STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

UNIT I

1. SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS

Stress:
When a body is acted upon by some load or external force, it undergoes deformation
(i.e. change in shape or dimensions) which increases gradually.

The internal resistance which the body offers to meet with the load is called
stress.

Units are kN/m2, MN/m2,N/mm2 or MPa, kPa.

Types of stress:
The various types of stresses may be classified as
1. Simple or direct stress
(i) Tension (ii) Compression (iii) Shear.
2. Indirect stress
(i) Bending (ii) Torsion.
3. Combined stress.
Any possible combination of types 1 and 2.

STRAIN:
Any element in a material subjected to stress is said to be strained. The strain (e) is the
deformation produced by stress. The various types of strains are explained below:
1. Tensile strain:
A piece of material, with uniform cross section, subjected to uniform axial tensile
stress, will increase its length from l to (l+ δl ) and the increment of length δl is the
actual deformation of the material. The fractional deformation or the tensile
strain is given by

Fig:1.1
 e1 = δl/l

2. Compressive Strain:
Under compressive forces, a similar piece of material would be reduced in
length from l to (l - δl ).
The fractional deformation gives the strain ec,

Fig:1.2

Where ec = δl/l

3. Shear Strain:
In case of shearing load, a shear strain will be produced. It is measured by the
angle through which the body distorts.

Fig:1.3
In the fig 1.2 is shown a rectangle block LMNP fixed at one face and subjected to force
F. After application of force, it distorts through an angle Φ and occupies new position
LM1N1 P.
The Shear Strain (es) is given by
es = NN1 = tan Φ
NP
= Φ (radians) ---------- since Φ is very small.
4. Volumetric Strain:.

It is defined as the ratio between change in volume and original volume of

the body, and is denoted by the ev.
Therefore
ev = Change in volume
original volume
 = δV
V
Elastic Limit:

Whenever some external system of forces acts on a body, it undergoes some

deformation. If the external forces causing deformation are removed, the body retains
its original position.
It has been found that for a given section,

There is a limiting value of force up to and within which, the deformation entirely
disappears on the removal of force.

The value of intensity of stress (or simply stress) corresponding to this limiting
force is called elastic limit of the material.

Beyond the elastic limit, the material gets into plastic stage and in this stage, the
deformation does not entirely disappear, on the removal of the force. But as a result of
this, there is a residual deformation even after the removal of the force.

Hooke’s law:

It states, “WHEN MATERIAL IS LOADED WITHIN ITS ELASTIC LIMIT, THE STRESS IS
proportional to THE STRAIN”.

Mathematically,
Stress = E =
Constant Strain
It may be noted that Hooke’s law equally holds good for tension as well as compression.

Modulus of Elasticity:

Whenever a material is loaded within elastic limit, the stress is proportional to the
strain.
Mathematically stress,
σαe
σ=Exe
or E=σ
e
where E = A constant of proportionality known as modulus of elasticity
or Young’s modulus.
 The value of E of materials, in everyday use are given below:

S.No Material Modulus of elasticity(E)

in GPa or GN/m2 or kN/mm2
1. Steel 200 to 220
. Wrought iron 190 to 200
3. Cast iron 100 to 160
4. Copper 90 to 110
5. Brass 80 to 90
6. Aluminium 60 to 80
7 Timber 10

Deformation of a Body:
Consider a body subjected to a tensile stress.
Let P = Load or force acting on the body,
= length of the body,
A = Cross sectional area of the body,
σ = Stress induced in the body,
e = Strain, and
δ = Deformation of the body.
We know that the stress
σ=P Strain, e = σ = P
A E AE
and deformation, δl = Pl
AE.
Principle of Super Position:
Sometimes, a body is subjected to a number of forces acting on its outer edges as
well as at some other sections, along the length of the body. In such a case, the forces
are split up and their effects are considered on individual sections. The resulting
deformation of the body is equal to the algebraic sum of the deformations of the
individual sections. Such a principle of finding out the resultant deformation is called
the principle of superposition.
The relation for the resultant deformation may be modified as:

δ! = P = (P1 l1 + P2 l2+ P3 l3 +….)

