n = 3, 5, 7 , 8 , 9
(8)
Hydride transfer reductions of esters in the presence of boron trifluoride-etherate

results in the production of ethers46. The same transformation may also be performed
by using trichlorosilane and UV light. Electrochemical decarboxylation of hydroxypro-
line derivatives also produces ethers (equation 9)47. 3,4-Diarylcoumarins and 3.4,s-
H0,C-- go" n$"

II
COCH,
C-2e
HPH , CH30
II
COCH,
(9)
620 Jeffrey Hoyle
R I R I
Ar Ar
triarylfuranones (lactones) are also reduced to the ether level by the use of dimethyl
sulphide-borane complex, as exemplified in equation lo4'.
Attempts to produce cyclopropane carboxaldehydes by reduction of the correspond-
ing esters have resulted in ring-expanded ethers as shown in equation 1 I 3 O .
Thiol esters (RCOSR') are converted to sulphides with Raney nickel whilst thiono
esters (RCSOR') produce ethers with the same reagent4'.
Acyl halides are reduced to primary alcohols by LAH. Other hydride transfer reagents,
such as NaBH,, may also be employed50.
Chain shortening of acyl halides leads to excellent yields of nor-alcohols via a radical
-
chain reaction in the presence of dimethyl sulphide (equation 12)5'.
Me$
RCH,COX [RCH,OOH] RCH,OH (12)
LAH reduction of anhydrides also produces alcohols. With cyclic anhydrides, either
diols or lactones are formed depending upon the reaction conditions. In the first
laboratory synthesis of the first lignans to be found in humans, and animals, an anhydride
was identified as the key intermediate. Upon reduction with sodium borohydride in
DMF the anhydride yielded one lignan (a lactone) as shown in equation 13 whilst
reduction with LAH afforded another lignan (a diol) as shown in equation 1452.
Hov HOCH,
CH,OH
(14)
B. Formation of Aldehydes
While reduction of carboxylic acid derivatives usually leads to primary alcohols as
the major products, the methodology for halting the reduction at the aldehyde stage is
also well established and this has been reviewed recently by Cha53.
Carboxylic acids may be reduced to aldehydes, via imines, by reaction with lithium
in either ammonia o r a simple primary amine, followed by hydrolysis.
11. Synthetic uses of carboxylic acids 62 1
The use of boron-containing reagents for the conversion of carboxylic acids, and their
- ~ ’ . and lithium salts of
salts, into aldehydes has received much a t t e n t i ~ n ~ ~ Sodium
acid^^^.^^, and acids t h e m s e l ~ e s ~react ~ , two equivalents of thexylborane-di-
~ * ~ with
methyl sulphide complex to give extremely high yields of aldehydes at room temperature
(equation 15). A similar reaction also takes place if 9-borabicycloC3.3. llnonane (9-BBN)
is used as reducing agent58*69.
RCHO
Complex aluminium hydrides in pyridine with N,N-dimethylchloromethyleniminium
chloride6’ or in refluxing THF63 also produce excellent yields of aldehydes. Aldehydes
may also be formed by reaction of an acid with a Grignard reagent with a titanium-
containing catalyst followed by h y d r ~ l y s i s ~ ~ .
Esters may be readily reduced to aldehydes by use of either diaminoaluminium hydride
or by diisobutylaluminium hydride at low temperatures (equation 16)65. For example,
the protected methyl 3,5-dihydroxy-l-cyclohexaneacetate was reduced to the aldehyde
en route to 2,4-dioxaadamantane, as shown in the equation. A patent has been filed for
the hydrogenation of esters to aldehydes using either yttrium or zirconium oxides as
catalyP.
/CO,Me /CHO
HAI(i-Bu),
- 78°C
@ = TBDMSft-BuMe,Si-)
Acid chlorides have been reduced to aldehydes using LiAIH(OBu-t), at - 7 8 v 7 ,
with tributyltin h ~ d r i d e ~by~ catalytic
. ~ ~ , hydrogenation (Rosenmund
by chromium or tungsten hydrides7’ and with both sodium and complex copper
borohydrides in a polar aprotic ~ o l v e n t ~ The~ - ~latter
~ . reaction may be catalysed by
metal ions, in which case non-acyl halides present in the molecule being reduced are
unaffected7’. Polymer-supported hydrides have also been used to prepare aldehydes by
reduction of acyl ~ h l o r i d e s ~ ~ * ’ ~ .
Nor-aldehydes are produced from acyl chlorides via a radical reaction involving
-
treatment with TsCl in pyridine (equation 17)5’.
TsCl
RCH,COCI RCH,OOH pv RCHO (17)
In a synthetically very useful reaction, acyl halides have been converted into nor-
aldehydes by initial conversion into acylcobalt salophens followed by sunlamp irradia-
tion with nitrogen monoxide, in dichloromethane, and hydrolytic work-up, as shown in
equation 18s0~8*.
Disubstituted amides may be reduced to the aldehyde level by the use of lithium
622 Jeffrey Hoyle
I . h,NO
RCH,COCI ----+ RCH'CO-Co(sa1ophen) RCHO (18)
aluminium hydride although it is very difficult to stop the reaction at this stage. Alcohols
are nearly always produced as by-products and this reaction has been reviewed
previously in an earlier volume of the present series6'.
A special group of amides, Reissert compounds, may easily be converted into
aldehydes simply by treatment with sulphuric acid, as shown in equation 19"'. (Reissert
compounds are produced by reaction of a carboxylic acid with quinoline and cyanide
ion.)
Other special classes of amides such a 1-acylimidazoles and acylsulphonylhydrazides

(RCONHNHS02R'), where the aldehyde produced has no a-hydrogen atoms, may also
be converted into aldehydes by LAH and bases, respectivelya3. Also, the Sonn-Muller
procedure may be used for the conversion of N-phenyl arylamides into aldehydes by
treatment of the amide with phosphorus pentachloride followed by hydrolysis (equation
20).
ArCONHPh *, PCI,
1.
H30+* ArCHO
C. Formation of Amlnes
The formations of amines from carboxylic acid derivatives include the classical Curtius
and Schmidt reactions and the Hofmann rearrangement and the hydride reduction of
amides.
In the Schmidt reaction the acid is reacted with hydrazoic acid to give an intermediate
isocyanate, which upon hydrolysis yields the amine as shown in equation 21a4. A similar
functional group transformation may be performed in 51-86% yield, in a single pot, by
reaction of aromatic or heteroaromatic acids with thionyl chloride followed by hydroxy-
lamine-0-sulphonic acid in dry toluene under refluxe5.
Hofmann rearrangement of unsubstituted amides gives amines, again via the isocya-
natea6-88. The intermediate may be isolated if the reaction is performed under phase-
transfer conditionse9. Similarly, the Curtius rearrangement of acyl azides and the Lossen
rearrangement of RCONHOCOR also produce amines via the isocyanate upon hydro-
l y ~ i s " " - Using
~ ~ . the Hofmann rearrangement, N-protected 2,3- and 2,4-diaminobutyric
acids, needed for solid-phase peptide synthesis, have been prepared from N-protected
asparagine and glutamine, respectivelya6.
In general, the reduction of a wide structural variety of amides with hydride transfer
reagents3', b ~ r a n e ~ l or
. ~ by
' catalytic hydrogenation also produces amines (note the
exception of disubstituted amides with LiAIH, as discussed in Section 1I.B). In this
reaction no carbon atoms are lost, as shown in the preparation of m u s c i m 0 1 ~ (a

~*~~
potent, toxic GABA neurotransmitter agonist) by reduction of an isoxazole amide
(equation 22).
0
CH,NH
II \
CH,NH/C*oH BHWez, c H y y o H (22)
0-N 0-N
Disubstituted amides may be reduced to amines with trichl~rosilane~~.

Lactams may
be similarly reduced with sodium borohydride; tertiary &lactams have thus been
converted into tertiary cyclic amines (equation 23)95.
Acyl nitrile may be readily converted into the corresponding a-aminoketones by

reduction followed by hydrolysis as shown in equation 2496. The reduction is chemo-
selective since it can be performed in the presence of olefins, esters and ketones.
0 0
1I I , Zn/HOAc/Ac,O II
, RCCH NH
RCCN 2. HC1.A
D. Forrnatlon of Halides
There are very few ways to prepare a halide from an acid in good yields. The classical
Hunsdiecker method is one well-used exception although some others of limited
applicability are also available, and will be discussed.
Halides with one carbon atom fewer than the starting acid may be formed by the
Hunsdiecker reaction of bromine with silver salts of carboxylic acids. Except where the
acid is unsaturated, the reaction is of widespread applicability. In a short, stereoselective
synthesis of a sex pheromone of the citrus mealybug, Hanococcus citri (Risso), ( + )-cis
pinonic acid [prepared by oxidation of ( +)-a-pinene] was halodecarboxylated using the
Cristol-Firth variation of the Hunsdiecker reaction (equation 25)97.In more recent years,
thallium salts have been employed since these are more readily prepared and much more
easily purified than the silver salts9'. A radical reaction, involving organoantimony
compounds, has been used to form nor alkyl iodides from acids2'.
Alkyl fluorides have been produced, in 5 4 8 4 % yield, by treating acids with xenon
fluoride and H F (equation 26)99. This method was unsuccessful in the presence of
hydroxyl groups and so could not be used for the fluorodecarboxylation of cholic acid.
If acyl halides, with no a-H atoms, are heated with either Wilkinson's catalyst
[RhC1(Ph,),]lOO*lO1 or palladiumlo2, then alkyl halides are formed in reasonable yields.
Alkyl halides (CI, Br, I) are also obtainable from acyl halides by treatment with iodoform,
with amine catalysis103.
Arylmethyl acyl halides have been used to prepare arylmethyl halides via cobalt
salophens by irradiation in the presence of bromotrichloromethane". This react ion
624 Jeffrey Hoyle
X = I, Br
proceeds in a very similar fashion to the classical Hunsdiecker reaction, as discussed

above.
E. Formatlon of Nitriles and Isonitriles

The conversions of acid derivatives into nitriles are discussed below.
Carboxylic acids may be converted into nitriles simply by heating their ammonium
salts, by heating the acid with BrCN or ClCN to about 300°C or by heating with
ammonia followed by treatment with ethyl p o l y p h ~ s p h a t e ' ~Nitriles
~. are also produced
by heating acyl halides, which may be prepared in the same pot from the acid by reaction
with thionyl chloride, with sulphamide (equation 27)'".
N-Alkylated or N,N-dialkylated amides may be converted into nitriles under forcing

conditions using PCI,. This reaction is known as the von Braun reaction. A milder
process using phosphorus oxychloride has been used to perform the same conversion,
in excellent yieldlo6.
Unsubstituted amides, upon treatment with phosphorus pentoxide, and many other
dehydrating agents, such as cyanuric ~ h l o r i d e ' ~ 'N,N-dimethylchloromethyleniminium
,
chloride"' and trimethylsilylp~lyphosphate'~~ are converted into nitriles. Mild condi-
tions for this transformation are now well established' ' I and a trichloroacetyl
chloride/triethylamine combination was recently used to form the i-acetoxycyclopro-
panecarbonitrile (equation 28)' I '.
CO~NH, CN
R = H, CH,
Both amides and thioamides may be used to prepare nitriles under phase-transfer
conditions in yields in excess of 60%'l3, whilst thioamides are converted into nitriles
by reaction with 2,4-dichloro-5-nitropyrimidine1 14.
Formamides may be converted into isonitriles by reaction with trifluoromethane-
sulphonic acid at -78"C, in high yield, as exemplified in equation 29'". The formamide
may be conjugated to an olefin and such a reaction has been employed for the
preparation of isonitrin B, a metabolite produced by fungi of the genus Trichodvrrna
(equation 30)''6*11 7 .
+OSiMe,Bu-t
I
NC
Bu,NF, THF
0 GH NC
F. Decarboxylatlons and Decarbonylatlons

This section covers the decarbonylation and decarboxylation reactions that do not
result in a new carbonxarbon bond being formed. Such reactions are often of key
importance in synthetic sequence, since they allow the use of the activating qualitics of
the acid group and then allow it to be removed. Both replacement of the carboxyl group
by a hydrogen atom and the production of alkenes in a P-type elimination process are
covered.
Decarboxylations with the introduction of nor functionalities have been discussed in
Sections 1I.A-E.
1. Replacement by hydrogen (RCOX -+ RH)

Aromatic acids, upon heating with copper quinoline, are readily decarboxylated to
yield aromatic hydrocarbons. 2-Pyrazinyl ketones, important synthetic building blocks
that are hard to prepare by other means, have been formed by decarboxylation of
5-aroyl-2-pyrazine carboxylic acids by pyrolysis over copper (equation 3 1)'18. A similar
decarboxylation has also been performed in the preparation of hexaazatriphenylene (a
useful polynuclear ligand) from its hexacarboxylic acid derivative' 19. 5-substituted-2-
furoic acids are decarboxylated rapidly, simply by warming in chloroform with TFA
catalysis' 2 0 .
626 Jeffrey Hoyle
Decarboxylation of alkylated or arylated malonic acids, by heating at 6&8OoC with

copper in acetonitrile, gives a nearly quantitative yield of the monoacid (equation 32)12'.
In addition, cadmium salts of aromatic acids, or any salt in the presence of cadmium
ions, readily disproportionate upon heating, to give a hydrocarbon and an aromatic
diacid' ".
Decarboxylation of most simple aliphatic acids, to form alkanes, is usually a more

difficult process than for aromatic acids. However, the reaction occurs readily in the
presence of electron-withdrawing groups such as cyano, nitro, aryl, keto and trihalo in
the a - p ~ s i t i o n ' ~If~ substituents
. allow decarboxylation to occur via an enol, with a
six-membered transition state, then the reaction is particularly facile, such as with a
,8-keto substituent. In this case, the reaction is particularly useful in synthesis and is
readily performed simply by warming the acid, or ester, in wet D M S O containing sodium
chloride (equation 33), or other salt^'^"-^^, or in the gas p h a ~ e ' ~ ' . ' ~Although
~. these
latter decarboxylations are carried out in the gas phase, they may be performed on a
large scale and are thus synthetically useful.
SR SR
NaCI, DMSO
C0,Me H,O,A
(33)
C0,Me
Enantioselective decarboxylation of a diester has been performed in high enantiomeric

excess by (i) hydrolysis of the diester to the ester acid, with pig liver esterasel3', (ii)
activation of the acid and (iii) decarboxylation, as shown in equation 34133.
PLE , I . (COCI),
I
0-
3. r-BUSH. A
Z = C0,Me
Malonic esters and /I-ketoesters are readily decarboxylated by initial transesterifica-
tion to the corresponding acid, catalysed by onium ions (equation 35)134and by many
other methods. The extremely important synthetic aspects of these reactions have been
reviewed by K rapcho12s . L 2 6 .
Palmitic acid has been converted into pentadecane, in 85% yield, by treatment of an
organoantimony compound, formed via a radical reaction, with oxygen-free HC12*.
' x c ; " Z R "
R'
n-C,,H,,C02H,
cat, A RXH
X
R'
(35)
X =COCH3, CO,Et, CO,Me, etc.

Aliphatic acids that are hard to decarboxylate by other means may usually be
decarboxylated by conversion to the 9-hydroxy-10-chlorodihydrophenanthrene ester, or
the 9-hydroxy-10-phenylthiodihydrophenanthrene ester, followed by treatment with
tributyltin hydride*35*t36. It is also possible to convert the alcohol portion of an ester
into a hydrocarbon by reduction with potassium in t-butylamine in the presencc of
18-crown-6 at room temperature (equation 36)13'. This reaction has been performed on
a series of diesters of sterols and related compounds. The reaction is regioselective since
unhindered esters tend to give alcohols whilst hindered esters give hydrocarbons as
shown in equation 37138.
H-abstraction
RH
Both symmetrical and unsymmetrical stilbenes may be DreDared. in reasonable vields.

