Fixed Point Theory and Best Approximation: The KKM-map Principle

Fixed Point Theory and Best Approximation:
The KKM-map Principle

Mathematics and Its Applications
Managing Editor:
M. HAZEWINKEL
Centre for Mathematics and Computer Science, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Volume 424
Fixed Point Theory and
Best Approximation:
TheKKM-map
Principle
by
Sankatha Singh
Department of Mathematics and Statistics,
Memorial University ofNewfoundland,
St John's, Newfoundland, Canada
Bruce Watson
Department of Mathematics and Statistics,
Memorial University of Newfoundland,
St John's, Newfoundland, Canada
and
Pramila Srivastava
Allahabad Mathematical Society,
Allahabad, India
SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
ISBN 978-90-481-4918-6 ISBN 978-94-015-8822-5 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-94-015-8822-5
Printed on acid-free paper
Ali Rights Reserved

© 1997 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 1997
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1997
No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or
utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and
retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner
Dedication
To our parents and especially to Shri Mahadeo Singh on the occasion

of his 95th birthday.
Table of Contents
FIXED POINT THEORY AND BEST APPROXIMATION:

THE KKM-MAP PRINCIPLE
Preface ix
1 Introductory Concepts and Fixed Point Theorems 1

1.1 Topological Preliminaries 1
1.1.1 Metric Spaces . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Hilbert Spaces . . . . . . 3
1.1.3 Topological Vector Spaces 7
1.1.4 Locally Convex Spaces . 8
1.2 Normal Structure . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Fixed Points . . . . .. . . . . . 10
1.4 The Banach Contraction Principle 12
1.5 Fixed Point Theorems for Nonexpansive Mappings 22
1.6 Quasi-nonexpansive Mappings and Fixed Points . 27
1.7 Densifying Maps and Fixed Points . . . 28
1.8 Multivalued Mappings and Fixed Points . . 34
1.9 Integral Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.10 The Method of Successive Approximations. 53
1.11 The Iteration Process for Continuous Functions 54
1.11.1 The Mann Iterative Process . . . . . . . 56
1.11.2 The Sequence of Iterates of Nonexpansive Mappings 58
1.11.3 Convergence Criteria in Convex Metric Spaces 63
1.11.4 Iterative Methods for Variational Inequalities 66
2 Ky Fan's Best Approximation Theorem 73

2.1 Introduction . .. . . . .. . . . . .. .. 73
2.2 Ky Fan Type Theorems in Hilbert Space . 77
2.3 Applications to Fixed Point Theorems . . 85
2.4 Prolla's Theorem and Extensions . . . . . 92
2.5 Ky Fan's Best Approximation Theorem for Multifunctions. 99
2.6 Kakutani Factorizable Maps and Applications . . . . . . . . 113
vii
viii
3 Principle and Applications of KKM-maps 121

3.1 Introduction......................... 121
3.2 The KKM-Map Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.3 Extensions of the KKM-Map Principle and Applications 124
3.4 Two function Theorems and Applications . . . 127
3.5 Application to Variational Inequalities . . . . . 131
3.6 Further Extensions of the KKM-Map Principle 135
3.7 Open-Valued KKM-Map and Related Results. 144
3.8 Further Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
3.9 Equivalent Formulation of the KKM-Map Principle. 151
3.10 Theory of the H-KKM-Map Principle . . . . . . . . 156
4 Partitions of Unity and Applications 159

4.1 Introduction.......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
4.2 Browder's Theorem and its Applications . . . . . . . 160
4.3 Ky Fan's Theorem, Its Extensions and Applications 167
4.4 Existence Theorems and Consequences . . . . . . . . 170
4.5 Coincidence Theorems and Applications . . . . . . . 174
4.6 Further Results on Variational and Minimax Inequalities. 177
5 Application of Fixed Points to Approximation Theory 191

