Math1014-L1 : Week 1-2

Velocity, Net Change, Area and Volume by Integration

§5.4 - §6.3
Definite Integrals
Recall that the definite integral of a continuous function f on the
interval [a, b] can be defined as the limit of the right Riemann sums1
Z b n
X b−a
f (x)dx = lim f (xk ) ,
a n→∞ n
k=1

by subdividing the interval [a, b] into n subintervals of equal length

∆x = b−an with partition points a = x0 < x1 < x2 < . . . < xn = b,
where xi = x0 + k∆x. The limit can be interpreted geometrically as
the net area (i.e., sum of ± areas) between the graph of y = f (x) and
the x-axis over the interval [a, b].
y
area above the x-axis is considered as positive

y = f(x)

x
a b

area under the x-axis is considered as negative

1 f (x b−a
k) · n
can be interpreted as the signed area of a rectangle with base
b−a
length n
and height f (xk ), i.e., the function value of f at the right-endpoint of
the interval [xk−1 , xk ], for k = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Definite Integrals
Recall also some basic properties2 of definite integrals as follows.
Z b Z b Z b
1. [hf (x) + kg(x)]dx = h f (x)dx + k g(x)dx
a a a
Z l Z b Z b
2. f (x)dx + f (x)dx = f (x)dx
a l a
Z a Z b
3. f (x)dx = − f (x)dx
b a
Z b Z b
4. f (x)dx ≥ g(x)dx if f (x) ≥ g(x) for a ≤ x ≤ b,
a a
for any constants where h, k, l.
2 All these properties follow easily from the similar properties of Riemann sums.

For example, Xn
b−a Xn
b−a Xn
b−a
[f (xk ) + g(xk )] = f (xk ) + g(xk )
k=1
n k=1
n k=1
n

hence by taking the limits of both sides as n → ∞, we have

Z b Z b Z b
[f (x) + g(x)]dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx
a a a
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

If F (x) is any antiderivative of aZfunction f (x) continuous on [a, b],
dF
i.e., = f (x), or equivalently f (x)dx = F (x) + C in terms of the
dx
notation of indefinite integral, then
Z b h ib
f (x)dx = F (x) = F (b) − F (a)
a a

Hence the evaluation of a definite integral may be reduced to a

problem of finding antiderivatives.
Z 2 Z 2  2
2x 2x 1 2x 1
E.g., e dx = e dx = e = (e4 − e2 ),
1 1 2 1 2
since Z
d 1 2x 1
e = e2x ←→ e2x dx = e2x + C.
dx 2 2
Position, Velocity and Acceleration Functions
Recall that if s = s(t) is the position function of an object travelling
along a line, then
ds dv
= v(t) = velocity function, = a(t) = acceleration function
dt dt
Thus when applying the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to these
functions, we have
Z b
displacement of the object
v(t)dt = s(b) − s(a) =
a from t = a to t = b > a
Z b
change in velocity of the object
a(t)dt = v(b) − v(a) =
a from t = a to t = b > a
Note also that the speed function is given by the absolute value of the
velocity function |v(t)|, and
Z b
distance travelled by the object
|v(t)|dt =
a from t = a to t = b
Displacement

Example Suppose that the velocity function of a skydiver from a

helicopter is given by

 80 if 0 ≤ t < 19
v(t) = 783 − 37t if 19 ≤ t < 21 (in m/s),

6 if 21 ≤ t ≤ 40

and the skydiver reaches the ground at t = 40 s. Determine the

altitude from which the skydiver jumped.
The displacement (i.e., change in position) of the skydiver during the
time interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 40 is given by the integral

Z 40 Z 19 Z 21 Z 40
v(t)dt = 80dt + (783 − 37t)dt + 6dt = 1720 (m)
0 0 19 21
“Area” as Displacement

v (m/s)

80
Z 21
(783 − 37t)dt
19
Z 19
80dt
0
Z 40
6dt
21

6 t (s)