AE AE

Where P1 = Force acting on section 1

l1 = Length of the section 1
P2, l2= Corresponding values of section 2, and so on.
Stresses in the Bars of Composite Sections:
A bar made up of two or more materials, joined together is called composite bar. The
bars are joined in such a manner, that the system extends or contracts as one unit,
equally, when subject to tension or compression. Following two points should always
be kept in view, while solving examples on composite bars:

1. Extension or contraction of the bar being equal, i.e., deformation per unit
length is also equal.

. The external load, on the bar, is equal to the sum of the loads carried by the
different materials.

δl = P1l1 = P2l2
A1E1 A2E2
σ1 = σ2
E1 E2

P = P1 + P2 = σ1A1 + σ2A2

Note:
The ratio of E1 is called modular ratio of the two materials
E2
and is denoted by the letter ‘m’.

Stress in Nuts and Bolts:

In our daily life, we use nuts and bolts to tighten the components of a machine or
structure. It is generally done by placing washers below the nuts as shown in fig 1.9.

Fig: 1.9
As a matter of fact, a nut can be easily tightened till the space between the two
washers becomes exactly equal to the body placed between them. It will be interesting
to note that if we further tighten the nut, it will induce some load in the assembly. As a
result of this, the both will be subjected to some tension, whereas the washers and the
body between them will be subjected to some compression. And the induced load will
be equally shared between the bolt and the body. Now consider an assembly consisting
of two nuts and a bolt along with a tube as shown in the figure.
Let P = Tensile load induced in the bolt as a result of
tightening the nut,
l = Length of the bolt,
A1 = area of the bolt,
σ1 = Stress in the bolt due to induced load,
E1 = Modulus of elasticity of the bolt material.
A2, σ2, E2 = Corresponding values for the tube.

We know that as the tensile load on the bolt is equal to the compressive load
on the tube, therefore
σ1.A1 = σ2. A2
σ1 = A2 x σ2. Similarly, σ2 = A1 x σ1
A1 A2
And the total load, P = σ1. A1 + σ2. A2
We also know that increase in length of the bolt due to tensile stress in it,
δl1 = σ1l1
E
1
And decrease in length of the tube due to compressive stress in it,
δl2 = σ2l2
E2
Therefore, axial advancement (i.e.,) of the nut,
= δl1 + δl2
Thermal Stresses and Strains:
It has been established since long, that whenever there is some increase or decrease
in the temperature of a body, it causes the body to expand or contract. A little will show
that if the body is allowed to expand or contract freely, with the rise or fall of the
temperature, no stresses are induced in the body. But if the deformation of the body is
prevented, some stresses are induced in the body. Such stresses are called thermal
stresses or temperature stresses. The corresponding strains are called thermal
strains or temperature strains.
Thermal Stresses in Simple Bars:
The thermal stresses or strains, in a simple bar, may be found out as discussed below:
1. Calculate the amount of deformation due to change of temperature with the
assumption that the bar is free to expand or contract.
2. Calculate the load (or force) required to bring the deformed bar to the original
length.
3. Calculate the stress and strain in the bar caused by this load.
Now consider a body subjected to an increase in temperature.
Let = original length of the body,
t = increase of temperature and
α = coefficient of linear expansion.
We know that the increase in length due to increase of temperature,
 δ = αtl
If the ends of the bar are fixed to the rigid supports so that its expansion is
prevented, then compressive strain induced in the bar,
e = δl = αlt = α.t
l l
Therefore, Stress, σ = e. E = α.t. E