5.1 Introduction.. . . . . . . . . . .. 191
5.2 Preliminaries and Basic Definitions 191
5.3 Existence of Best Approximations 191
5.4 Invariance of Best Approximation. 193
5.5 Invariance of Best Approximation in Locally Convex Spaces 194
5.6 Some Further Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
5.7 The Problem of Convexity of Chebyshev Sets . . . . . . .. 197
5.8 Best Simultaneous Approximations and Distance Between
Two Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
5.9 Variational Inequalities and Complementarity Problems 199
Bibliography 205
Preface
Recently a great deal of work has been done in the field of nonlinear
analysis. The topic has grown very rapidly and has many interesting applications
in various fields.
In this book, an attempt is made to pick up only a small section of
the growing field and give an up-to-date development so that any young
researcher can get enough literature to start with the work, and those who
are in the field, can get ready references of most recent work.
The book has five main chapters. The first chapter gives a brief survey
of results on fixed point theory. This includes most recent work in great
detail. In the end, a brief section is devoted to a set of applications.
The second chapter deals with the best approximation and fixed point
theorems. The starting point in this chapter is the well-known result of Ky
Fan. Several extensions and unifications of this important result are given.
This theorem has many applications in fixed theory, and therefore, a good
deal of work is in fixed point theory, especially for non-self maps. Many
interesting results of this nature dealing with random approximation and
random fixed point theorems could not be accommodated because of the
size of the text.
The third chapter is devoted to the study of KKM-map principle where
its extensions and a series of its applications in various fields are also
included. Again, the main result given in infinite dimensional space is due to
Ky Fan. Several extensions, unifications, and equivalence of such results are
given in detail. As results in fixed point theory, variational inequality and
KKM-theory are very closely related, and therefore, this topic has numerous
important applications in a variety of areas of mathematics, mathematical
economics, game theory, and in applied mathematics/engineering.
Chapter 4 deals with results on the partition of unity argument and the
Brouwer fixed point theorems. In this chapter, most of the results are given
where compact sets are considered. The main theorem of Browder is used
to give several interesting applications. The basic tools used simplify the
proof and have been used in various results. A few results are also given
where paracompact set has been considered.
In Chapter 5, applications of the nonlinear analysis are given in the areas
like approximation theory, variational inequalities, and complementarity
problems. Recently, it has been shown by a few researchers that fixed point
theory, optimization problems, approximation theory, complementarity problems,
variational inequalities, and KKM-map principle are equivalent. Thus, a
great deal of interest is generated in the field and researchers in applied
mathematics, engineering, economics, and applied physics are working together to
obtain interesting results.
ix
x
We thank our colleagues for their support, especially P.P.Narayanaswami

and Ruby and Tony Kocurko for going through a part of the manuscript and
making valuable suggestions. The encouragement given by Professor Allasia
(University of Torino) and Professor A. Carbone (University of Calabria)
is greatly appreciated.
It is with pleasure that we express our thanks to Professors Bardaro,
Browder, Ceppitelli, Cheney, Edelstein, Fan, Granas, Isac, Kim, Kirk, Lassonde,
Lin Mehta, Noor, Park, Sehgal, Sessa, Takahashi, Tan, Tarafdar, Vetrivel,
Waters, and Yuan for providing their reprints/preprints and encouragements.
We express our sincere thanks to Ms. Angelique Hempel and the staff
of the Kluwer Academic Publishers for their cooperation, patience, and
understanding.
In the end, we express our thanks and appreciation to Ms. Philomena
French who typed the entire manuscript. She was always ready to make
changes/ corrections/ alterations cheerfully.
Introductory Concepts and Fixed Point Theorems
1.1. Topological Preliminaries

1.1.1. METRIC SPACES
We begin with some basic definitions.

Definition 1.1 Let X be a set and d a function from X X X -t 1R+
(nonnegative reals) such that for all x, y, z E X we have
M 1: d(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y,
M 2 : d(x, y) = d(y, x), and
M3: d(x, y) ~ d(x, z) + d(z, y).
A function d satisfying the above conditions is said to be a distance
function or metric and the pair (X, d) a metric space. We write X for a
metric space (X, d).
The real line IR with d(x, y) = Ix - yl is a metric space. The metric dis
called the usual metric for lR.
Definition 1.2 A sequence, {x n }, in metric space X is said to be a Cauchy
sequence if for each c > 0, there exists a positive integer N(c) such that
d(xn,x m ) < c for all m,n 2: N.
Definition 1.3 A sequence, {x n }, of points of X is said to converge to a
point y if, for given c > 0, there exists a natural number N(c) such that
d(xn, y) < € whenever n 2: N.
In this case we write either limn--+oo d(xn, y) = 0 or lim Xn = y or Xn -t y.
Note: A convergent sequence is a Cauchy sequence.
Definition 1.4 A metric space X is said to be complete if every Cauchy
sequence in X converges to a point in X.
With the usual metric, IR is a complete metric space and so is C[a, b],
the space of continuous functions on [a, b], with metric given by
d(J,g) = max IJx - gxl.