20 40

“area” = displacement ( = distance travelled, since v(t) > 0)

1
= 80 · 19 + (2)(6 + 80) + 6 · (40 − 21)
2
= 1720 (m)
Some Net Changes in Business
In general, the integral of a rate of change function (derivative
function) can be interpreted as certain “net change” as follows:
Z b
f 0 (x)dx = f (b) − f (a) = “net change” of f from x = a to x = b
a

For examples, various rate functions in in Business/Economics are

often called certain marginal functions. When considering the
cost/revenue/profit of producing/selling/selling x units of certain
goods, we have
d
M C(x) = Marginal Cost = (Cost Function) = C 0 (x)
dx
d
M R(x) = Marginal Revenue = (Revenue Function) = R0 (x)
dx
d
M P (x) = Marginal Profit = (Profit Function) = P 0 (x)
dx
Net changes in cost, revenue, profit are then, respectively:
Z b Z b Z b
M C(x)dx = C(b)−C(a), M R(x)dx = R(b)−R(a), M P (x)dx = P (b)−P (a)
a a a
Area Between Curves
By decomposing a region between two graphs over an interval into
narrow pieces over subintervals and approximating them by narrow
rectangles, it is easy to see how to express the areas of the following
two types of planar regions by integrals:

y y
y = f(x)
d

x = k(y) x = h(y)
a b
x x

c
y = g(x)

Z b Z d
area = [f (x) − g(x)]dx area = [h(y) − k(y)]dy
a c
In general, if a planar region is enclosed by several curves, one may
need to divide the region into several pieces of the above types when
computing the area by integrals.
Example
Find the area enclosed by the curves x = y 2 − 4y and x = 2y − y 2 .
The y coordinates of the intersection points of the two curves can be
found by solving
(y 2 − 4y) − (2y − y 2 ) = 2y 2 − 6y = 2y(y − 3) = 0
i.e., y = 0 or y = 3. Thus by partitioning the y-interval into n
subintervals of equal length, 0 = y0 < y1 < y2 < . . . < yn = 3, we have

n
X 3 6
area ≈ [(2yk − yk2 ) − (yk2 − 4yk )] y

n 5
k=1 x = y^2 - 4y
4

and by passing to the limit as n → ∞, 3

Z 3 2

area = [(2y − y 2 ) − (y 2 − 4y)]dy 1

0
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
Z 3 h 2 i3 −1
= (6y − 2y )dy = 3y 2 − y 3 = 9
2 x = 2y - y^2

0 3 0 −2

−3
Remark

When working with an application of definite integrals, try to

understand what kind of quantity is represented by the “area”.
Example The figure shows graphs of the marginal revenue function
R0 (x) and the marginal cost function C 0 (x) for a manufacturer,
measured in thousands of dollars per unit. What is the meaning of
the area of the shaded region?
Recall here that P (x) = R(x)−C(x) is the
profit function, and P 0 (x) = R0 (x)−C 0 (x) y
R'(x)
is the marginal profit function! 3
Thus the ”area” between the two curves 2
is actually representing some net change C'(x)
in profit: 1

Z 100 Z 100 x
50 100
[R0 (x) − C 0 (x)]dx = P 0 (x)dx
50 50

= P (100) − P (50)
Example

If the birth rate of a population is b(t) = 2200e0.024t people per year

and the death rate is d(t) = 1460e0.018t people per year. Find the area
between these curves for 0 ≤ t ≤ 10. What does this area represent?
Integrals in Business/Economics

Consumers’ Surplus (CS) vs Producers’ Surplus (PS) at equilibruium poiint:

(p0 , q0 ) = the equililibrium point when supply meets demand.
Z q0 p ($/unit)
CS = (D(q) − p0 )dq p=S(q)
Z0 q0
supply curve
PS = (p0 − S(q))dq CS
0 (p0 , q0 )
To understand the meaning of CS, just ap- PS
proximate a tiny part of the ‘total area’ by
p=D(q)
a narrow rectangle:
demand curve
(D(q) − p0 )∆q = D(q)∆q − p0 ∆q q (unit)