,-- - - I
from their corresponding aryl cinnamates by decarboxyla&e pyrolysis in a sealed tube

at 320°C (equation 38)'39.
Decarboxylation of alkyl-1,l. I -tricarboxylic esters to alkyl-1,l -dicarboxylate esters

occurs readily at low temperatures by use of either sodium ethoxide or LDA in THt4'.
Since a third carboalkoxy group may be readily introduced into a malonate, this
628 Jeffrey Hoyle
C0,Et C0,Et
<Co2Et I . base
A tC0,Et 1. base RfC0,Et LDA R<Co2Et
2. CIC0,Et
C0,Et
CO2Et C0,Et C0,Et
(39)
decarboxylation process serves as a means by which controlled mono alkylation may
be performed in malonic acid synthesis, as exemplified by equation 39.
Primary or secondary acyl halides produce good yields of hydrocarbons, by dehalo-
carbonylation, upon heating with tripropylsilane in the presence of t - b u t y l p e r ~ x i d e ' ~ ~ .
2. Formation of alkenes [C(X)-C(C0Y) + C=C]

Carboxylic acids with /I-H atoms undergo facile oxidative decarboxylation to give
alkenes in the presence of lead tetraacetate (equation 40)'4L. Many side reactions are
possible, including rearrangements and cyclizations, and these should be carefully
considered before this reaction is used synthetically. Good yields of the expected alkene
are usually obtained with tertiary carboxylic acids or with y-ketoacids. Many other
oxidizing agents may be used including Ag(ll), Mn(II1) and Pd(ll)'42-'44. Pd(OAc), also
converts allylic /I-keto esters into a$-unsaturated ketones, as shown in equation 41 144.
I I
-c-c- PMOAc),, \
I I
H C0,H
& CO,CH,CH=CH,
P4OAc)z)
I . ?-his(diphenyl-
phosphinokthane
Oxidative decarboxylation of 1.2-diacid groups with lead tetraacetate also leads to

alkenes (equation 42). This reaction is stereoselective but it is not stereospecific, and it
may be brought about by using other oxidizing reagents such as rhodium c ~ m p l e x e s ' ~ ' .
/j-Hydroxyacids may be converted into alkenes under very mild conditions using
diethyl azodicarboxylate (equation 43)'45. The same reaction also occurs for p-lactams,
presumably via the /]-amino a ~ i d ' ~ ' . ' ~ ' .
Other reagents may also be used for this c o n ~ e r s i o n.'sI' ~ ~For
~ example, /I-hydroxy-
acids are converted stereospecifically into alkenes by catalysis with tungsten tetra-
chloride in basic acetonitrile (equation 44)"'.
EtOzCN=NCOzEt
(43)
OH 0,
C4
' 0 C . Ph,P
I
OR
1 1 . Synthetic uses of carboxylic acids 629
R' R"'
Esters with P-H atoms undergo thermal elimination producing a carboxylic acid and
an alkene (equation 45). This reaction is usually performed in the gas phase. By this
method, allylic acetates have been usefully converted into dienesI5'.
B-Lactones are stereospecifically decarboxylated, to yield alkenes, by heating in

non-acidic solvents' ". The presence of acids in the reaction medium causes configura-
tional scrambling.
G. lnterconversion Between Carboxyiic Acid Derivatives

The interconversion between carboxylic acid derivatives is very important in the use
of these types of compounds in organic synthesis. In most instances the procedures are
simple and occur in high yields. lnterconversion between acid derivatives allows access
to all functional group interconversions discussed in Section 1I.A-F and all the
carbon-carbon and C-Y bond formations discussed in the rest of this chapter. This ease
of interconversion is also of use in purification procedures where it may be easier to
purify a compound with a particular acid derivative functional group but better from
a synthetic point of view to have a different functional group present for reaction. For
example, carboxylic acids are usually very easy to purify by recrystallization; acyl halides
are often much more difficult to obtain in a pure state.
Interconversions (especially acid t* ester) are also important in the area of protecting
groups. Carboxylic acids are usually protected as esters which are removed at a later
step of the synthetic sequence. This field has been reviewed by H a ~ l a m ' ~ ~ .
The general discussion herein is necessarily brief and the reader is referred to the
excellent reviews of E ~ r a n t o ' ~Beckwith",
~, Ansell" and Ogliaruso and Wolfe20.21for
more detailed coverage of the preparations of acid derivatives. The preparation of lactone
and lactam target molecules is such an important synthetic use of acid derivatives that
this subject is considered, in the present review, as the synthesis of heterocycles which
are covered in Section V.
Carboxylic acids may be produced by simple hydrolysis of any of the other acid
derivatives. Acyl halides' 5 5 are more easily hydrolysed than anhydrides' 56 and es-
tersl 57-160 , which are more readily hydrolysed than amides'61.'6z. Hydrolysis either
under phase-transfer condition^'^^ or using ultrasound157 tends to both speed up the
reactions and produce higher yields. Hydrolysis of esters (especially diesters) with pig
liver esterases (PLE) is now widely accepted as a means of exerting stereochemical
control in the process132*164. For example, meso-dimethyl cyclopropane-1,2-dicarbox-
ylate is hydrolysed, by PLE, into the (-)-(lR, 2s) mono acid derivative as shown in
equation 46. This compound may then be reduced to produce either one or other of the
y-lactones in an enantioselective fashion. Such reactions are difficult if enzymes are not
employed; this field has been reviewed recently'65.
Iodotrimethylsilane has been used as a versatile dealkylating agent of esters, under
neutral conditions: the intermediate silyl ethers are easily hydrolysed into acids. 'The
synthetic utility of this overall process is shown in the deprotection of the t-butyl ester
-
630 Jeffrey Hoyle
LIBH,
- C0,Me J
1
PLE
C
' OZH
COZBU-t COzH
of the 7-pyrrolocephalosporin derivative shown in equation 47. Attempted deprotection

by nornial methods failed due to the instability of the functional groups present to acidic
conditions166. The reaction is selective since the acetate group present was left un-
touched. Another, rather unusual, ester to acid deprotection reaction involves the gentle
heating of the ester with phenol, as exemplified in equation 48. This procedure has been
used recently in a B-lactam antibiotic synthesis167.Esters may also be reductively cleaved
to give carboxylates168.
Esterification of acids with a l ~ o h o l s ~ ~a l~k.e' n~e~~,' ~ ' - 'and
~ ~ alkyl halides' 74, and
of acid salts with alkylating agents'75 and transesterification mediated by iodotri-
methylsilane'66, are all well-established routes by which acids may be converted into
esters.
Cyclic anhydrides may be converted into lactones by reaction with Zn/HOAc,
hydrogen/catalyst, sodium borohydride or lithium aluminium hydride; the latter reagent
sometimes gives d i o l ~ " ~ - and ' ~ ~ it is possible to selectively react with only one of the
carbonyl groups, to give a h y d r o ~ y l a c t o n e " ~ B-Ethylthio-
*~~~. and B-phenylthioacrylic
acids have been converted into y- and &lactones by reaction with carbonyl compounds
and epoxides, r e ~ p e c t i v e l y ' ~ ~ ~ ' ~ ' .
Acyl iodides, which are highly reactive acylating agents, and an excellent source of
an acyl synthon, may be readily prepared from acid derivatives by treatment with
diiodosilane'
Amides may be made by reaction of esters with ammonia or amines with catalysis'82.
High yields of amides are produced from acids if they are first converted into mixed
sulphonic-carboxylic anhydrides, under phase-transfer ~onditions"~followed by reflux-
ing with an amine (equation 49) or via acyl chlorides followed by treatment with
hexamethyldi~ilazane''~. A potentially useful and novel preparation of amides is the
reaction of titanium(1V)- or zirconium(1V)-complexed carboxylates with amines'85.
Amides have also been formed in high yield, at O"C, by desulphurization of thioamides
with nitrogen tetroxideIB6.
RNH,
I + RCONHR"
RCO2H + R'SO2CI RCOOSOZR J

1 (49)
Dehydration of acids with phosphorus pentoxide and other reagent gives anhy-
d r i d e ~ ~ ~ * which
''', may also be produced by reaction of carboxylates with acyl halides
under phase-transfer conditions'". In the latter case unsymmetrical anhydrides may be
prepared, whilst the former case is generally only useful for symmetrical anhydrides.
Both cyclic and acyclic anhydrides may be formed in many different ways by dehydration
of carboxylic acids. One modern method involves the use of trimethylsilylethoxy-
acetylene in an inert ~olvent''~.
Thiolesters are the most easily prepared from acid derivatives by treatment of acyl
halides with thiols, or by successive treatment of an ester with LDA, chlorotrimethyl-
silane and hydrogen ~ulphide"~.Thioacids may be prepared by reaction of esters, acyl
halides or anhydrides with hydrogen sulphide'" and thiolactams may be synthesized
from lactams by treatment with phosphorus pentasulphide' 92.
111. a-FUNCTIONALIZATION OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS AND

THEIR DERIVATIVES
a-Functionalized acid derivatives are often required for carbon4arbon bond-forming
reactions and the synthesis of heterocyclic compounds as discussed in Sections IV and
V below. These derivatives are often key intermediates obtained from other acid
derivatives and are sometimes the targets of synthesis. This important aspect of the uses
of acid derivatives is covered in this section.
Functionalization in the a-position is facilitated by the relative ease by which the
hydrogens on a carbon atom adjacent to the acid derivative grouping may be removed.
This facility is significantly increased if two or more acid-derived groups are attached
to a single carbon atom that bears at least one hydrogen atom. Out of two or three
acid-derived groups at least one may be removed by a decarbonylation/decarboxylation
reaction (see Section ILF), making the a-functionalization processes potentially even
more useful.
a-Halogenation of acids is commonly performed using the Hell-Volhard-Zellinskii
reaction, involving bromine or chlorine in the presence of a phosphorus trihalide
(equation SO)' 93* 94.
RCH2C02H + X, + RCHC0,H
I
X
632 Jeffrey Hoyle
Iodine may be introduced by using a modification of the above procedure using iodine
with chorosulphonic acid as the catalyst195s196,or by refluxing a carboxylic acid with
iodine and a copper salt197.
a-Halogenation may also be performed by reaction of an acid derivative with a base
followed by a source of positive halogen such as N-halosuccinimides. In one such
method, fluorine has been successfully introduced by reaction of acids with LDA
followed by acetyl hypofluorite (CH3COOF)198.
a-Haloesters may be prepared by a-halogenation of an acid, followed by esterifica-
tion 193.199. a-Bromoesters may also be prepared by reaction of malonic ester analogues
with bromine, initiated by irradiation with a mercury lampzo0.
a-Haloesters are very useful in synthesis, for example, in the Reformatsky reaction and
the Darzens condensation (Section IV), in the preparation of 0-silyl ketene a ~ e t a l s ’ ~ ~ ,
in the preparation of acyliminoesters (which are used to prepare unnatural a-amino acid
derivatives, equation 5 1)’01, in a novel stereocontrolled, electrochemical synthesis of
~-lactamszoz, in the Blaise reaction (equation 52)’03 and in the Arbuzov reaction where
a phosphonoacetate group is produced (equation 53)’04. These organophosphorus
compounds may be used to form a-alkylated acrylate esters by reaction with for-
maldehyde.
Br
I
RCHC0,R’ ‘E10)3Ph (EtO),PO-CHC0,R’ (53)
I
R
a-Bromolactones, derived from L-ascorbic acid, have been prepared from the corre-
sponding hydroxy compounds as depicted in equation 54205-207.Such compounds are
OH
OH
I /OH I
CH, /OH
CH,-CH HBr ‘CH
(54)
AcO Br
1 1. Synthetic uses of carboxylic acids 633
easily purified and characterized and have been used for the synthesis of some novel
furanone chirons (i.e., chiral synthons), useful in natural product synthesiszo7.
a-Haloamides may be synthesized by reaction of a-anions of amides with electrophilic
halogen sources. These products are useful in a variety of synthetic sequences and have
been used in base-induced reactions which give a series of linear and cyclic polyfunctional
products”’.
Both primary and secondary a-bromoamides react with a range of a-aminoacids to
form esters in the presence of silver oxide, in acetonitrile, as shown in equation 55”’.
The chiral centre in the a-bromoamide remains unchanged whilst the chiral centre from
the amino acid is epimerized.
a-Amination of malonates has been performed by the reaction shown in equation 56

using 0-(2,4-dinitrophenyl)hydroxylaminezlo. Such products are especially useful for the
preparation of unnatural amino acids and heterocyclic compounds.
No,
8-Hydroxy-*-amino acids may be prepared by reaction of 2,3-epoxyacids with
diethylamine in the presence of tetraisopropoxytitanium211.z1z . Thi s reaction also occurs
with the corresponding amides” I . Both mono- and disubstituted a-amino malonates
have been prepared by insertion of bis(methoxycarbony1)arbene into the N-H bond
of a primary or secondary amine, in the presence of copper(I1) acetylacetonate (equation
57)213.
/I-Hydroxy-a-azidoesters may be prepared from 2,3-epoxyesters by reaction with

hydrazoic acid. The reaction occurs with almost exclusive C-2 ring opening and no
epimerization of either potential chiral centre is observed2I2. These azidoesters may be
readily converted into B-hydroxy-a-amino acids of biological interest and other com-
pounds and are thus important synthetic intermediates.
r-Amino acids may be converted into a-hydroxyacids by aqueous sodium nitritc, in
sulphuric acid. In this fashion, pure enantiomers of /I-chlorolactic acid (a useful
three-carbon chiron with three different functionalities) has been prepared in reasonable
yield (equation %)’I4.
a-Hydroxyesters, and hence acids, may be prepared by several other methods
involving direct functionalization. These methods include hydroxylation of ester enolates
with molybdenum pentoxide/pyridine/HM PT215and reduction of a-ketoesters216J1 7 .
Malonates have also been a-diazotized in a diazotransfer reaction involving reaction
634 Jeffrey Hoyle
with tosyl azide, and other azides, under phase-transfer conditions as depicted in
equation 59’”. Such diazotized compounds may then be used in carbon<arbon
bond-forming reactions, using carbene methodology. For example, such compounds
with a silyl e n d ether2I9 give a cyclopropane (equation 60) which may be converted
into a wide range of 4-oxoalkanoic acid derivatives by ring-opening reactions. A similar
reaction occurs, albeit in lower yield, if the silyl enol ether is replaced by an alkene2”.
Decomposition of a-diazoesters, catalysed by rhodium(l1) carboxylates, stereospecific-

ally produces cis enoates (equation 61)’”.
vph
a-Sulphenylation of esters is an important reaction that has been reviewed by
a-Thio groups may be introduced into esters and lactones by reaction with a base
-
followed by a disulphide (equation 62)’’,.
=o I . LPh,S,
2. DA
j-Ketoesters may be converted into j-ketosulphones by r-sulphenylation and S-

oxidation followed by hydrolysis and decarboxylation of the acid group. Diphenylthio
esters may be readily converted into a-ketoesters by reaction with iodine, followed by
acidic work-up (equation 63). a-Ketoesters are useful synthetic intermediates and have
been used in the synthesis of a$-dehydro amino acids and peptides224-226
Seleno groups are often introduced at the a-position of carboxylic derivatives and
then subsequently eliminated, via oxidation, in order to generate an a$-unsaturated
compound2’’. Active hydrogen-containing compounds such as malonates may be
1 I . Synthetic uses of carboxylic acids 635
a-nitrosated by reaction with nitrous acid or alkyl nitrites. If tautomerizable hydrogens

are present then oximes are formed”’.
IV. CARBONXARBON BOND FORMATION USING CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