Corollary:
If the supports yield by an amount equal to δ, then the actual expansion that
has taken place,
δ = α.l .t-δ
and strain, e = δl = αlt-δ = α.t -δ
l l l
Therefore stress, σ = e. E =E (α.t –δ)
l
The values of α (i.e., coefficient of linear expansion) of materials in everyday
use are given below in table.
S.№ Material coefficient of linear expansion / ºC
(α)
1. Steel 11.5 x 10 to 13 x 10-6
-6

2. Wrought iron, 11 x 10-6 to 12 x 10-6

Cast iron
3. Aluminium 23 x 10-6 to 24 x 10-6
4. Copper, Brass, Bronze 17 x 10-6 to 18 x 10-6

ELASTIC CONSTANTS:
It has been experimentally found that the axial strain of the body is always followed
by an opposite kind of strain in all directions at right angle to it. Thus in general, there
is always a set of following two types of strains in a body when it is subjected to a
direct stress.
1. Primary or linear strain, and
2. Secondary or lateral strain.

Primary or Linear Strain:

Whenever some external force acts on a body, it undergoes some deformation.
Now consider a circular bar subjected to a tensile force as shown in fig 2.15.
Let = Length of the bar,
d = Diameter of the bar,
P = Tensile force acting on the bar and
 δ = Increase in length of the bar as a result of the tensile
force.

Fig 2.15
The deformation of the bar per unit length in the direction of the force i.e., δ / is
known as primary or linear strain.
Secondary or Lateral Strain:
If we actually study the deformation of the bar, we will find that bar has
extended through a length δ , which will be followed by decrease of diameter
from d to (d – δd) as shown in figure 2.15. Similarly, if the bar is subjected to a
compressive force, the length of the bar will decrease by δ which will be
followed by the increase of diameter from d to (d + δd).
It is thus obvious that every direct stress is always accompanied by a strain
in its own direction and an opposite kind of strain in every direction at right
angles to it. Such a strain is known as Secondary or Lateral strain.
Poisson’s Ratio:
This constant is known as Poisson’s ratio and is denoted by 1/m or &.

if a body is stressed within its elastic limit, the lateral strain bears a constant ratio
to the linear strain.

Mathematically,

Lateral strain = A constant

Linear strain
The corresponding change in the lateral length may be found out as usual, i.e., by
multiplying the lateral length (i.e., width or thickness).
S. Material Poisson’s ratio[1/m or &
No
1. steel 0.25 to 0.33
2. Cast iron 0.23 to 0.27
3. Copper 0.31 to 0.34
3. Brass 0.32 to 0.42
4. Aluminium 0.32 to 0.18
 5. Concrete 0.08 to 0.27
6. Rubber 0.45 to 0.50
Volumetric Strain:
Whenever a body is subjected to a single force (or a system of forces), it
undergoes some changes in its dimensions. A little consideration will show that the
change in dimension of a body will cause some changes in its volume.
The ratio of change in volume to the original volume is known as volumetric
strain. Mathematically,
ev = δV
V
Where δV = Change in volume and
V = Original volume.

Volumetric Strain of a Rectangular Body Subjected to Three Mutually

Perpendicular Forces:
Consider a rectangular body subjected to direct tensile stresses along
three mutually perpendicular axes as shown in fig.2.16

ig 2.16 Let σx = Stress in x-x direction,

σy = Stress in y-y direction,
σz = stress in z-z direction and
E = Young’s modulus of elasticity.
Therefore, strain in X-X direction due to stress σx,
ex = σ x
E
Similarly, ey = σy and ez = σz
E E

The resulting strains in the three directions, may be found out by the principle of
superposition, i.e., by adding algebraically the strains in each direction due to
individual stress.
For the three tensile stresses shown in fig 2.16 (taking tensile strain as positive and
compressive strain as negative),
The resultant strain in X-X direction,
 ex = σx – σy – σz = 1 [ σx - σy – σz ]

E mE mE E m m

ey = σy – σx – σz = 1 [ σy – σx – σz ]

E mE mE E m m

ez = σz – σx – σy = 1 [ σz – σx – σy ]

E mE mE E m m

The volumetric strain may be found by the relation;

ev = ex + ey +ez

Note:
In the above relation, the values of ex, ey and ez should be taken tensile as positive
and compressive as negative.
 .
Shear Stress:
When a section is subjected to two equal and opposite forces acting tangentially across the resisting
section, as a result of this, the body tends to shear off across the section as shown in figure 2.17. The stress
induced is called shear stress. The corresponding strain is called shear strain.