≈ $$$ consumers willing to spend for ∆q units of the goods at price p

− $$$ spent on buying ∆q units of the goods at equilibrium price p0
total untility/welfare/gain/benefit of the consumers
CS =
who are willing to pay more than the equilibrium price
In general, one can replace the equilibrium price p0 by the market price
pmarket and consider CS or P S at price level pmarket .
Integrals in Business/Economics

Exercise See if you can interpret the meaning of the integral which
represents producer’s surplus.
Integrals in Business/Economics

Gini coefficient is a number which measures the inequality in wealth

distribution of a population. Here is how it is defined in terms of an
integral.
x = cumulative percentage of the
(100%)
bottom poorest people
Lorenz curve 1

income share
L(x) = cumulative percentage of in-
come share of the bottom x % poor- y=x
est people
Gini Coefficient
y=L(x)
Z 1 (100%)

G=2 [x − L(x)]dx 1
0
poor −→ rich

area between curves

=
area under y = x
“Perfect” equality if L(x) = x, with G = 0.
Volumes and Integrals

One may try to understand a solid by studying its cross-sections.

How to store or reconstruct the shape of a solid by a suitable number
of cross sections is an important problem with many applications.
Here we will only look at a simpler problem:
What can be said about the volume of a solid, if we actually
know the area of every parallel cross-section of the solid
along certain direction?
Roughly speaking,
Integration = putting a lot of pieces together!
Volumes and Integrals
Here is the picture of a solid where A(x) is the area of a cross section
over x:
replacemen

A(x)
A(x)

a x x+∆x ∆x
b

Assuming continuity, we expect A(x) ≈ A(x + ∆x) when ∆x ≈ 0, and

volume of the thin piece ≈ A(x)∆x
Now, if you understand the summing process represented by definite
integrals, then
approximating the volume by Z b
Xn limit volume of
−→ = A(x)dx
A(xk )∆x (Riemann Sum) the solid a
k=1
Cylinder and Parallelopiped

Given that all cross-sections parallel to the base of the following

cylinders or parallelopiped are of the same shape and size, i.e., having
constant cross-section area A,

A A A

then the well-known volume formula for these solids can be recoved
by integration:
Z h
volume = Adx = Ah = (base area) · (height)
0

Note that this can be generalized to any ”tube-shape solid” with

unchanged cross sections.
Volume of a Cone/Pyramid/...

h
A A

The area A(x) of the cross-section with radius r(x) of the cone at x
units below the top satisfies

A(x)  r(x) 2 x2 A
= = 2 ⇐⇒ A(x) = 2 x2
A r(h) h h

Hence the well-known volume formula for the cone is:

Z h h
A 2 A 3  1
volume of the cone = 2
x dx = 2 x  = Ah
0 h 3h 0 3

Note that the same calculation works, no matter what shape you have as
the base of the cone. Try to do the same with the pyramid!
Volumes of Solids of Revolution

If you rotate the graph of a continuous function y = f (x) ≥ 0 on [a, b]

about the x-axis, the cross-section over x of the solid of revolution thus
obtained is a disc of radius f (x), with cross-section area π[f (x)]2 . Thus
Z b
volume of the solid of revolution = π[f (x)]2 dx
a

Similarly, if you rotate the curve x = g(y) ≥ 0, where c ≤ y ≤ d, about the

y-axis then
Z d
volume of the solid of revolution = π[g(y)]2 dy
c
y
y y=f(x)
d

y x=g(y)

c
a x b x x
Volume of a Cone Again

Rotating the line segment y = R h x about the x-axis, where 0 ≤ x ≤ h,

the solid of revolution thus obtained is a cone with base radius R and
height h.

x h x

 2
Rx
Cross-section area of the solid at x is: π
h
Z h h
πR2 2 πR2 3  1
volume of the cone = x dx = x = πR2 h
0 h2 3h2 0 3
Cavalieri’s Principle

If two solids bounded between two parallel planes have same

the cross-section area everywhere between the two planes,
their volumes must be the same.