AND THEIR DERIVATIVES
The stereocontrolled construction of complex organic molecules relies absolutely upon
the formation of new carbon-carbon bonds in a controlled fashion, whilst building up
the molecular framework. Carboxylic acid derived functional groups play a pivotal role
in these constructions.
This subject is divided into new carbon-carbon bond formations (i) at the carbonyl
group, (ii) at the a-position and (iii) at the /?-position and remote locations.
The first section deals with acylations, reactions with organometallic compounds and
other reactions. The second part covers alkylations, condensations with aldehydes and
ketones and other acid derivatives, and other reactions. The last section deals mainly
with Michael-type reactions of a$-unsaturated acid derivatives with a few other relevant
processes.
A. Carbon-Carbon Bond Formation at the Carbonyl Group

Carbon-carbon bond-forming reactions at the carbonyl carbon are further sub-
divided into four subjects, namely acylations, reactions with organometallic reagents,
acyloin-type reactions and others, with some unavoidable overlap.
1. Acylation reactions
Acylations involve carbonxarbon bond formation at the carbonyl group of an acid
derivative and occur at both aliphatic and aromatic carbon atoms. The formation, from
acyl halides with silver salts or Lewis acids and amides by deamination, and reactions
of acylium ions, has recently been reviewedzz9. Jn aromatic acylations, a Lewis acid
catalyst is usually required. Cyclizations, involving C-C bond formation between the
carbon atom of a carbonyl group and an aromatic carbon atom, are considered as
aromatic acylations in the present work. Reactions of a-anions of acid derivatives with
other carboxylic acid derivatives could be considered as acylations o r as C-C bond
formation at the z-position. In this review the latter approach will be used (see Section
1V.B).
Aromatic acylations are historically important in the formation of aromatic ketones.
The most common reaction is the Friedel-Crafts acylation of an aromatic compound
with an acyl halide in the presence of a Lewis acid catalyst (equation 64). For example,
thiophenes and 2-acylthiophenes have been acylated with long-chain acyl halides to give
2-acyl- or 2,5-diacylthiophenes, respectively230. These products were then desulphurized
and unsaturated; long-chain fatty acids and alcohols, with 2&32 carbon atoms, were
produced. The FriedelLCrafts reaction is of very wide scope, is usually prevented by the
presence of electron-withdrawing groups and has been reviewed by MarchZ3l.The ;icy1
halide may be replaced by acids or anhydrides; however, it should be noted that the
use of esters usually produces Friedel-Crafts alkylation.
A related reaction is the Fries rearrangement, where an aryl ester is heated with a
Lewis acid to give either orrho- or para-phenolic ketones. For example, para-crcsol
636 Jeffrey Hoyle
ArH + RCOX -catalyst

0
I1
ArCR
undergoes monoacylation, via the 0-acylated adduct (ester), when reacted with one
equivalent of either acetyl or benzoyl chloride with aluminium trichloride catalysis. A
second acylation may be performed, using a different acyl chloride if necessary, by adding
a second equivalent of acyl halide, as shown in equation 65232.
Me Me Me
The high temperatures required for Fries rearrangement often cause alkyl groups to
either migrate or be eliminated. This problem has been overcome, in one instance, by
using titanium tetrachloride in place of AICI, as the catalyst233.A reaction similar to
the Fries rearrangement has also been carried out involving promotion of the process
by ortho-lithiation as shown in equation 66234.
R' R'
The Fries rearrangement initiated p h o t ~ c h e m i c a l l y ~has

~ ~been
- ~ ~successfully
~ used
for the preparation of o-hydroxyacetophenones from substituted phenyl acetates using
potassium carbonate as the catalyst, in 8&90% yield, as shown in equation 67. This
reaction produced only very poor yields when attempted by the standard aluminium
chloride catalysed procedure237.
k R
R' = H, CH,
R = H, CH,, OCH,,CI
Acylation of aromatic compounds that are highly activated towards electrophilic

substitution may be performed by reaction of the aromatic compound with an anhydride
in the presence of pyridine, at room temperature, in nearly quantitative yield (equation
68)238.This is a much milder alternative to the FriedelLCrafts procedure.
COCF,
Pyrazoles have been directly acylated with oxalyl chloride which, following de-
carbonylation, gave a pyrazole acid chloride (equation 69)239.
r COCOCIi COCl
Cyclopent[b]indolones are important synthetic targets that require 3-acylindoles as

precursors. These may be prepared in very good yields by reaction of an acyl halide
with the zinc salt of indole (prepared from the Grignard reagent and zinc chloride)
followed by hydrolysis (equation 70)240.
Q-
- N C
Q
O
f-R N
I H
Z~CI
3-Acylindoles may also be prepared by Friedel-Crafts acylation of N-protected indoles
(a rather lengthy procedure)241and by reaction of acyl halides by the requisite Grignard
reagent (which tends to give diacylation and low yields). These and other methods have
been reviewed242.
Aromatic 2-acylmethylidene-3-methylthiazolines,compounds that possess anti-
inflammatory and analgesic properties, may be synthesized in one-pot by acylation of
thiazolium salts by activated carboxylic acids (equation 71)243,
Cyclization, causing formation of a new C-C bond at an aromatic carbon atom, is

a very powerful reaction which may be performed by intramolecular acylation. Thus,
polyphosphate ester (PPE) catalysed cyclization was used to give a tetralone in high
yield (equation 72)244. The product was subsequently aromatized and underwent
phenolic coupling to give a binaphthyl backbone used in the synthesis of gossypol.
A similar reaction was used to prepare 9-oxoacridan-4-carboxylic acids
(equation 73)245-248.
638 Jeffrey Hoyle
Acylation of carbanions is an important C-C bond-forming reaction that occurs at

the carbonyl group of an acid derivative. The control of C-acylation versus 0-acylation
in enolates has recently been reviewed249.The most common reaction is of an anion of
a diactivated compound of type ZCH2Z’(Z and Z‘ may be an acid derivative or CHO,
CN, NO2, S 0 2 R etc.) with an acyl halide, as depicted in equation 74. The product of
the reaction actually contains three activating groups and further reaction often ensues.
RCOX + -<z,
Z
- R C O X Z
z (74)
Carbanions may also be formed from monoactivated substrates (e.g. RCOCH,). In

these cases stronger bases are required to form the anion. Low temperatures are also
often necessary in order to ensure that C-alkylation occurs in preference to 0-
alkylati~ns~~~.
The dilithium salts of 2-trimethylsilylmethylanilides are acylated by esters, in basic
media at low temperatures, to initially give side-chain acylation (equation 75)’”. In a
subsequent step, ring closure and deoxysilylation gives 2-substituted indoles.
R 8,-I
R k,.I
Either allylic or vinylic ketones may be formed by reaction of acyl halides, or

anhydrides, with alkenes in the presence of a strong base such as LDA (equation 76)252.
Ketones with a-H atoms may be readily acylated by reaction with esters, via their
a-carbanions as shown in equation 77, to form /3-diketones. If the ester is a formate then
a /3-ketoaldehyde is produced. If unsymmetrical ketones are used then they usually react
at the least substituted side, as expected.
+ (CH,CO),O ---+
b
Similar acylations occur with a-carbanions formed from a variety of compounds
including nitriles, sulphoxides and sulphones. For example, imides react with the anion
of dimethyl sulphone to give w-amido-8-ketosulphones, which are useful synthetic
intermediateszs3.The sulphur functionalities may be later usefully removed by reductive
desulphurization. Dianions, for example of ketones, react at the least acidic site in the
first instance. Thus, with two equivalents of ester, 1,3,5-triketones may be produced.
Acylation of 1-alkoxy-1-siloxycyclopropanes yields ring-opened y-ketoesters with
various catalysts (equation 78)254.
$:: - R’COCI
0
II
R’CCHzCH2COzR (78)
Acylation of alkenes and alkynes is a very important means by which new C-C
bonds are formed. These reactions have recently been reviewed229.
Trisubstituted alkenes react with alkyl acylium salts to give a$-unsaturated ketones
in reasonable yieldszss, whilst butadiene may be stereoselectively acylated to produce
trans ketone^^^^.^^' . However, in the presence of acetic anhydride, this latter reaction
produces unsaturated ketone acetates as shown in equation 7gZs8.
/
- -Rev[ Rcw
RCOX +
OAc
(79)
OAc
Alkenes react with CH,CO+BF,- in acetonitrile to give, unexpectedly, oxazines
(equation 80) via a c y l a t i ~ n2-Methylpropene
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . has been converted, regioselectively,
into 1,3,6,8-tetraalkyl-2,7-naphthyridinesby reaction with 4 equivalents of an acylium
salt, followed by treatment with liquid ammonia in a one-pot process (equation
8 1)26‘-263.
640 Jeffrey Hoyle
)=zmRqlR I . 4RCO‘X-
R R
Vinyl silanes react with a,/?-unsaturated acyl halides, in the presence of tin(1V) chloride,
to give bicyclic ketones upon acidic work-up (equation 82)264. This methodology has
been used in the synthesis of naturally occurring k e t ~ f u r a n s ~ ~ ~ .
2. H,Ot
COCl TMS
Allylic halides are acylated by acyl halides, in the presence of aluminium chloride, to
givc overall addition to the double bond (equation 83)266.The products were used to
produce synthetically useful, 1,Cdicarbonyl compounds in several more steps.
Alkenynes complexed to transition metals react with acylium salts at the alkene site.
Good yields of alkynyl ketones are produced by this process, in the presence of
nucleophiles (equation 84)267.268.
CH3 0
1. complexation I II
2, R C O + X ~ ’ HC-C-C-CH,--C-R
//CH2
HCECC (84)
\
CH, N NU- I
Nu
Acyl halides react with trimethylsilylalkynes, with aluminium trichloride catalysis, to
give acylation as shown in equation 85. If the acyl chloride possesses a,@-disubstitution
and it is p,y-unsaturated, then cyclopentenones are formed and a rather surprising, but
useful, synthetic route to spiro[4.4]-nona-2,6-dienones is produced as exemplified in
equation 86269.
0
II
aR
AICI,
RCOCl + R’CECSiMe, RCC-CR’
SiMe,
+ RC-CSiMe,
AlCI,
0
a,/?-Unsaturated acyl chlorides react with alkynes, with Lewis acid catalysis, to give
chlorocyclopent-2-enonesas shown in equation 87’”. Further processing, with silver
perchlorate and triethylamine, to remove the halogen from the product was used in
order to create an exocyclic double bond. This compound was then used to prepare the
antibiotic methylenomycin B in 47% yield270.
'R
2. Reactions of acid derivatives with organometallic reagents

Carboxylic acids and their derivatives usually react with a wide range of organome-
tallic reagents to give ketones and aldehydes. These and similar reactions involve new
carbonxarbon bond formation at the carbonyl group and are discussed below.
Carboxylic acids react with Grignard reagents, in the presence of dichlorotriphcnyl-
-
phosphorane, to give ketones (equation 88)271*272.
RC0,H + R'MgX RCOR' (88)
In the synthesis of Prelog-Djerassi lactone, Hacini and Santelli have reacted (-)-
trans-pulegenic acid with methyllithium to give the methyl ketone in a highly stcreo-
controlled fashion as shown in equation 89273.
Lithium formate reacts with Grignard reagents to give aldehydes in excellent yields.
Reduction and halogenation completes a neat overall homologation of the original alkyl
halide from which the Grignard reagent was preparedz74. Lithium carboxylates react
with organolithium compounds to give ketones, upon aqueous ~ o r k - u p ~ ' ~ . ~ ' ~ .
In most instances, esters react with Grignard reagents to give tertiary alcohols whilst
thioesters react with lithium dialkylcopper reagents to give good yields of ketone^^^^.^^'.
2-Pyridyl esters, which may contain bromo, ester and keto functionalities, react with
lithium dialkylcuprates, at - 78"C, to give very high yields of ketones (equation 90)277.
'
This and other reactions of 2-pyridylesters have been reviewed279.
0
RCO + R,'CuLi RCR'
II
Esters react with trimethylsilylmethylmagnesium chloride, in the presence of cer-

ium(i1i) chloride, to give a tertiary alcohol which spontaneously deoxysilylates to an
ally1 silane (equation 91)280--28z. Ally1 silanes are very useful in annulation and other
synthetic reactions2s3, and this preparation is of wide synthetic utility since it may be
performed with acetals and halogens present in the reacting molecules. A similar process
also occurs if the ester is replaced by an acyl halidezs4.
642 Jeffrey Hoyle
CeCI,
RCozMe TMSCH,MgCI ' TMS -TMSOH R
R
OH
Stereocontrolled C-C bond-forming ring closure of a lactone has been performed
by reaction of an ester with an internal Grignard reagent, formed at the a-position to
the carbonyl group of the eventual lactone (equation 92)285.
y-Lactones also react with Grignard reagents to give 1,4-diols upon acid work-up
(equation 93)286.
0 RMg'b L O H (93)
OH
Phthalides react with I,l-dibromoalkanes to give enol ethers, in the presence of zinc
metal and titanium tetrachloride, in T H F with TMEDA (equation 94). This reaction
"'m R'q
has been shown to proceed via organotitanium speciesz8'. The products are benzylidene
phthalans, which under acid catalysis are equilibrated to give isobenzofurans (equation
95); these are useful as dienes in Diels-Alder reactions.
+ RCHBr, 2
TiCl
(94)
Zn
R' R'
0 R
H
Under similar conditions esters and thiolesters react with (trimethylsily1)bromo-

methane to give (Z)-alkenylsilanes as the major products, via the intermediacy of
low-valent titanium complexes (equation 96)288.
R
RC0,R' + Me,SiCH,Br Zn (96)
R'O SiMe,
Dihalomethanes react with a-haloesters, at - 78°C with LDA in THF, to give