Fig 2.17

Fig 2.18
Consider a cube of length ! fixed at the bottom face AB. Let a force P be applied at the face DC,
tangentially to the face AB. As a result of this force, let the cube be distorted from ABCD to
ABC1D1 through an angle Φ as shown in figure 2.18.

Shear strain = Deformation Original length

= CC1 = Φ
!
and shear stress =P
AB

Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity:

It has been experimentally found that within the elastic limit, the shear stress is proportional to the
shear strain. Mathematically,
Where Φ = Shear strain,
= Shear stress and
G = A constant known as shear modulus or modulus of
rigidity.
Bulk Modulus:
When a body is subjected to three mutually perpendicular stresses, of equal intensity,
the ratio of direct stress to the corresponding volumetric strain is known as bulk
modulus. It is denoted by K.
Mathematically, the bulk modulus,

K = Direct stress =σ
e
Volumetric strain v
relationship between Young’s Modulus and Modulus of Rigidity.
E = 2G (1+1/m)
Where,
E - Young’s Modulus
G – Modulus of rigidity
1/m - Poisson’s ratio

relationship between Bulk Modulus and Young’s Modulus.

E = 3K (1-2/m)
V Where,E - Young’s Modulus
K - Bulk Modulus
1/m- Poisson’s ratio

3. PRINCIPAL STRESSES AND STRAINS:

Introduction:
We have studied the direct tensile and compressive stress as well as shear stress. In this chapter, we
shall study the stress in a plane, which is at right angle to the line of action of force (in case of direct
tensile or compressive stress). Moreover, we have considered at a time one type of stress, acting in one
direction only. But majority of engineering component and structures are subjected to such loadings that
there exists a complex state of stresses; direct tensile and compressive stress as well as shear stress in
various directions. Now in this chapter, we shall study the nature and intensity of stresses on planes, other
than that, which is right angle to the line of action of the force.
Principal Planes
It has been observed that at any point in a strained material, there are three planes mutually
perpendicular each other, which carry direct stresses only, and no shear stress. Out of three direct stresses,
one will be maximum, the other minimum, and the third and intermediate between the two.

These particular planes, which have no shear stress, are known as principal planes.

Principal stress:

The magnitude of direct stress, across a principal plane, is known as Principal stress.

The determination of principal planes, and then principal stress is an important factor in the design of
various structures and machine components.

Methods for the Stresses on an Oblique Section of a Body:

The following two methods for the determination of stresses on oblique section of a strained body are
important from the subject point of view.
1. Analytical method and
2. Graphical method.

In this chapter, we shall discuss only the graphical method.

MOHR’S CIRCLE:
Graphical Method for the Stresses on an oblique Section of a Body:
This is done by drawing a Mohr’s Circle of Stresses. The construction of Mohr’s
Circle of Stresses as well as determination of normal, shear and resultant stresses is very easier than the
analytical method. Moreover, there is a little chance of committing any error in this method. In the
following pages, we shall draw the Mohr’s Circle of stresses for the following cases:

1. A body subjected to a direct stress in one plane.

2. A body subjected to a direct stresses in two mutually perpendicular directions.
3. A body subjected to a simple shear stress.
4. A body subjected to a direct stress in one plane accompanied by a simple shear stress.
5. A body subjected to a direct stresses in two mutually perpendicular directions accompanied by a
simple shear stress.