In terms of integrals, both volumes are given by the same integral

Z h
A(x)dx, where A(x) is the cross section area at height x.
0
Volume of a Sphere of Radius R
√
Radius of the disc x units below the equator = R2 − x2
Cross-sectional area of the disc = π(R2 − x2 )
Z R
4 3
volume = 2 π(R2 − x2 )dx = πR
0 3

Or by Cavalieri’s Principle:

volume of volume of two

volume of the sphere = −
a cylinder right cones inside
Volume of a Torus

Rotating the circle (x − R)2 + y 2 = r2 about the y-axis, where R > r,

the solid of revolution is a torus.
Horizontal cross-sectional area:
p p p
π[(R + r2 − y)2 − (R − r2 − y 2 )2 ] = 4πR r2 − y 2
Z r p
volume = 4πR r2 − y 2 dy
−r
Z r
p
= 4πR r2 − y 2 dy
−r
| {z }
“area of a half-disc”
= 2π 2 Rr2

which is the same as the volume of a cylinder with base radius r and
height 2πR.
(Work this out again using only Cavalieri’s Principle only.)
Volumes by Cylindrical Shells

Instead of cross-sections, we may also try to decompose a solid into

layers of thin cylindrical shells.
y
y=f(x)

x f(x) x

a x b x

volume of the thin cylindrical shell ≈ 2πxf (x)∆x

Z b
Riemann sum of
−→ volume = 2πxf (x)dx .
thin cylindrical volumes a

Exercise: Try to write down a similar formula for a solid obtained by

revolving certain graph of x = g(y) about the x-axis.
Volume of a Torus by Cylindrical Shells

Rotate the circle (x − R)2 + y 2 = r2 , where R > r, about the y-axis to

generate a torus. If you use the cylindrical shell method, the thin
cylindrical volume of the torus at x is roughly
y
p
2
2πx · 2y∆x = 4πx r − (x − R) ∆x 2

Passing to an integral: y
x
volume of the torus = x
Z R+r p
4πx r2 − (x − R)2 dx
R−r
Z r p Z r p
u=x−R
= 4πu r2 − u2 du + 4πR r2 − u2 du
−r −r

2 2
= 0 + 2π Rr
Example

Let S be the solid obtained by rotating about the y-axis the region enclosed
√
by y = sin(x2 ), 0 ≤ x ≤ π, and the x-axis. Find the volume of S. What
happens if you use horizontal slices (cross-sections) to find the volume?
Volume of a Wedge

A plane containing the x-axis and making an angle of 30◦ with the
xy-plane cuts out a wedge from the cylinder given by x2 + y 2 = 42 .
A typical cross section by a plane A typical cross section by a plane
perpendicular to y-axis is a rect- perpendicular x-axis is a triangle
angle p with
√ area √
1
with area 2 42 − y 2 · y tan 30◦ . 2
2 4 −x ·
2 42 − x2 tan 30◦ .

z
z

x
x

y y
Volume of a Wedge

Volume by integrating rectangu- Volume by integrating triangular

lar slices along y-axis : slices along x-axis :

volume of the wedge volume of the wedge

Z 4 Z 4
2 p 2 1
= √ 4 − y 2 ydy = √ (42 − x2 )dx
0 3 −4 2 3
h 1 i
3 4 128
= − √ (16 − y 2 ) 2 = √
h 1 x3 i4 128
= √ (16x − ) = √
3 3 0 3 3 2 3 3 −4 3 3

A slightly harder way is to look at the cross sections by planes

perpendicular to the z-axis. (Exercise for anyone interested.)