a,a,a’-trihaloketones in a regiospecific manner (equation 97)289.Such products are useful
in a wide range of reactions including the Favorskii rearrangement290 and the synthesis
of polyhalogenated alcohols29 ’.
0
x 1.LDA
(97)
X x X‘
X, X’, X” = halogens
Ester homologation may be performed in reasonable yield by reaction of dibromo-
methyllithium (prepared in siru) with esters, in the presence of tetramethylpiperidine.
The lithium alkynolate produced is then quenched with the requisite alcohol in acid
- -
solution (equation 98)292.
R’OH
RC02R’ RCECOLi RCH,CO,R’ (98)
H
Grignard reagents react with dialkyl oxalates to give a-ketoesters at -80°C and this
methodology has been utilized for the preparation of esters of 2-0x0-3-alkenoic acids.
These esters are key intermediates in some synthetic routes to c e p h a l o ~ p o r i n s This
~~~.
method is advantageous over those previously reported since it is a simple, one-pot,
reproducible procedure that uses commercially available materials.
Acyl halides react under mild conditions with a wide variety of lithium dialkylcopper
reagents to give excellent yields of ketones (equation 99). If oxygen is not excluded then
esters are also produced, which in some cases are the major products. This reaction has
been much used in the synthesis of natural p r o d u ~ t s ~The ~ ~acyl
. ~ halide
~ ~ . used may
have a wide range of structures and may contain such functional groups as esters, iodides,
ketones, nitriles and nitro groups.
RCOX + RiCuLi ---+ RCOR’ (99)

Other organometallic reagents may be used to prepare ketones from acyl halides
including organocadmium reagents’96, organomercury reagents’” and alkyl organosi-
lanes in the presence of palladium . The reaction of acyl halides with
Grignard reagents usually produces tertiary alcohols. However, in the presence of metal
halides and at low temperature, ketones may be isolated in good yield^^^'^^^'.
Acyl halides react with organolithiums to give geminal haloalcohols, which easily give
cyclopropanols if the lithium reagent has an a-halogen atom (equation 100)303-305 Such
. 1
products are synthetically very important since they are easily transformed into homo-
enolate derivatives.
CI
The reaction of most amides with Grignard reagents gives low yields of a mixture of
ketones, alcohols and amines. However, disubstituted formamides react cleanly with
Grignard reagents to give tertiary amines as depicted in equation 101306, which is known
as the Bouveault reaction.
-
644 Jeffrey Hoyle
R,NCHO + 2MgXR' R,NCHR; (101)

Disubstituted amides react with organolithium compounds to give excellent yields of
ketone^^^'-^^'. co-Iodoalkanamides are cyclized internally to give cyclic ketones by
reaction with the internal organolithium centre (equation 102)3l o . The organometallic
reagent is formed by reaction with t-BuLi in T H F at low temperature. Ketones with
four- to seven-membered rings were formed in good yields but attempts to produce
larger rings resulted in failure.
n = 3,4, $ 6
Some acid derivatives also react with alkynylboranes to give a,S-alkynylketones as
-
shown in equation 1033'1.
(R'C-C),B + 3RCOX 3RCOCECR' (103)
3. Acyloin reaction
The acyloin reaction of carboxylic acid esters is especially useful for the preparation
of large carbocyclic ring systems.
Esters heated in xylene with sodium undergo the acyloin reaction-a dimerization
involving C-C bond formation to produce an a-hydroxyketone (also known as an
acyloin) as shown in equation lM312.If the two esters are part of the same molecule
then a cyclic product is formed by intramolecular reaction, which has been used to
obtain 10- to 20-membered rings in yields in excess of 60%. This reaction is one of the
best methods of preparing such ring systems. Synthetic genius combined with the acyloin
reaction has been used to prepare both a 34-membered ring and a catenane with two
interlocking 34-membered rings3'*. Much improved yields of acyloins have been
obtained by use of a potassium-graphite intercalation compound (C,K) in the place of
sodium metal3I3.
2RC0,R' 7
Na
RC=CR
I I
NaO ONa
I
1H.O
RCH-C-R
I II
OH 0
Acyloins are also formed under milder conditions if the above reaction is carried out
in the presence of trimethylchlorosilane. Indeed some acyloins may only be prepared
by this latter method (for example ethyl acetate + acetoin). This modified method has
also been used for the preparation of seven-membered heterocyclic compounds as shown
in equation 105314. Use of ultrasonic irradiation improves the yield of acyloins in the
modified reaction and also makes the preparation easier3 '.
\
C0,Et
I . Me,SiCI/Na
j C 0 , E t 2.H30' '
X
X = S,NR
In a reaction related to the acyloin reaction, ketoesters have been reduced by 1,AH
to give good yields of cyclic ketones via a radical process involving titanium trichloride,
after hydrolysis (equation 106)316.
4. Miscellaneous reactions
There are several miscellaneous C-C bond-forming reactions which occur at the
carbonyl group of acid derivatives that do not fit into the other sub-divisions. It should
be noted that acyl radical cyclizations involving selenoacids are not covered here. The
reader is referred to a recent paper by Crich and coworkers (and references therein) for
details of this type of carbon-carbon bond-forming reaction3 17.
Wurtz-type coupling of acyl chlorides in the presence of pyrophoric lead, lithium or
samarium iodide yields a-diketones (equation 107)318.319.Ultrasonic irradiation allows
the reaction to be performed under milder conditions and gives higher yields319.
Attempted Reformatsky reactions with 2-iodomethyl-2-propenoates have been un-
-
successful, but these substrates undergo Wurtz-type coupling very readily320*32'.
Sml,
2RCOCl RCOCOR (107)
Kolbe electrolysis of carboxylates leads to carbon-carbon bond formation at the

a-position, by dimerization, of two acid molecules after decarboxylation has occurred
in both. This reaction has been reviewed in detail by S ~ h a f e rThe
~~~ reaction
. does not
occur with aromatic acids nor with acids with a-branching. In addition, side reactions
caused by hydrogen abstraction processes and polymerization are likely to affect yields
in most cases. A similar process has been performed by Fristad and Klang, non-
electrolytically, using a mixture of sodium persulphate and silver nitrate, as shown in
-
equation 108323.
I I I
2ArCC0,H Ar-C-C-Ar (108)
I I I
Decarboxylative acylation of a-amino acids, in basic acetic anhydride (the Dakin-
West reaction), is a means by which the corresponding a-acetylaminoalkylmethylketones
may be prepared as shown in equation 109. This reaction has also been shown to occur
for non-amino acids such as phenylacetic acid and the reaction has recently heen
reviewed in detail324.
646 Jeffrey Hoyle
NH,CHCO,H
I
2s: b AcNHCHCOCH,
I
(109)
R R
Acid chlorides react with diazomethane to give the next homologous carboxylic acid,
after Wolfe rearrangement of the intermediate diazoketone (equation 1 10).This reaction
is known as the Arndt-Eistert synthesis. Other diazonium compounds also undergo a
similar reaction3” and the rearrangement step of this process has been reviewed
previo~sIy~~~.
RCOCI CHzNzh RCOCHN, Hzo + RCH,CO,H (110)

AgzO
Esters and lactones react with carbon tetrachloride, in the presence of triphenylphos-
phine under reflux, to give novel 2,2-dichlorovinyl ethers. These ethers may be hydro-
lysed to the corresponding a,a-dichloroketones as shown in equation 1 1 1 3 2 7 .
RC0,R’ -
CCI,
Ph,P
CCI,
II
RCOR’
HO+
3 RCCHCI,
0
11
Esters, thiolesters, lactones and anhydrides also react with ylids328-33’ and these
reactions have been reviewed recently332.In one such reaction, succinic anhydride was
reacted with (1 -ethoxycarbonylethylidene)triphenylphosphoraneto give an enol lactone
in 64% yield (equation 112)328-329. The product was then converted into a 2.2-
disubstituted-cyclopentan-1,3-dione; these compounds are important in the synthesis of
natural products such as sterols, tricothecenes and prostaglandins. In another reaction,
a thiolester was reacted with a ylid, containing a p-lactam moiety, to give a key penicillin
intermediate (equation 1 13)333.
In another example of the above methodology, aromatic acid chlorides were reacted
with ethoxycarbonylmethylenetriphenylphosphoraneto give acetylenic, chain extended
acid derivatives on flash vacuum pyrolysis (equation 1 14)330.331. The ester produced
may then be used as starting material and the reaction repeated to give conjugated
di- and triacetylenic esters330. At any stage in this process the ester grouping can be
removed to produce a terminal alkyne. This is a powerful method for preparing terminal
-
alkynes, and terminal alkynes with several other conjugated alkyne functionalities.
I . Ph,P=CHCO,Er FVP
RCoCl 2. FVP
b RCECC0,Et RC-CH (114)
In an investigation of enzyme-substrate interactions, the terminal carboxylic acid

group of an N-protected dipeptide has been converted to a dipeptide enol with C-C
bond formation at the carbonyl carbon atom334. In this reaction the acid group was
first activated by reaction with 1,l'-carbonyldiimidazoleand then this was reacted with
the anion of a diactivated methylene-containing compound at -78"C, as shown in
equation 115. The hydroxyl group could be replaced by SR, OR and NR,. Chiral centres
present in the dipeptide were unaffected by the reaction conditions.
B-Methoxyenones (which are useful in many synthetic applications) have been formed
by a two-carbon extension of acyl halides335.The acyl halide was added to a mixture
of freshly prepared 1-diazo-2-methoxyethane and triethylamine in ether. The diazo-
ketone produced was then converted into the enone by stirring with rhodium acetate
(equation 1 16).
CH,OCH,CHN, Rh AOAc),
RCOCI Et,N
N*
(116)
Acid chlorides react with 1,8-bis(trimethylsilyl)-2,6-octadiene,
at low temperature with
titanium tetrachloride catalysis, to yield 2,5-divinylcyclopentanolsand vinylcyclopentyl
ketones in a stereocontrolled manner (equation 117)336.If nitromethane is added as a
cosolvent, then only the cyclopentanols are produced337.If the acid chloride possesses
an wester group, then the ester and alcohol functionalities, in the product, react to give
spirolactones.
TMS \
+
TMS
- + &kR
RCOCl
(117)
Acyl halides also react with copper(1) cyanide338and other ~ y a n i d e s , , ~ - ~
to~produce
l
-
acyl cyanides (equation 118). The reaction gives improved yields if performed under
phase-transfer conditions342or with ultrasonic irradiation343.
CN-
RCOCI RCOCN (118)
B. Carbon-Carbon Bond Formation a to the Carbonyl Group

Carbon<arbon bond formation at the a-position of acid derivatives is a very common
reaction. Such bond formations may be divided into alkylations, condensations with
648 Jeffrey Hoyle
either aldehydes and ketones or with the other acid derivatives, radical- and carbene-
mediated cyclizations and miscellaneous reactions.
1. Alkylations
Carboxylic acid derivatives require strong bases in order to form a-anions, which may
then be readily alkylated. Acid derivatives with a second activating group attached in
the a-position are more readily alkylated, via the enolate anion which is easy to produce
with a wide variety of bases (equation 119). Alkylation may be performed with a wide
range of alkylating agents including alkyl sulphates4’ and palladium
complexes with triphenylphosphine (equation 120)346-349. Both dialkylation and 0-
alkylation (favoured by aprotic solvents such as DMSO) are possible side reactions as
is saponification if one of the activating groups is an ester. Alkylations of dianions may
be performed in which case the first alkyl group is introduced at the more acidic position.
Z Z Z
) -=
!+ )- RX )-X
2- Z’ Z‘
Carboxylic acid dianions may be readily alkylated at the more reactive, a-site to
produce a-alkylated acids (equation 121)350.35’.This reaction has been reviewed by
Petragnani and Y ~ n a s h i r o ~ The
~ ’ . reaction is commonly followed by decarboxylation
which in case of keto acids, yields a ketone. Thus, acetoacetate has been used as a source
of an acetone enolate ~ y n t h o n ~ ~ ’ .
I t is often very useful to be able to alkylate a readily available chiral a-heterosub-

stituted carboxylic acid in an enantiospecific manner, as a means of using the chiral
centre and at the same time building-up the rest of the target carbon skeleton. Such a
reaction has been devised by Seebach and coworkers353.In this process a-hydroxy- and
cl-mercaptocarboxylic acids were first reacted with pivalaldehyde, to produce a 1,3-
dioxolanone or 1,3-oxathiolanone. This was followed by reaction with base and
alkylation by an alkyl halide and then subsequent hydrolysis to regenerate the hydroxyl
or thiol group (equation 122). The product was obtained in greater than 95% en-
antiomeric excess. Similar reactions with other electrophiles were also successful.
Carboxylic acid dianions have also been alkylated by reaction with aziridines to give
novel ?-amino substituted acids in good yields354. Methoxybenzoic acids have also been
alkylated in a reductive process by reaction with lithium in ammonia followed by
treatment with an alkyl halide. The product formed in this one-pot reaction is an
alkylated cyclohexa-2,s-diene carboxylic acid35’.
Dimerization and trimerization of alkylbromocyanoacetates (a self-alkylation reac-
tion) has been used for the synthesis of highly substituted cyclopropanes and dialkyl-
(E)-2,3-dicyanobutendioates (equation 123)”’. The latter products are potentially very
useful for the synthesis of a wide range of heterocyclic compounds.
XE0.S
Nc4-:;
""7CN
CN
4 z)+cN
Z
I . KSCN (123)
Z = C0,Et NC Z
The alkylation of esters proceeds by removal of an a-hydrogen atom by a strong base

such as an alkoxide, amide ion o r hydride, in a non-protic solvent, followed by treatment
with an alkylating agent (equation 124)30~148~356-362. Side reactions such as reduction
of the ester to an alcohol (as discussed in Section 1I.A) o r Claisen condensation (if the
anion is not 100% formed before the alkylating agent is added) sometimes plague this
procedure.
1. base
-CHC02Et -CRCO,Et ( 124)
I I
Dianions of 8-hydroxyesters are also readily alkylated In the a - p ~ s i t i o nand
~ ~the
~
stereoselectivity of this process has been reviewed364. Such a reaction has been used for
the introduction of an alkyl group prior to lactone-forming ring closure365.
Controlled, step-wise dialkylation may be performed. Equation 125 shows a typical
malonic ester synthesis including hydrolysis and decarboxylation to give an a,a-
Z Z R' R' CO,H

') )-R'
1. base
)( +' :" )( (125)
Z Z Z R" R" H
dialkylated acid. Acetoacetic ester synthesis and cyanoacetic ester syntheses give ketones
(CH,COCHRR') and nitriles (RR'CHCN), respectively. Alkylation of malonate deriva-
tives with a range of a,w-dihalides produces cyclic compounds with three- to seven-
membered rings readily (equation 126)366.367,and medium- and large-sized rings may
be closed using high dilution techniques368. Alkylation of a malonate derivative with
1,2-dihaloethanes, with potassium carbonate under solid-liquid phase-transfer condi-
650 Jeffrey Hoyle
X,Y = halogens
Z = COzR
tions (PTC) using a quaternary ammonium catalyst, gives cyclopropanes in 73-91 '10
yield (equation 127)345*369.
The Sorensen method of amino acid synthesis uses a modification of the malonic ester
synthesis. In this modification an N-protected malonic ester is alkylated, hydrolysed
and decarboxylated to give an a-amino acid, as shown in equation 128.
CH,CONH -(
C0,Et
C0,Et
-1. base
2. R X
~.H*,A
NH,CHRCO,H (128)
Alkylation of fi-ketoesters with a-haloketones has been used as an efficient synthesis

of 1A-diketones containing an ester functionality (equation 1 29)37".
0
X = halogen
Alkylation of 8-ketoesters with w-substituted alkyl halides is an efficient method for
the synthesis of cyclic products37'-3 7 4 . In one such sequence, the dianion of a [I-ketoester
reacted with 2-(2-bromoethyl)-1,3-dioxolane, the w-substituent in this case being a
masked aldehyde. Upon regeneration of the aldehyde functionality, a condensation
reaction occurred to give the cyclohexanone as shown in equation 13037'.
A thirteen-membered ring was formed by intramolecular alkylation, at the r-position.
of a /I-ketoester in 74% yield (equation 131)372.
A medium-sized ring has also been synthesized by a different route involving
alkylation of a [I-ketoester. In this case, ethyl cyclohexanone-2-carboxylatewas treated
with 1,4-diiodobutane in the presence of sodium hydride. The adduct. upon treatment
with radical initiators, gave a 10-membered ring as the major product (equation 132)373.
Similar reactions have also been performed that produce 5-, 6-, 12-, 13-and 14-membered
rings375.A similar process with anionic ring expansion has also been reported374.
Carbon-carbon bond formation at the a-position of a lactone is an important reaction
which has been reviewed previously352.The ene-reaction has recently become very useful
in the stereocontrolled closure of five-membered rings and this has been used in
conjunction with lactone alkylation. In one such synthetic sequence, alkylation of a
lactone was one step in the construction of a molecule that would potentially undergo
11. Synthetic uses of carboxylic acids 65I
&C02R
Ihydrolysis
@? 0
C02Et
~ . alkylation step was simply performed by reaction of the laclone

an e n e - r e a ~ t i o n ~ ’The
with LDA in THF/HMPT at - 78°C followed by addition of an alkyl iodide; 88%
yield was realized. In another sequence involving the synthesis of lignans, a lactone was
similarly reacted with LDA followed by a substituted benzyl bromide, to give an excellent
yield of alkylated product3”.
It has also been found that in medium-sized lactones (eight- to twelve-membered) a
single chiral centre at a remote position causes highly stereoselective formation of a new
chiral centre adjacent to the carbonyl group (equation 133); this effect falls off as the
652 Jeffrey Hoyle
Q*Q- (133)
X = halogen
distance between the enolate and the controlling asymmetric centre increases227.Such
stereocontrol is caused by the conformational properties of the particular lactone being
alkylated.
Lactams may be alkylated at the a-position by reaction with a strong base, such as
LDA o r hexamethyldisilazide, followed by treatment with an alkyl halide. Baldwin and
coworkers have used this methodology in their synthesis of unnatural amino acids from
protected pyroglutamates (equation 134)378.The same reaction has been used for
El
I
R
El = electrophile
alkylating five- to nine-membered lac tarn^^'^. It is noteworthy that a-alkylated seven- to
nine-membered lactams are quite hard to cyclize directly and so ring closure followed
by a-alkylation is an important synthetic sequence. a,@-Dialkylationof lactams has also
been performed. In this reaction, good diastereoselectivity was obtained by reacting
bicyclic lactams, derived from (S)-valinol and levulinic acid. with a base followed by an
alkylating agent in two cycles3".
2. Acid derivative condensations with aldehydes and ketones