Sign Convention for Graphical Method:

Though there are different sign conventions used in different books for Graphical method also, yet we
shall adopt the following sign conventions, which are widely used and internationally recognized:
1. The angle is taken with respect to the X-X axis. All the angles traced in the anticlockwise direction
to the X-X axis are taken as negative, whereas those in
the clockwise direction as positive as shown in figure 3.1(a). The value of angle θ, until and unless
mentioned is taken as positive and drawn clockwise.

Fig 3.1
2. The measurements above X-X axis and to the right of Y-Y axis are taken as positive, whereas below
X-X axis and to the left of Y-Y axis as negative as shown in fig 3.1(b) and (c).

FORMULAE FOR PRINCIPAL STRESSES

1. When a point in a member subjected to direct stress in one direction

Normal stress, σn = σx – σx cos2θ Shear stress, ζ = σx sin2θ

2 2 2
Maximum shear stress, ζmax = σ Resultant stress, σR = √ (σn2 + ζ2)
2
2. When a point in a member subjected to direct stress in two mutually perpendicular directions
Normal stress, σn = (σx + σy) – (σx – σy) cos 2θ
2 2
Shear stress, ζ = (σx – σy) sin 2θ
2
Maximum shear stress, ζmax = (σx – σy) Resultant stress, σR = √ (σn2 + ζ2)
2
3. When a point in a member subjected to direct stress in one direction accompanied by simple
shear stress
Normal stress, σn = σx – σx cos2θ – ζxy sin 2θ
 2 2
Shear stress, ζ = σx sin2θ - ζxy cos 2θ
2
Maximum principal stress, σP1 = σx + √ [(σx)2 + ζxy 2]
2 2
Minimum principal stress, σP1 = σx - √ [(σx)2 + ζxy 2]
2 2
Max. shear stress, ζmax = √ [(σx)2 + ζxy 2] Resultant stress, σR = √ (σn2
+ ζ2) 2
4. When a point in a member subjected to direct stress in two mutually
perpendicular directions
Normal stress, σn = (σx + σy) – (σx – σy) cos 2θ – ζxy sin 2θ
2 2
Shear stress, ζ = (σx – σy) sin 2θ - ζxy cos 2θ
2
Maximum principal stress, σP1 = (σx + σy) + √ [ ((σx - σy)2 + ζxy 2]
2 2
Maximum principal stress, σP1 = (σx + σy) - √ [ ((σx - σy)2 + ζxy 2]
2 2
Max. shear stress, ζmax =√[ (σx – σy)2 + ζxy 2]
2
2 2
Resultant stress, σR = √ (σn + ζ )

Mohr’s Circle for Stresses on an Oblique section of a Body Subjected to Direct

Stress in One plane:

Fig 3.2
1. First of all, take some suitable point O and through it draw a horizontal line
XOX.

2. Cut off OJ equal to the tensile stress (σ) to some suitable scale and towards right
(because σ is tensile). Bisect OJ at C. Now the point O represents stress
system on plane BC and the point J represents the system on plane AC.
 . .

3. Now with C as centre and radius equal to CO and or CJ, draw a circle. It
is known as Mohr’s Circle for Stresses.

Fig: 3.3
4. Now through C, draw a line CP making an angle 2θ with CO in the clockwise
direction meeting the circle at P. The point P represents the section AB.
5. Through P, draw PQ perpendicular to OX. Join OP.
6. Now OQ, QP and OP will give the normal stress, shear stress and resultant stress
respectively to the scale. And the angle POJ is called angle of obliquity
(θ).
Mohr’s Circle for Stresses on an Oblique section of a Body Subjected to Direct
Stresses in Two Mutually Perpendicular Directions:

Fig: 3.4
1. First of all, take some suitable point O and through it draw a horizontal line OX.

2. Cut off OJ and OK equal to the tensile stress σX and σY to some suitable scale
towards right (because both the stresses are tensile). The point J represents
stress system on plane AC and the point K represents the stress system
on plane BC. Bisect JK at C.