Carboxylic acid dianions react with a$-unsaturated aldehydes in a regiospecific
fashion to give 1,2-addition and formation of a [Ghydroxy carboxylic acid which retains
the double bond3". Ketones give 1,2- or I,4-addition depending critically upon the
reaction conditions and the exact nature of the substituent groups. This methodology
has been used in a synthesis of the aggregation pheromone of the elm bark beetle,
Scolytus multistriatus, with the key step being shown in equation 135'x2.
">"' -
H CHO OH
'. HH
- 0,c
Ph
2. HJOt
>=
Anhydrides may be condensed with aromatic aldehydes in the presence of the
corresponding carboxylate anion to give either an r,B-unsaturated acid o r a 11-hy-
droxyacid (equation 136). This is the Perkin reaction and dehydration gencrally occurs if
the anhydride has two a-hydrogen atoms. In some instances the 11-hydroxyacid de-
carboxylates under the reaction conditions to give an alkenc. An important variant of
the Perkin reaction is the heterocycle producing. Erlenmeyer azlactone synthesis; this
is covered in Section V.
Condensation between compounds of type ZCH,Z' (whcre Z and Z' are electron-
withdrawing groups and at least one of them is an acid derivative) and aldehydes or
ArCHO + (RCHCO),O
I
R’
- OH R
I
ArCH-CRC0,H
I
/R
ArCH=C
‘CO,H
ketones (usually without a-hydrogen atoms) is known as the Knoevenagel condensation
(equation 137). The reaction is rarely of synthetic utility with aliphatic aldehydes3’”. A
modification of the reaction using pyridine as solvent, under high pressure at 190”C,
>=<’
has allowed the preearation of n,p-unsaturated acids from malonic acid and aliphatic
R)(R’ +
Z
) base , R
(1 37)
0 z R’ z‘
aldehydes383. Decarboxylation of the initial product usually occurs under the react ion
conditions384 but this is not so in all cases3”. If the acid derivative being condensed is
of the form ZCHRZ’, then the initially produced alcohol may be isolated or water may
be subsequently eliminated after decarboxylation as exemplified in equation 138386
R H
X
Z C0,Me
+ -
RifR”
0
R
Z
HR
R”
(1 38)
Z = CO,R
The Knoevenagel condensation reaction has been used in tandem with hetero-
Diels-Alder reactions3”, ene-reactions (equation 139)3’4-38’-393and allylsilane cycliza-
tion and related imine cyclization to prepare a wide variety of hetero-
cyclic and carbocyclic compounds. In the ene reaction the trans cyclopentane is formed
diastereoselectively on treatment of the initial adduct with a Lewis
I
ZnBr, (139)
Z
Z
654 Jeffrey Hoyle
In the Reformatsky reaction3", an a-haloester reacts with an aldehyde or a ketone,

in the presence of zinc or tin dusts or other metals, to form a P-hydroxyester (equation
140)397-'0'. The reaction occurs faster and in higher yield upon ultrasonic irradiation4'*.
I
R'
Ito and coworkers have used Reformatsky methodology to stereoselectively prepare
key intermediates for l/hnethyIcarbapenem s y n t h e ~ i s ~ ~The
* ~ ~diastereoselectivity
'~. of
this reaction is dependant on the bulk of the C-4 oxazolidone ring substituents and the
temperature of reaction. Best results were obtained in boiling T H F with 4,4-dialkyl-
substitution.
Under Reformatsky conditions 2-chloromethyl-2-propenoates are inert and the corre-
sponding iodo compounds undergo Wurtz-type coupling. However, the corresponding
bromo compounds undergo Reformatsky-type, metal-induced carbonxarbon bond
formation with a wide range of electrophilic reagents. The preparation of a-methylene-
y-lactones using this methodology has been reviewed by Hoffman and Rabe403. The
same conditions may also be used to stereoselectively react with carbohydrate derived
ketone^^'^.^' 5.
A wide range of natural products, especially steroids and alkaloids, have been
synthesized by reactions of carbonyl compounds with alkyl 2-bromomethyl-2-propeno-
ates under the above-specified, modified Reformatsky conditions and these syntheses
have been reviewed recentlyJ2'.
In another variation of Reformatsky conditions, 3-dialkylamino esters and 3-benzyl-
oxycarbonylamino esters have been prepared by reaction of ethyl 2-bromoalkanoates
with I-dialkyamino- and 1-benzyloxycarbonylamino-1-(I-bentotriazoly1)alkanes in the
presence of zinc and Me,SiCI (equation 141)40".
Br C0,Et R' C02Et

1. Zn/CISiMe,
2. NH,OH
N R" R"' R"
I
&NR2
If the ester in a Reformatsky-type reaction is a succinate or similar diester, then the

reaction sequence is known as the Stobbe condensation. In this case, one ester group is
always lost in the product molecule since the reaction proceeds through a lactone
intermediate (equation 142). This reaction has been used in the synthesis of aryltetralin
l i g n a n ~ ~ ~ ' The
. ~ ' ~lactone
. intermediate may be isolated under controlled conditions.
Z = C02R
In a synthesis of the first lignan discovered in humans and animals, Kirk and
coworkersSZperformed a double Stobbe condensation by reacting diethyl succinate with
3-benzyloxybenzaldehyde in the presence of sodium ethoxide, followed by hydrolysis,
esterification and then repeating the reaction sequence once more (equation 143). The
resultant bis-(3'-benzyloxybenzylidene)-succinicacid was then further processed to give
the lignans.
1
I I. esterification
2, PhCH,OQfHO/ NaOEt
1 3 . hydrolysis
a-Anions of esters react with aldehydes or ketones to yield the same products as
are produced in the Reformatsky reaction and this reaction has been used for the
preparation of some non-proteinogenic amino acid^^'^.^''. Decarboxylation often, but
not always4", occurs to give an a,/?-unsaturated ester, if the product has an a-hydrogen
atom.
Aldehydes react with in situ generated ester a-anions, which contains a chiral
a-sulphoxide moiety, to give asymmetrically induced /?-hydroxyesters after desulphuriza-
tion (equation 144)412.
I 1. RCH,CYn
CHCozBu-t 2. CaCO,, ,
I nu
*SOR
Ester a-anions also react intramolecularly with a,/?-unsaturated ketones to give

cyclic unsaturated lactones, as exemplified in equation 1454'3. Similarly, intramolecular
reactions occur with remote aldehydic groups to give m a ~ r o l i d e s ~ ' ~ .
0
0
II ,COR"
RCH,C-OCH=C DME (145)
\
R' R"
R
656 Jeffrey Hoyle
0-alkyllactic acid anions have been reacted with aldehydes to stereoselectively give
either the erythro or the threo diastereomer of the a-alkyl-a,/3-dihydroxy carboxylic acid,
after hydrolysis of the resultant ether4l5s4I6. The best yields were obtained when the
aldehyde was highly volatile and hence could be used in excess, and then easily removed
from the product by distillation.
/I-Ketoacids react with aldehydes to produce a carbon-carbon bond at the a-position
in buffer at pH 7 with concomitant loss of carbon dioxide to give B - h y d r o x y k e t o n e ~ ~ ' ~ .
In their approach to the synthesis of polyquinanes, Cook and coworkers have used
dimethyl /I-ketoglutarate to stereospecifically produce bicyclo compounds upon reaction
with 1,2-diones, and similar compounds, in buffers at ambient temperatures (equation
146I4lSA2 '.
C0,Me
R
2 )Co0 , M e + .,I:- O&O
R'
(146)
Michael addition of /3-ketoester anions to enones produces carbocyclic rings if

there is y-unsaturation in the ketoester. This reaction is base catalysed and has been
5+i,-ao
performed using caesium carbonate, starting with a cyclic enone to give a dicarbonyl
cis-decalin (equation 147)422.423.
(147)
CO~BU-t H
Triethyl methanetricarboxylate has been used in a Michael addition process with

unsaturated aldehydes, ketones and nitriles. The reaction occurs under solid-liquid
phase-transfer conditions using a quaternary ammonium catalyst and proceeds in high
yield (equation 148)424.The high acidity of the product eliminates the possibility of a
second addition of the Michael acceptor molecule.
Z = C02R kz
z z
Lactones and a-anions formed on reaction of lactones with LDA react with aldehydes
or ketones. This reaction has been utilized in the synthesis of the highly oxygenated
side-chain of depresosterol (equation 149)254.
In addition, aryl aldehydes may be condensed with a-anions of benzyl substituted
lactones to give alcohols. These products are readily cyclized to give isolariciresinols
(lignans) upon reduction of the lactone ring (equation 150)425428.The use of this
methodology in the synthesis of lignans has been recently reviewed by Ward377.
HO
OH
“3;
( 149)
HO-
I.LDA
2. Ar’CHO HO
- H+
R
0 Ar‘
@?,’ CH,OH
CH,OH
A (150)
Ar’
Anions formcd by reaction of a-chloroesters with bases like sodium ethoxide rcact
with aldehydes and ketones to produce a,b-epoxyesters (glycidyl esters)42’. This reaction
is known as the Darzens condensation and is exemplified in equation 151. Dianions of
a-chloro acids undergo a similar reacti01-1~~’.
The product epoxy acid derivatives may
be readily converted into aldehydes by acid catalysed decarboxylation.
Chiral tin enolates, formed from amide-containing heterocycles such as 3-amino sub-
stituted butanoylthiazolidine-2-thiones,readily react with aldehydes to give diastereo-
selective products as shown in equation 152431. This reaction has been successfully
used for the synthesis of (+)thienamycin.
RCH2
1 S
1. Sn(OTf),
NR
2.R’CHO
A
(152)
R’ H R
658 Jeffrey Hoyle
a-Trimethylsilyl ester enolates react with a,&unsaturated ketones, by 1,4-addition,

to form new C-C bonds adjacent to the ester group. If the unsaturated ketone is a
chiral vinylic sulphoxide then asymmetric induction occurs to give greater than 95%
enantiomeric excess of the final 1,s-dicarbonyl product, after desulphurization (equation
15 3)432 .
0
/3-Keto-thiolester anions undergo Michael addition with conjugated enones. The pro-
ducts may be readily cyclized to give useful angularly substituted bicyclic compounds
PsEt
(equation 154)433. Under high pressure, malonate anions also undergo 1,4-addition in
a similar manner, even with sterically hindered cyclic enones434.43s
CH,;:;COR, &OSEt CH2CH2COR - COSEt
Rr
R = Me, Et R' = H, Me
(154)
As part of the synthesis of manicone and related compounds, phosphorus ylids
containing a-carboxylate groups have been reacted with aldehydes and ketones in up
to 90% yields, giving a$-unsaturated acids (equation 1 55)436.
3. Acid derivative condensations with acid derivatives

Esters which possess a-hydrogen atoms undergo self-condensation in the presence of
a strong base resulting in the formation of an a-acylated ester. This reaction may be
intermolecular (Claisen condensation, equation 156) or intramolecular (Dieckmann
condensation, equation 157).
2RCH,C02R' - base
R
I
RCH2COCHC02R' (1 56)
CH,C02R CHC02R
(157)
(,,,R
Mixed Claisen condensations are possible between two different esters but this method
is usually only of synthetic utility if one of the esters does not possess a-hydrogen atoms.
-
For example, formates allow the introduction of an a-formyl into an ester, equation 158.
RCHZCOZR’ + HCOZR”
base
RCHC02R’ (158)
I
CHO
Dieckmann condensations are most successful for five- to seven-membered
rings329*437. However, large rings may be closed using high dilutions. Dieckmann
condensation of unsymmetrical diesters has been performed using solid-phase supported
reagent hemi is try^^^*^^*. Dieckmann cyclization of a half-thiol diester occurred re-
gioselectively to give five-membered homo- and heterocyclic compounds, as shown in
equation 159437.
COSEt
i
X
LCO,Me
C0,Me
(159)
X EE CH,, S,NC0,Et
Amides with a-nitrile groups undergo self-condensation upon treatment with sodium
ethoxide to give a product with a rather surprising structure (equation 160)439,which
was further processed to produce pyridazine derivatives.
CN
Lithium ester enolates react with acid chlorides, at low temperatures in THF. to
give a-a~ylation~~’.The a-anions formed by the reaction of chiral amides with BuLi are
also readily acylated, in an asymmetric fashion by acid chlorides (equation 161)44’.
OCHzOCH3 OCH,OCH
1
05
J-&OCH,OCH, 1. R‘COCI
2. BuLi , - a O C H 2 0 C H 3 (161)
Carboxylic acid dianions, formed by reaction of LDA with a carboxylate salt, react
with esters or acid halides to give C-acylation at the more reactive site442.The product
is a P-ketoacid which may be readily decarboxylated to produce a ketone (equation 162).
If the acylating agent used is a formate then the initially formed a-formylcarboxylate
usually decarboxylates to give an aldehyde. This latter reaction is an alternative to the
reduction methods for preparing aldehydes discussed in section 1l.B.
Malonates are readily acylated to form methanetricarboxylic esters (which are useful
660 Jeffrey Hoyle
for the preparation of multidentate ligands and as a synthetic intermediate) by replace-

ment of an active hydrogen atom by an acyl group from acid chlorides, in the
presence of magnesium or magnesium ~hloride/triethylamine"~~.
4. Radical- and carbene-mediated cyclizations

Oxidation of /)-ketoesters by rnanganese(Il1) acetate yields an a-radical, which in the
presence of the appropriate intramolecular alkene functionality yields aromatic esters
(equation 163)44s*446, bicyclic compounds (equations 164 and 165)" and seven- and
eight-membered carbocyclic rings (equation 166)447,448.
( - )-Methyl elenolate has been synthesized via a key step involving radicals generated
at the a-position of an ester functionality as shown in equation 16744".
Arnides with a-iodo substituents form a-radicals upon reaction with ethyl iodide
and n-butyltin radicals (formed by sun-lamp irradiation). These radicals will cyclize if
correctly oriented intramolecular double bonds are present. Using this methodology the
natural product trachelanthamidine has been prepared in good yield (equation 168)"".
z-lodo- and a-bromoesters are diastereoselectively cyclized using chromium acetate in
1 1. Synthetic uses of carboxylic acids 66 1
OMe
oYo2M
I
,*-CO,Me
(167)
CHO
the presence of intramolecular olefins, upon irradiation. A similar radical process

also occurs in the Kolbe electrolysis of double-bond-containing substituted malonates
(equation 169) giving a tetrahydrofuran '.
a-(n-haloalky1)-cyclic-P-ketoesters(with five-, six- and seven-membered rings) undergo

very efficient radical-mediated 1-, 3- or 4-carbon ring expansion upon treatment with a
source of tri-n-butyltin radicals. The yields ofthese reactions were reasonable but some
alkyl halides were simply reduced to alkanes (equation 1 70)373*452. A similar methodo-
logy has also been used by Baldwin and coworkers to form a cepham by one-carbon
ring expansion of a ena am^^,.
n = 0,2,3
662 Jeffrey Hoyle
In further studies, a-(n-alkyl radical)-P-stannyl-cyclic-B-ketoesterswere cyclized to
form 10-membered rings as shown in equation 17145-56. No reduction of the halide
to the alkane was evident in this case.
SnBu,
- SnBu,
Esters containing two conjugated double bonds, starting at the y-position have been
converted into tricyclic ketones, such as hirsutene, by initial formation of a n a-
diazoketone followed by carbene-mediated cyclization as shown in equation 172457.
Other ketone functionalities present in the molecule are unaffected and thus diketones
have also been prepared in this way458. In earlier work, Vandewalle and coworkers
have constructed a novel tricyclic-B-ketoester, via an a-diazo-p-ketoester as shown in
equation 173, which was subsequently transformed stereoselectively, with a range of
nucleophiles and electrophiles, into other cis-bicycl0[3.3.0]octanes~~~.
q C 0 2 M e A
Cu(acac), , 6'
5. Other
Several other ways of forming new C-C bonds at the a-position of an acid derivative
are discussed in this section.
Oxidative coupling of acid derivatives of the type ZCH,Z, such as ketoesters, occurs
upon reaction with iodine, silver oxide and other reagents. This reaction has been
successfully employed in the synthesis of carbocyclic rings (equation 174)460. Similarly
dianions of several acids have been oxidatively self-coupled or c r o s s - ~ o u p l e ld. ~ ~
Carbonxarbon bond formation in the a-position may be performed by reaction

of an acid derivative with an alkene to give cyclic compounds. Several methods may be
employed, including the use of a-seleno derivatives462 and Lewis acid catalysts448. In
ad.dition, these processes may be performed using radicals and carbenes as intermediates.
These latter reactions have been covered in Section IV.B.4 above.
Using the first of these methods, acid catalysed cyclization of a-phenylseleno-B-
ketoesters has been used to produce both cyclo- and bicyclo-products. The second
method, using tin tetrachloride cyclization of /?-ketoesters with correctly placed remote
double bonds, gives six-membered rings as shown in equation 175 (this should be
contrasted with the radical route which gives seven-membered rings as products).
Sodium malonates react with the a,p-double bond of allenic sulphoxides to give
unsaturated diesters (equation 176)463,
C,O,Me
'OR NaCH(CO,Mc), , ( 176)
Decomposition of aryldiazonium salts, by titanium(II1) ions, in the presence of maleic

acids and their derivatives produces 2-arylsuccinic acid derivatives in good yields4'".
Dimethyl malonate anion gives nucleophilic substitution with acetoxy cyclopropane
derivatives to yield new C-C bonds. For example, the unsaturated cyclopropane
acetates shown in equation 177 react with sodium dimethyl malonate, with palladium(0)
catalysis, under reflux in THF to give the same product by either SN2' or SN2
displacement as a p p r ~ p r i a t e ~Such
~ ' . nucleophilic displacements of cyclopropanes are
rare with other nucleophiles.
A steroid ester a-anion has been used in a nucleophilic displacement of a y-mesylate

to produce demethylgorgosterol, a cyclopropyl containing steroid, as shown in equation
178254.466
664 Jeffrey Hoyle
C0,Pr-i
RO
(178)
A similar reaction where an w-tosylate was nucleophilically displaced gave rise to

five- and six-membered carbocyclic rings in a highly stereoselective fashion. The
stereoselectivity has been attributed to the stringent conformational requirements in the
transition state467-469.
lntramolccular cyclization by nucleophilic substitution of a wide range of leaving
groups, including halogens, mesylates and tosylates, by /I-ketoester anions gave five-
membered lactones through C-C bond formation470.
In the synthesis of penem derivatives from azetidinone derivatives, the five-membered
ring can be closed in many ways. One route is cyclization of the thiolester with a
carboxylic ester ylid to give new bond formation between the carbon atom of the
carbonyl group, in the thiolester, and the a-carbon atom of the carboxylic ester, as
exemplified in equation 1794'1.
C02R'
C0,R'
/I-Lactams may be formed from cr-halo substituted acetamides by two electrochemical
reduction methods202. These involve C-C bond formation at the a-position, by
nucleophilic substitution of the halogen by the generated anion. This reaction joins C(3)
to C(4) in the product lactam. The reaction gives high yields and proceeds in the presence
of many groups that may be required to further elucidate natural product, /I-lactam
structures.
Intramolecular nucleophilic substitution of a chlorine atom in a a-chloro amide, by
a ketone enolate, causes cyclization and this has been used in the synthesis of some
alkaloid ring systems (equation 180)472.The product of this reaction is a key intermediate
for the synthesis of Strychnos, Aspidosperma, Schizozygane and Ehurnamine alkaloids.
Cyclization of an imine by reaction with an internal amide a-anion occurs in high

yield upon treatment of the imine with t-BuOLi in t-BuOH/THF at 5 "C, to give an
indoline with cis-stereochemistry (equation 181)473.This methodology has been applied
to the synthesis of the Aspidosperma ring system.
OCH,Ph
R = SiMe,tBu
As part of a recent synthesis of the potent insecticide deltamethrin, a y-alkoxy-
a$-unsaturated lactone has been converted into a bicyclic compound by C-C bond
I +
formation at both the a- and B-positions upon treatment with Me,CSPh, in DMF
at - 78°C (equation 182)474.
Cyclic I-nitro ketone anions have been reacted with )~,h-unsaturated-~-ketoestersto

give adducts. These, in the presence of tetrabutylammonium fluoride, undergo a high
yielding ring expansion by four carbon atoms (the 'Carbon Zip' reaction). The reaction
is essentially a condensation between an ester and a ketone. Using this methodology
1 I-, 12- and 16-membered rings have been synthesized from 7-, 8- and 12-membered
cycloalkanone starting materials (equation I 83)475.
0
I
THF Bu,NF
666 Jeffrey Hoyle
Finally, cyclic 1,3-diesters and diamides, like Meldrum’s acid, may be condensed
with carbon disulphide, in the presence of triethylamine, to give a bisalkythioylidene
derivative, after alkylation, as shown in equation 184476.
C. Carbonxarbon Bond Formation at Remote Positions

Carbon-carbon bond formation at the /?-position and more remote positions is a very
useful means by which target molecules may be constructed. For /?-attacks the Michael
reaction is the most common and is of widespread applicability. For the more remote
positions, specialized functionalities are usually required.
In the Michael reaction, carbanions react with a,&unsaturated carboxylic acid derived
functionalities, to give addition products. Such a reaction results in a C-C bond being
formed at the 8-carbon atom of the acid derived group. The reaction may be both
diastereoselective and enantioselective depending upon the reaction conditions employ-
ed4 7 7.4 7 8
1. /?-Bond formation by Michael reaction

Michael reactions are extremely important C-C bond-forming processes. Michael
Induced Ring Closure (MIRC) reactions are important methods of cyclization and have
been the subject of two recent excellent review^^^,^^^. Another review480, of Michael
additions of organolithium compounds, is an excellent source of information on the
relatively sparse work concerning Michael reactions of amides and thioarnides.
a,/?-Unsaturated acids are rarely used in Michael reactions. However, the synthesis
of the novel glycoside piptoside, a major component from the extraction of the bitter
vine Piprocalyx moorie O h . , has been accomplished by Michael addition of ascorbic
acid to tigloyl cyanide in aqueous solution (equation 185)481. Under the conditions
employed the adduct cyclized to give a furanose ring, and then ketolizes and spontan-
eously lactonizes to give 25% yield of the required product. This reaction is, un-
fortunately, not of general synthetic utility-vitamin C does not give adducts with
unsaturated acids, esters or acyl halides under these conditions.
r,/?-Unsaturated esters react with a wide range of carbanionic species to give C-C
bond formation at their /?-positions. Thus lithium ester enolates have been added to
ethyl 2-cyano-2-alkanoates to give glutarates in high yield (equation 186)482484.
Homologation to higher 2-alkenoates has been performed by reaction of Grignard
reagents with ethyl c r ~ t o n a t eand~ ~ a,&acetylenic

~ esters undergo stereocontrolled
Michael addition with o r g a n o ~ u p r a t e s ~ ~ .
Addition of organomanganese(I1) reagents to P-monosubstituted alkylidenemalonic
esters gives conjugate addition products in good yields (equation 187)486. Michael
addition of nitromethane anions to a#-unsaturated esters has been used to prepare a
range of y-nitroesters, which may be readily converted into y-amino acids4" or
y-ketoe~ters~"by simple procedures (equation 188).
CHMe Me
- C0,Et (188)
OHC-
C02Et
Ring-closure reactions have been performed by Michael reaction of a P-ketoester

enolate with an internal a$-unsaturated ester to give a highly stereoselective synthcsis
of substituted cyclopentanones (equation 189) which are very useful synthetic inter-
m e d i a t e ~ ~ ~In~ .the
~ ~synthesis
'. of thromboxane A, analogues, a bicyclic sulphide has
been formed by Michael addition of an aldehyde enolate to an a,B-unsaturated diester
(equation 190)385.
Me0,C'
R* = chiral group
C02Me
- SC€
SCH,CHO
base ,
-===+
CO, Me
Me0,C
668 Jeffrey Hoyle
Michael-induced ring-closure reactions have been performed using a$-unsaturated
esters as the Michael acceptors. These reactions involve conjugated nucleophilic addition
to the acceptor followed by ring closure of the resulting enolate by displacement
of a leaving group. MIRC reactions have been classified as type I and type 11. In type
I MIRC reactions the Michael acceptor and the leaving group are in one molecule and
the nucleophile is introduced. In type I1 reactions the nucleophile and the leaving group
are in the same molecule and the acceptor is a separate entity.
Type I1 MIRC reactions, with acid derivatives, have especially been used for the
formation of cyclopropanes (equation 191)491494. O n the other hand, type I reactions
have usually been used for larger rings (equation 192)495-50'.
R' R
NHCH,Ph
+ PhCH'NSiMe, (192)
CH,CO,Et
In addition, multiple Michael-initiated ring closures have also been used effectivelv.
Y
for example, in the synthesis of a 10-membered lactone as shown in equation 193s02.

Tandem Michael reaction-Dieckmann condensation reactions have also been used, very
successfully, as the key steps in the synthesis of several natural p r o d u ~ t. In
s ~one
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
6 Tw,
example, the carbon skeleton of diospynol has been prepared by reaction of a substituted
benzylic anion with methyl acrylate (equation 194).
Me0,C Me0,C C0,Me
H 0o ~ c o ' M e Pb(OAc),,
SnBu,
(193)
a$-Unsaturated lactones also undergo facile Michael reactions with carbanions to
give synthetically useful products. In one such reaction, trans-3,4-dibenzyl-substituted
butyrolactones have been synthesized by tandem conjugate addition of anions of
aryldiphenylmethane to butenolide, followed by anionic trapping with a benzyl bromide
(equation 19S)'06. In another reaction of this type, Michael addition of lithium di-
methylcuprates to 10- to 13-membered-a,/?-unsaturated macrolides has occurred in a
stereocontrolled fashion when methyl substituents are present adjacent to the ring
oxygen atom (equation 196)'".
a$-Unsaturated amides have been relatively rarely used as Michael acceptors and
only a few reports are available in the recently published literature480. Organolithium
compounds have been reacted with unsaturated N-phenylamides to give cleanly 1.4-
addition productsso7. Stereocontrolled addition of dialkylorganocuprates to unsaturated
lactams has been achieved by the presence of an exocyclic chiral centreso8.
C0,Me
I . LDA
Me&2Me Me 2. I f 0 2 M e ’ Me
YH OH OH OH
I I I
Me Me
Q G7 0 0
N-Tosylated a$-unsaturated amides and lactams however d o undergo conjugate

addition with organocopper reagents. With lactams, stereochemical control can be
achieved and this methodology has been used for the preparation of fruns-P,y-dialkyl-
y-lactams (equation 197).
O n the other hand, thioamides react to give both 1,2- and IA-addition products,
the actual outcome being very sensitive to the reaction conditions509.
2. ,!?-Bond formation by other reactions

Other means for C-C bond formation at the P-position in carboxylic derivatives
include direct substitution, condensation with aldehydes and by a radical-mediated
process. These reactions are discussed below.
fl-Lactones undergo regioselective S2, ring opening with ‘soft’ organometallic re-
agents, such as organocuprates and Grignard reagents in the presence of copper(1) salts,
to give 3-substituted propionic acids in good yields (equation 198)5’0.In direct contrast,
670 Jeffrey Hoyle
I . R,CuM
2. H,O+ ' R/\/CoZH
organolithium reagents give mixtures of a$-unsaturated ketones and diols, via reaction
at the carbonyl group5",
Cyclopentenes with conjugated ester groups and correctly placed leaving groups
undergo S,2' substitution of the leaving group with a wide variety of organocuprates and
Grignard reagents in the presence of copper([) salts (equation 199)5L2*513. The stereo-
chemistry of the reaction may be controlled in some instances.
X
C0,Me R- +
0 I . NaH
R
&CO,Me 3. CIPqOEr),
2. R,CuLi ' ACHCO,Me (200)
/?-Ketoesters may be converted into a,/?-unsaturated esters by formation of an inter-

mediate phosphorylated enol ether which is substituted by organolithium cuprates
to give new C-C bond formation at the /?-position (equation 2oO)514*5'5. The products
are extremely useful synthetic intermediates.
Dianions of N-monosubstituted a,/?-unsaturated amides react with aldehydes to give
hydroxyamides, which were further reacted with n-BuLi and TsCl to give 3-methylene-
2-pyrrolidinones (equation 201)516. In a similar fashion, dianions of a$-unsaturated
acids were condensed with aldehydes to give lac tone^^^^.^' ' upon cyclization of the
first-formed hydroxy acid (equation 202).
1. n-BuLi, 2eq
2. R'CHO
-
n-BuLi
TsCl
b C H O + r-BuLi, Zeq
OAc
PhS
OAc
/?-Ketoamides and acids may be intramolecularly cyclized using samarium dioxide,

if they possess a primary &bromine substituent. The product formed is a /?-hydroxy-
cyclopentanecarboxylate and stereochemical control is exerted over two adjacent chiral
centres (equation 203)'". The same substrates with G,E-unsaturation also undergo
stereocontrolled cyclization. In this case the stereochemistry of three adjacent chiral

centres is controlled (equation 204)5'9.
In-depth s t ~ d i e ofs the ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ course of the alkaline, decarboxylative
~ ~stereochemical
cyclization of substituted 1-[2-(3-indoyl)ethyl]-3-methoxycarbonyl-1,4,5,6-tetrahydro-
a-% - 3
pyridines to substituted indolo[3,3-a]quinolizidines has shown that there is a pre-
ponderance of cis C( 12b)H-C(2)H product for C(4)-monosubstituted precursors (equa-
tion 205). For C(5)-monosubstituted compounds a trans C( 12b)H-C(3)H product is
formed (equation 206) whilst for 4,5-disubstituted precursors both cis and trans products
may be formed depending upon the exact substitution pattern in the starting material.
0 N
H (205)
Me0,C
R
3. Positionally more remote bond-formation reactions