3. Now with C as centre and radius equal to CJ and or CK, draw a circle. It
is known as Mohr’s Circle for Stresses.
 . .

Fig 3.5
4. Now through C, draw a line CP making an angle 2θ with CK in the clockwise
direction meeting the circle at P. The point P represents the stress system on the
section AB.
5. Through P, draw PQ perpendicular to OX. Join OP.
6. Now OQ, QP and OP will give the normal stress, shear stress and
resultant stress respectively to the scale. Similarly CM or CN will give
the maximum shear stress to the scale The angle POC is called angle of
obliquity (θ).

Mohr’s Circle for Stresses on an Oblique section of a Body Subjected to Direct

Stresses in Two Mutually Perpendicular Directions Accompanied by a Simple
Shear Stress:
Consider a rectangular body of uniform cross sectional area and unit thickness
subjected to direct tensile stresses in two mutually perpendicular directions along X-X
and Y-Y axes accompanied by a positive(i.e., clockwise)shear stress along X-X axis as
shown in fig 3.11 (a) and (b).
 . .

1. First of all, take some suitable point O and through it draw a horizontal
line OX.
2. Cut off OJ and OK equal to the tensile stresses σX and σY respectively to
some suitable scale and towards right (because σX and σY are tensile).
3. Now erect a perpendicular at J above the line X-X ( because ζXY is
positive along X-X axis) and cut off JD equal to shear stress ζXY to the
scale. The point D represents the stress system on the plane AC.
Similarly, erect a perpendicular below the line X-X (ζXY is negative along
Y-Y axis) and cut off KE equal to shear stress ζXY to the scale. The point
E represents the stress system on the plane BC. Join DE and bisect at C.
4. Now with C as centre and radius equal to CD or CE draw a circle. It is
known as Mohr’s Circle of Stresses.

5. Now through C, draw a line CP making an angle 2θ with CE in clockwise

direction meeting the circle at P. The point P represents the stress system
on the section AB.

Fig 3.12
6. Through P, draw PQ perpendicular to the line OX. Join OP.
7. Now OQ, QP and OP will give the normal, shear and resultant stresses to
the scale. Similarly OG and OH will give the maximum and minimum
principal stresses to the scale. The angle POC is called angle of
obliquity.

STRAIN ENERGY AND IMPACT LOADING

Strain Energy:
The energy, which is absorbed in a body, when strained within its elastic limit, is
known as strain energy.
It has been experimentally found that the strain energy is always capable of doing
some work. The amount of strain energy, in a body is found out by the principal of
work. Mathematically,
Strain energy = Work done.
Resilience:
It is a common term used for the total strain energy stored in a body.
Sometimes the resilience is also defined as the capacity of a strained body for doing
work (when it springs back) on the removal of the straining force.

Proof Resilience:
It is also a common term, used for the maximum strain energy, which can be stored in
a body. (This happens when the body is stressed up to the elastic limit). The
corresponding stress is known as proof stress.

Modulus of Resilience:
The proof resilience per unit volume of a material is known as modulus of resilience
and is an important property of the material.

Types of Loading:
In actual practice, it is not always possible that the load may act gradually. As a
matter of fact, a load may act in either of the following three ways:

1. Gradually 2. Suddenly 3. With impact.

Now in the succeeding pages, we shall discuss the work done or in other words
strain energy stored in a body when loaded in any of the above mentioned loadings.

Strain Energy Stored in a Body when the Load is Gradually Applied

It is the most common and practical way of loading a body, in which the loading
starts from zero and increases gradually till the body is fully loaded.
2
The strain energy stored, U = σ x V
2E
The modulus of resilience = strain energy per unit volume
= σ2
2E
Strain Energy Stored in a Body when the Load is suddenly Applied
Sometimes in factories and workshops, the load is suddenly applied on a body
(Chain breaking in a crane).
The strain energy stored, U = σ2 x V
. 2E

But σ = 2 x P
A