Carbonxarbon bond formation at more remote positions requires specific functional
group orientations within a reacting molecule. Reactions of compounds with the
requisite structures are discussed below.
Alkylation at a remote position may be performed in several ways. Alkylation of
anions of a,,!?-unsaturated esters usually occurs at the a-position, but if a removable
blocking group is introduced then the y-alkylation reaction may predominate5".
'
Monoalkylation of b-ketoester dianions" or trianions of 3,5-dioxohexanoates, and
the corresponding amides, gives 4- and 6-alkylated products (equation 207)523. In
addition, alkylation of dianions of furan-Zcarboxylic acids gives products that are
alkylated at the remote 5-position (equation 208)524.
672 Jeffrey Hoyle
R
I . 2 LDA
/ \
O C 0 , H / \
R G C O z H
0
Condensations of polyenolates of unsaturated carboxylic acids have been used in
the synthesis of retinoic acids5”. Thus, ketones react with polyunsaturated acids to give
products with extended conjugation, upon dehydration (equation 209). Extended con-
jugated systems may also be formed by iodine-mediated oxidative coupling of diene- and
triene-diolates of unsaturated carboxylic esters526.Such a process has been used for the
synthesis of dicarboxylic acids as shown in equation 210.
0 1. LiNEt,
Fujisawa and coworkers exploited remote C-C bond-forming reactions in B-

p r o p i o l a ~ t o n e s [I-Vinyl-P-propiolactone
~~~~~~~. was reacted with organocuprates and
Grignard reagents, with copper(1) salts, to give ring opening by a SN2’pathway (equation
21 l)527~5z8~530. Similar reactions with the P-ethynyl-substituted lactone gave allenes
(equation 212).
The same workers found that (2)-4-hexenolide, rather surprisingly, gave SN2 ring
opening to produce (Z)-4-alkenoic acids (equation 213). These products are very useful
in the synthetic perfume and flavour industries and in the synthesis of some natural
Allylsilanes have been reacted with 4-alkenyl-4-butanolides, activated by trimethyl-

(214)
oxonium salts, to give C-C bond formation at a remote position. The product ester
possesses a terminal double bond and has three more carbon atoms than the starting
material (equation 214)532.A similar reaction occurs with a 4-hexenolide by attack of
the allylsilane on the cyclic double bond.
V. PREPARATION OF HETEROCYCLIC COMPOUNDS BY C-Y BOND

FORMATION
One of the key uses of carboxylic acid derivatives in organic synthesis is the preparation
of heterocyclic compounds. These are either key intermediates in organic syntheses or
are the target molecules of a particular reaction sequence. Lactones and lactams are
particularly important in this regard. The reader is referred to the more in-depth
coverage of lactones and lactams in the chapter by G. V. Boyd in the present volume.
This section covers the synthesis of heterocyclic compounds by carbon-heteroatom
bond formation, while formation of heterocycles by C-C bond-forming reactions has
been covered in Section IV.
A. Lactones
Synthesis of polyfunctional compounds with controlled stereochemistry is one of the
fine arts of modern science and the synthesis of macrolides is probably the pinnacle of
these achievements.
Lactones exhibit many useful properties especially in the field of pharmaceutical
synthesis. They are a very prevalent structural feature in natural products and are key
intermediates in many synthetic sequences. Hence many lactones have been given names,
such as Corey lactone, reflecting the scientist who introduced the compound as a key
intermediate. Much interest and effort was exerted in the development of strategies for
the synthesis of these heterocycles and there have been many reviews concerning the
synthetic utility of lactones, for example of halo lac tone^^^^ and of the synthesis of target
lactones, such as macrolide antibiotic^'^^.
Lactones may be readily prepared from w-hydroxy or w-halo acids or related
compounds, by halolactonization of acids and by ring-opening lactonization of cyclopro-
panes, as discussed below.
1. From w-hydroxy acid derivatives

The most common method of lactone formation is carbon-heteroatom bond forma-
tion, by intramolecular reaction of an w-hydroxyl group with the carbonyl group of the
acid-derived moiety535-538.Steliou and Poupart have also used this method to produce
macrolides (with 9-17 ring atoms) in high yields under very mild condition^^^'. The
674 Jeffrey Hoyle
acid group is often activated, because of the unfavourable entropic factors and possibili-
ties of polymerization. This may be done, for example, by preparation of the thioes-
ter254.539*540.Thus, the 2-thiopyridyl ester has been used to prepare the 12-membered
lactone in the macrolide (R)-lasiodiplodin, a fungal metabolite of Botrysdiplodiu
threbromue, in 49% yield (equation 215)54’ and the 14-membered lactone in erythro-
my~in~~’.
-
OMe 0 Me
AgClO,
Me0
U U
Activation of the hydroxyl group has also been used to facilitate lactonization, for
example by conversion into a t ~ s y l a t e This
~ ~ procedure
~ ~ ~ ~ ~has. been used for the key
lactonization step in the synthesis of the Japanese beetle pheromone, (R, Z)-( - )-5-( 1-
decenyl)-2-oxotetrahydrofuran (equation 216)542.In a similar process, p-toluenesulpho-
nic acid catalysed condensation of 1,5-dihydroxynaphthalenewith ethyl 2-oxocyclohexa-
necarboxylate gave a 1: 1 adduct which spontaneously lactonized, producing the tetra-
cyclic ravidomycin skeleton543.
OH
CH,(CH,),C=C--( CH,(CH,),C=C--
CH,CH,CO,H
For six-membered lactones and spirolactones, ring closure may be brought about
via the enol of a y-keto acid derivative with acid catalysis (equation 217)”‘ or using
triphenylphosphine (equation 218)545.
Ar&C02H Are 0
The w-hydroxyl group may also be formed in situ by reaction with zinc. This method
has been employed in the synthesis of the lactone ring in the tetracyclic ravidomycin
family of anti-tumor agents (equation 219)546. Other reductions of a ketoacid with
S e l e c t ~ i d e ~or~ ’b ~ r o h y d r i d e ’and
~ ~ of an acid-ester with sodium in ammonia (equation
220)54’.550 or borane (equation 221)550also yield useful lactones. I t should be noted
that in the reductions of the acid-esters, borane gave the product with opposite
regiochemistry to that obtained by the use of sodium in liquid ammonia.
Substituted 7-aryl-5-oxo-SH-pyrano[4,3-d]pyrimidineshave been successfully pre-
pared from anions of 6-methyl-5-pyrimidinecarboxylates by condensation with aromatic
aldehydes. The key lactone ring closure occurs by reaction of the in situ generated
alkoxide ion with the adjacent ester group, as shown in equation 22255’.
(219)
OAc 0 OAc OH
(221)
ArCHO
Me0 CH, ~
Me0
Ar
(222)
Me0
Alkoxide ions from the reaction of P-formyl esters with organometallic reagents also
gave lactonization. In this case, stereoselectivity is controlled by the coordinating effects
of the metal ions with the two carbonyl groups (equation 223)552.
0
CHO
676 Jeffrey Hoyle
Triamides, formed from the corresponding oxazole by photooxygenation, undergo

acid catalysed lactonization to give, for example, the 12-membered lactone in (k)-di-O-
methylcurvularin, a metabolite of the fungal species Curualuria (equation 224) 353.
M e O a C H 2CON;;Ph)2
H‘
Me0 CO(CH,),CHCH, Me0
*
<
(224)
The synthesis of nine-membered lactones from hydroxyacids (or their equivalent)
usually gives low yields. However, excellent yields were obtained with an allylic alcohol
with a more rigid carbon chain. The rigidity serves to reduce the unfavourable entropic
factors of the ring-closure process5”.
The above-described lactonizations often produce dilactones as side products, how-
ever these are sometimes the target molecules of a synthetic sequence. Yields ofdilactones
may be enhanced by activation of both the acid-derived group and the hydroxy group.
Such a reaction has been performed using a thioester with an internal silyl ether (equation
2 2 5 p ’.
II
XO(CH2),CCH2COSBu-f
0 - 0
(225)
2. From ru-halo acid derivatives

Treatment of co-haloacids with potassium carbonate and other bases, especially using
solid-liquid phase-transfer conditions and high dilution techniques. is a simple alterna-
tive method to prepare medium- and large-ring lac tone^"^^"^. Using this method,
exaltolide, a component of the root oil of Archungelicu oficiunulis, Syn. which is useful
in the perfume industry, has been prepared in 78% yield (equation 226)”’. Other ring
sizes have also been prepared in a similar fashionss6.
C02H
I K CO
4
(CH2)14 (226)
I
Br
3. By halolactonization
Halolactonizations of carboxylic acids are highly regio- and stereoselective processes
that are extremely important in the synthesis of natural products and their key
intermediates. These reactions have recently been reviewed’”. Such reactions are
performed by treatment of unsaturated acids or carboxylate saltsS’’ with sources of
electrophilic halogens. These sources include bromine or iodine with thallium(1) carbo-
nate5", N - b r o m o ~ a c c h a r i nl , ~~~h l o r a m i n e - T ~an
~ ' ,iodine(1) perchlorate-collidine com-
plex563and a mixture of iodine, potassium iodide and potassium b i ~ a r b o n a t e ' ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ . ~
The lactonization process may also be brought about by a source of electrophilic
selenium 5 6 6 .
Regiocontrol of the reaction often depends on the reaction conditions employed. 'Thus
bromolactonization of the unsaturated acid in equation 227, using bromine and
thallium(1) carbonate, gave the y-lactone, whilst use of NBS in DMF gave the p-lactone
excIusiveIy5"'.
Using halolactonization, the lactone ring of the sesquiterpene ( f)-frullanolide has

been readily synthesized in excellent yield (equation 228)56s. Similarly, halo aldehydic
lactones of the Corey-type, key intermediates in the synthesis of prostaglandins. may be
synthesized in excellent yields (equation 299)56y.
/ KI I,
(229)
Lactonization of 2-phenylethynylnicotinic acid, catalysed by mercuric acetate, leads to
a mixture of two bicyclic pyridine derivatives with ring structures that are often found
in natural products (equation 230)570.The regioselectivity favoured the pyrano- over
678
QfO*" C E C P h - dPh
Jeffrey Hoyle
+ *: CHPh
the furano-product. With the 3-carbamoyl derivative, an equivalent reaction can be
performed which, in this case, gives only the five-membered lactam.
(230)
4. From cyclopropanes
Cyclopropanes with carboxyl substituents undergo electrocyclic ring opening followed
by cyclization to give lactones. This reaction sequence is important in the synthesis of
furan- (equation 23 1) and pyran-derivatives (equation 232)571*572. Ring opening occurs
at the most hindered site, thus controlling the regioselectivity of the reaction.
Vinylcyclopropanes with geminal diester groups also undergo ring opening followed
by lactonization to give y-butyrolactones in the presence of bis(trimethylsilyl)sulphate
(equation 233)573. Some stereocontrol is exhibited in the generation of the new, third
mc0zR
chiral centre. Acid catalysed reaction of equivalent trialkylsiloxy substituted compounds
produces a,fi-unsaturated lactones219.
(TMS)2SO~,
0 (233)
CO,R
B. Lactams
Lactams are extremely important sub-units in natural product syntheses and their
methods of formation are discussed below. In particular, p-lactams are important in
penicillin and cephalosporin chemistry and these functionalities have thus received much
attention; some of this work has been
Lactams may be formed by intramolecular reaction of w-(N-substituted) acids, by
reaction of activated acids with imines and by other methods, including the novel 'Zip
reaction'.
I I . Synthetic uses of carboxylic acids 679
/I-, y- and &amino esters may be cyclized to give lactams in excellent yields, by
intramolecular reaction575P57R . For example, /I-hydroxyamides, formed from tartaric
acid, have been cyclized to give / I - l a ~ t a m s ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .
Hydroxylactams have been synthesized by reductive cyclization of aromatic nitro
compounds containing a /I-alkoxycarbonyl group. Reagents such as Pd/charcoal/hydra-
zine o r ammonium sulphide o r zinc with acetic acid may be used for this reduction
process (equation 234). However, if the nitro group is reduced to the amine, for example
with Pd/charcoal/cyclohexane, then no hydroxyl group remains in the product (equation
235)58’.
R
P C 0NO22 H
$200
PdjC
NH,NH,’
R I
OH
-QOo
PdjC
cyclohexane
H
The usual method for forming /I-lactams is by reaction of activated acid derivatives (or
acids previously treated in situ with an activating agent) with imines, as exemplified in
equation 2365s2P587.
I.Pr,N, 0
N* CI
I-
RU
I
R’-CO,H 2. U ’ A N Me
/R ’ D , R ‘ (236)
0
R
The acid chloride-imidate route is a popular method, involving formation of /I-lactam

with a 4-alkoxy substituent (equation 237)585*587.This substituent is usefully located for
further reactions that may be used to build up the molecular framework of the required
target molecule.
The reaction of activated azidoacetic acid derivatives with an imine, or a cyclic imine,
is also a common route, employed for the synthesis of a-azido-/I-lactams (Bose reaction)
which are key intermediates in the synthesis of /I-lactam-containing alkaloids and sugars
680 Jeffrey Hoyle
(equation 238)586. Stereocontrol of the reaction depends upon the reaction conditions
used.
Five-membered lactams have been synthesized from trans-3-hexendioic esters by reac-
tion with primary amines. Replacement of the amine with ethylenediamines has resulted
in the formation of bicyclic compounds with two lactam moieties (equation 239)588.
,(
CO,R
NH,CH,CH,NHR'+ 0%
0
CO,R
I
R'
These products may easily be reduced to cyclic amines of importance in natural product
synthesis.
A novel ring expansion reaction of lactams to larger lactams (the so-called Zip
reaction) has been developed5B9based on the reaction of an aminolactam with a strong
base followed by transamidation by reaction with the internal amide ion as exemplified in
equation 240.
-RNH-
--*
n
(CH,),
I
C=O
I
(240)
NH NH
b-Lactams may also be formed by substitution of activated a-hydroxyesters by the

nitrogen atom of a b-amido group (equation 241)579,
@q H
Et,N , H~--CO,R
'OBz
Lactams have recently been prepared in a relatively simple process involving reaction
of a lactone with a primary amine. In one striking example, the lactams in the
spirodilactarn-containing alkaloid, shihunine, were formed by reaction of a dilactone
precursor with methylarnine. The alkaloid product was then formed by reductive
removal of the carbonyl groups (equation 242)590.
Finally, a y-hydroxyarnide has been cyclized to a lactam by activation of the hydroxyl
group and formation of the N-anion of the internal amide (equation 243)5'6,
C H R - -
0
1. BuLi
2.TsCl R, aoR
I
(243)
C. Other Heterocycllc Compounds

The synthesis of a great wealth of other heterocyclic compounds from acid derivative,
by carbon-heteroatom bond formation in the key step, is also an important area of
organic synthesis and especially of natural product work. Recent reviews have considered
key synthetic intermediates of this type and the reader is referred to these sources for
further i n f o r m a t i ~ n * ~This ~ ~ ~ . briefly reviews the formation of some N-, 0-and
~ * section
S-containing heterocyclic compounds that have been the targets of recent synthetic
pathways.
0
RC0,R"
682 Jeffrey Hoyle
2-Substituted indoles are common sub-units of several classes of natural products.

These may be synthesized rather elegantly from anilides. Acylation of the dilithium salts
of 2-trimethylsilylanilides, at - 10 to O T , with esters in basic media gives the expected
C-acylated product which spontaneously cyclizes. This intramolecular cyclization occurs
by reaction of the amide ion with the newly introduced carbonyl group. The product
readily desiloxylates to give N-acyl 2-substituted indoles in good yields (equation
24412 5 1.
Benzodiazepines are found in some natural product molecules. These functionalities
have been recently synthesized by reaction of ortho-diamino aromatic compounds with
a-substituted fl-ketoesters. The initially formed imine readily cyclizes to give the
substituted benzodiazepine as shown in equation 245592.
0
Dihydrouracils may be regioselectively prepared from substituted succinamides, in

90% yield, simply by oxidation with lead tetraacetate (equation 246)593.This reaction
also occurs if an acetate group is present (equation 247). Using the products of this latter
reaction, 6-substituted uracils may be readily prepared upon elimination of acetic
acid 5 9 3 .
A series of novel dihydropyridazinones have been quantitatively prepared from y-

ketoacids upon reaction with hydrazine (equation 248)594.The product 43-dihydro-6-
substituted-3(2H)-pyridazinones may be reduced, acylated with an w-halo acyl halide
and then reacted with sodium hydride to give novel bicyclic diacylhydrazines (equation
249). The latter may be ring opened (by N--N cleavage) to give macrolide dilactams
by treatment with sodium in liquid ammonia.
R
Triazine and triazole moieties are present in many important pesticides, and may
readily be prepared from acid derivatives. Thus, alkylammonium salts of triazoles are
formed in good yields by the reaction of primary amines with dimethyl diazomalonates
(equation 250)595.Complex keto dihydro-1,2,3-benzotriazinesmay be obtained from
substituted anthranilic acids by the reaction sequence shown in equation 251596. The
products are useful in peptide synthesis since a-amino esters of these compounds
suppress racemizations to a large degree.
-
C0,R
R0,C
)=N2 + RNH, N (250)
RO,C
I
R
A wide variety of oxazolines, and related nitrogen and oxygen-containing five-

membered rings, may be prepared readily from acid derivatives as shown in equations
252,253 and 254.
0
684 Jeffrey Hoyle
The first of these reactions is performed by treatment of an a-azidoacid derivative with
phosgene and an oxidizing agent5". In the second, N-acylation of 2-haloethylamine
hydrochloride using a substituted benzoyl chloride proceeds cleanly to the 2-aryloxazo-
]ine598.5Y9 . In a similar process, a 8-amino alcohol gave a 2,4-disubstituted oxazoline
upon activation of the hydroxyl group6". The last reaction, which may be brought
about with either acetate/acetic anhydride or with ethyl chloroformate, is essentially the
Erlenmeyer azlactone synthesis which has seen much use in amino acid synthesis"'.
y-Lactols may be prepared by reaction of protected hydroxycyclopropanecarboxylic
ester anions with ketones. The lactols may then be oxidized to lactones or reduced to
tetrahydrofuran derivatives (equation 255)602.603.
@O&CO,Me
1. LDA
----,
Meo2'x.
a0
OH
C0,Me
.ilt
C0,Me
Glycidyl esters, which are important synthetic intermediates, were stereoselectively

prepared from a-halo-p-hydroxyesters upon treatment with sodium ethoxide (equation
256)604.
A recent report has indicated that photoaddition of benzophenone to allenic esters

gives oxetanes and spirooxetanes, in excellent yields (equation 257)'05.
Ph
R"
R)=*=-C02R PhKO, R'$ph + ',$L,CO,R
R" (257)
CO,R Ph Ph
R"
Cyclization of a-azido-w-hydroxy-8-ketoesters, catalysed by rhodium( I I) acetate, gives

. Th'ioethers have
ethers with six-, seven- and eight-membered rings (equation 258)606-60R
been synthesized in a similar fashion6".
Reaction of methyl 2-chloro-2-cyclopropylidenacetatewith various alcohols, thiols
and amines has been used to form heterocyclic compounds. In one key reaction of this
ester, a seven-membered lactam thioether has been produced by reaction with 2-
aminoethanol under phase-transfer conditions (equation 259)"'.
1 1 . Synthetic uses of carboxylic acids 685
(158)
\
C02Me
OH
-NHz+ Q
c~xcozMe SH
PTC CI
0
Reaction of the enolate anion of a hydroxyl-protected cyclopropanecarboxylate with

carbon disulphide, followed by treatment with an alkylating agent, has provided a uscful
( 2 59)
route to dihydrothiophene derivatives (equation 26O)"O2."l The product may be easily

transformed into thiophene derivatives.
SMe
R R' I.
Y -
2.
LU
3-Arylthiophenes may be readily prepared under phase-transfer conditions, by heating

2-arylsuccinate salts with phosphorus pentasulphide (equation 261)"".
Finally, an extremely useful synthesis of 3,5-disubstituted- 1,2,4-thiadiazoles, present in

some pesticide molecules, has been reported which simply requires the treatment of
thioamides with chlorine, sulphuryl chloride or sulphur dichloride (equation 262). Yields
are significantly improved in the presence of chlorotrimethylsilane"' '.
VI. OTHER SYNTHETIC USES OF CARBOXYLIC ACID DERIVATIVES

Carboxylic acid derivatives are often used in organic synthesis for other reasons than
are covered above. The electron-withdrawing abilities of acid derivatives makes them
686 Jeffrey Hoyle
excellent controlling influences on the direction of aromatic substitution and Diels-Alder

reactions. The ability of acid derived functional groups, especially amides, to complex
metals and hence direct metallations in ortho-positions of aromatic rings is also of
significant use. The stabilities of some imide anions makes them useful transfer agents
for a variety of electrophilic synthons. The availability of enantiomerically pure acids,
to prepare and separate diastereomeric ammonium salts, has been used for decades.
Some aspects of these uses are discussed in this section.
A. In Dlels-Alder Reactions
The Diels-Alder reaction is one of the cornerstones of modern organic synthesis.
Electron-withdrawing, e.g. carboxyl-derived, functional groups present in the diene
increase the rate of the cycloaddition and alter its regio- and diastereoselectivity. The
rate increase is observed if either an electron-rich dienophile is used, or if the electron-
withdrawing group is present in the dienophile and the diene is e l e ~ t r o n - r i c h ~Such
'~.
choices of diene/dienophile, especially with acid-derived groups, have enhanced the
synthetic usefulness of the Diels-Alder reaction. In addition, important target molecules
may be synthesized with specific acid-derived groups present in the required
locations for further synthetic operations. This important area of carboxylic acid
chemistry requires a brief discussion.
The presence of carbomethoxy groups alters the diastereoselectivity of a Diels-Alder
reaction. For example, 2-cycloalkenones usually give endo products with dienes, but if
a carbomethoxy group is present at C-2 then exo-addition is either predominant or
exclusive6'5-618. The regioselectivity is also affected by the presence of strong electron-
withdrawing groups like esters6".
N-Dienyl amides and lactams are extremely useful dienes in the Diels-Alder synthesis
of natural products619. Such usefulness has been extended by the N-alkylation of these
amido compounds with an olefinic group present in the alkylating compound. This then
gives a molecule which is able to perform intramolecular Diels-Alder reactions with the
stereocontrolled formation of bicyclic compounds in a single step as exemplified in
equation 2636'0. The inter- and intramolecular Diels-Alder chemistry of N-dienyl
amides and lactams has recently been reviewed by Smith619.
Chiral butenolides have also received attention in Diels-Alder reactions. Thus, these
good dienophilic lactones have been reacted with a wide range of dienes. The selectivity
of these cycloadditions has often been found to be kinetically controlled6' '. The reaction
of chiral 2(5H)-furanones, a butenolide, with cyclopentadiene has been used to generate
enantiomerically pure endo and exo adducts in very good yields (equation 264)622.
Finally, thiopyran rings, which are present in some natural products with important
pharmacological activity, may be easily synthesized by Diels-Alder reactions using acid
derivative^^'^. This reaction may be performed both regio- and stereospecifically by
endo exo
reaction of N-acylated a,D-unsaturated thioamides with dienophiles (equation

265)624.625
B. in Aromatic Ortho Reactions

Carboxyl-derived functional groups, especially amides, directly attached to aromatic
rings have an important controlling influence on the course of metallation reactions.
These processes are often the key step in the synthesis of condensed aromatic com-
pounds. The presence of an acid derivative directs metallation to the ortho-position
almost exclusively, often overcoming the electronic effects of ring substituents. This
regiocontrol is due to the metal-coordinating abilities of the acid group and has been
reviewed626.6".
Two illustrative examples of this type of reaction follow: (i) A high yielding, convenient,
regiocontrolled synthesis of pyrido[3,4-g]isoquinolines which occurs via an orrho-
directed metallation process followed by dimerization, as shown in equation 266628,and
688 Jeffrey Hoyle
I
CHO
1. r-BuLi (267)
2.101
(ii) a regioselective synthesis of substituted anthraquinones which are then useful in the
preparation of natural products and dyes (equation 267)629.
Another ortho-directed reaction involving acid derivatives is the o-hydroxylation
which occurs on heating copper salts of aromatic acids in the presence of hydroxide
ions and o-amination in the presence of ammonia630.
C. As Transfer Reagents
A few carboxylic acid derivatives, such as phthalimide and succinimide, have been
used as transfer reagents for a whole range of electrophiles to nucleophilic centres in
many synthetic organic operations.
Thus halogen cations are effectively transferred from N-bromo- and N-chlorosuccini-
mide. These reagents have been much used for electrophilic halogenations of sulph-
oxides6” and at allylic positions6”, for example.
Transfer of sulphenyl sulphur-containing electrophilic species, to compounds with
active methylene or methine groups, is also an important use of acid-derived transfer
reagents. In this case phthalimides are most often the reagent of choice. Sulphenylation
by this method followed by oxidation and elimination of a sulphinic acid moiety is an
excellent synthetic route to unsaturated compounds.
It is also important to note that phthalimido anions have been used extensively in
the Gabriel synthesis of amines, from alkyl halides (equation 268)633 or from alco-
h01s634.635
RX + N
*- - RNH,
0
D. Resolution of Chiral Amines
Resolution of amines is a very important process in organic synthesis since often only
one enantiomer of a synthetically prepared racemic mixture of an amine exhibits the
sought after biological properties’.
Carboxylic acids have been used in more than a thousand reported cases for the
resolution of such racemic mixtures of amines. These have been reviewed by N e ~ m a n ~ ~ ~
and by Jacques and coworkers637.The usual method of resolution consists of using a
naturally occurring, optically active carboxylic acid to form a mixture of diastereomeric
ammonium salts which are then separated by crystallization. The optically pure amine
is then regenerated by basification. More recently, synthetic chiral acids, for example
+
(9-( )-2-methyl-2-phenylbutanedioicacid, and its enantiomer, have been used since
both enantiomers are usually available in contrast to most naturally occurring com-
pound~~~~.
VII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to express his appreciation to the library staffs at the Nova
Scotia Agricultural College and Dalhousie University for all their kind assistance. In
addition, I thank the students, and especially my chemistry colleagues of the Department
of Chemistry and Soil Science at NSAC. Lastly I would like to thank Carl and Robert
and especially my wife, Niki, for all their patience and understanding and for their
support and encouragement when I needed it most.
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CHAPTER 11

The synthetic uses of carboxylic

V. PREPARATION OF HETEROCYCLIC C O M P O U N D S BY C-Y

Degl’Innocenti’. Similarly, as regards the chemistry of selenium, tellurium and tin

II. FUNCTIONAL GROUP INTERCONVERSION OF CARBOXYLIC

A. Formation of Alcohols and Ethers

'Nor' alcohols may be obtained, in excellent yield, via radical decarboxylation of

X = COZH, CHCOZH, CH(CH2)ZCOZH Y = OH, CHOH CH(CH2)zOH

In general, esters are inert towards reduction by sodium borohydride (without

Hydride transfer reductions of esters in the presence of boron trifluoride-etherate

H0,C-- go" n$"

Other special classes of amides such a 1-acylimidazoles and acylsulphonylhydrazides

reaction no carbon atoms are lost, as shown in the preparation of m u s c i m 0 1 ~ (a

Disubstituted amides may be reduced to amines with trichl~rosilane~~.

Acyl nitrile may be readily converted into the corresponding a-aminoketones by

proceeds in a very similar fashion to the classical Hunsdiecker reaction, as discussed

E. Formatlon of Nitriles and Isonitriles

N-Alkylated or N,N-dialkylated amides may be converted into nitriles under forcing

F. Decarboxylatlons and Decarbonylatlons

1. Replacement by hydrogen (RCOX -+ RH)

Decarboxylation of alkylated or arylated malonic acids, by heating at 6&8OoC with

Decarboxylation of most simple aliphatic acids, to form alkanes, is usually a more

Enantioselective decarboxylation of a diester has been performed in high enantiomeric

' x c ; " Z R "

X =COCH3, CO,Et, CO,Me, etc.

Both symmetrical and unsymmetrical stilbenes may be DreDared. in reasonable vields.

from their corresponding aryl cinnamates by decarboxyla&e pyrolysis in a sealed tube

Decarboxylation of alkyl-1,l. I -tricarboxylic esters to alkyl-1,l -dicarboxylate esters

2. Formation of alkenes [C(X)-C(C0Y) + C=C]

Oxidative decarboxylation of 1.2-diacid groups with lead tetraacetate also leads to

B-Lactones are stereospecifically decarboxylated, to yield alkenes, by heating in

G. lnterconversion Between Carboxyiic Acid Derivatives

of the 7-pyrrolocephalosporin derivative shown in equation 47. Attempted deprotection

RCO2H + R'SO2CI RCOOSOZR J

111. a-FUNCTIONALIZATION OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS AND

a-Amination of malonates has been performed by the reaction shown in equation 56

/I-Hydroxy-a-azidoesters may be prepared from 2,3-epoxyesters by reaction with

Decomposition of a-diazoesters, catalysed by rhodium(l1) carboxylates, stereospecific-

j-Ketoesters may be converted into j-ketosulphones by r-sulphenylation and S-

a-nitrosated by reaction with nitrous acid or alkyl nitrites. If tautomerizable hydrogens

IV. CARBONXARBON BOND FORMATION USING CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

A. Carbon-Carbon Bond Formation at the Carbonyl Group

ArH + RCOX -catalyst

The Fries rearrangement initiated p h o t ~ c h e m i c a l l y ~has

Acylation of aromatic compounds that are highly activated towards electrophilic

Cyclopent[b]indolones are important synthetic targets that require 3-acylindoles as

Cyclization, causing formation of a new C-C bond at an aromatic carbon atom, is

Acylation of carbanions is an important C-C bond-forming reaction that occurs at

Carbanions may also be formed from monoactivated substrates (e.g. RCOCH,). In

Either allylic or vinylic ketones may be formed by reaction of acyl halides, or

2. Reactions of acid derivatives with organometallic reagents

RC0,H + R'MgX RCOR' (88)

Esters react with trimethylsilylmethylmagnesium chloride, in the presence of cer-

Under similar conditions esters and thiolesters react with (trimethylsily1)bromo-

Dihalomethanes react with a-haloesters, at - 78°C with LDA in THF, to give

RCOX + RiCuLi ---+ RCOR’ (99)

R,NCHO + 2MgXR' R,NCHR; (101)

Some acid derivatives also react with alkynylboranes to give a,S-alkynylketones as

(R'C-C),B + 3RCOX 3RCOCECR' (103)

Kolbe electrolysis of carboxylates leads to carbon-carbon bond formation at the

RCOCI CHzNzh RCOCHN, Hzo + RCH,CO,H (110)

In an investigation of enzyme-substrate interactions, the terminal carboxylic acid

B. Carbon-Carbon Bond Formation a to the Carbonyl Group