xE[a,bj
Note: If f:X t-+ Y and a reference is made to f(x), it is standard practice

in fixed point theory to suppress the brackets and write fx instead. We
S. Singh et al., Fixed Point Theory and Best Approximation: The KKM-map Principle
© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 1997
2 CHAPTER 1
adopt this convention throughout this book. An exception, on behalf of

readability, may be a situation where X = IR (or C) and specific values like
f(O) or f(l) are required.
Definition 1.5 The diameter, 8(A), of a nonempty subset A of a metric
space X is defined by 8(A) = sup{d(x,y) : X,y E A}.
Definition 1.6 A subset C of a metric space X is said to be totally bounded
if, for given E > 0, there exist finitely many subsets e}, ... ,C n of X with
8(Ci) < E, i = 1,2, ... , n, and C ~ UCi.
A metric space that is totally bounded is sometimes called precompact.
Total boundedness implies boundedness but not conversely. In IR they are
equivalent. A subset A of a metric space X is totally bounded if and only
if every sequence of points in A has a Cauchy subsequence.
Definition 1.7 If A ~ UAi, then the collection of sets {Ai} is said to be
a cover of A. If each Ai is an open set, then the cover is called an open
cover. In case there is a finite collection A l , .•. , An among the {Ai} such
that A ~ U~l Ai, then the cover {Ai }i=l is said to be a finite subcover of
A.
Definition 1.8 A metric space X is said to be compact if each open cover
of X has a finite subcover.
Note: A metric space X is compact if each sequence in X has a convergent
subsequence whose limit is in X. Also, X is compact if and only if X is
complete and totally bounded.
A metric space X is complete if and only if whenever {Bi} is a decreasing
nested sequence of nonempty closed subsets of X such that lim diam
n-+oo
Bn = 0, then ni=l Bi =I- 0.
Let X be a metric space. A family {FihEI of subsets of X is said to have
the finite intersection property if for each finite subject j of I, niEJFi =I- 0.
A metric space X is compact if and only if each family of closed subsets
of X which satisfies the finite intersection property has a nonempty intersection.
A closed subset of a compact metric space is compact.
A linear space X over the field K (IR or the complex field C) is a set X
together with an internal binary operation '+' called addition and a scalar
multiplication carrying (A, x) in K x X to AX in X satisfying the following
for all x,y,z E X and A,J-t E K.
l.x+y=y+x,
2. (x+y)+z=x+(y+z),
3. There exists an element 0 E X called the zero vector of X, such that
x + 0 = x for all x EX.
Fixed Point Theory and Best Approximation: The KKM- Map Principle 3
4. For every element x EX, there exists an element -x E X called the

additive inverse or the negative of x such that x + (-x) = 0,
5. A(X+Y) = AX+Ay,
6. (A + /L)x = Ax + /LX,
7. (A/L)X = A(/LX ),
=
8. 1 x x for all x EX.
The elements of a vector space X are called vectors and the elements
of K are called scalars. With the usual addition and multiplication, JR and
C are linear spaces over JR.
Definition 1.9 Given a vector space X, a norm on X is a map 11·11 : X ~
JR+ which satisfies the following properties:
NI :
N2:
°
IIxll = if and only if x = 0,
IIAXII = IAllixll for all A E K and x EX,
N3: IIx + yll S; IIxll + lIyll,
A vector space (X, II . II) on which a norm is definedis called a normed
vector space. If X is a normed vector space, we can introduce a metric on
X by defining d(x, y) = IIx - yll.
The three axioms for a metric are easily verified. This metric is called
the metric induced by the norm.
A normed linear space is called a Banach space if it is complete with
respect to the induced metric. JR, C, and era, b] are examples of Banach
spaces.
Examples
1. Let era, b] be the space of all continuous functions on [a, b] whose
values are real numbers. If we define Ilfll = max If(x)l, then era, b]
xE[a,bj
is a Banach space.
2. The space prO, 1] of polynomials on [0,1] with the norm
IIfll = max If(x)1

xE[O,lj
is a normed vector space. But prO, 1] is not a Banach space.
1.1.2. HILBERT SPACES

Definition 1.10 A vector space X over a field K (IR or C) is called an
inner product space if there is defined a function (x, y) from X X X ~ K
such that
HI:
H2:
(x, x) ~
(x, x) = °°
for every x EX,
if and only if x = 0,
4 CHAPTER 1
H3: (x, y) = (y, x) (conjugate)

H4 : (AX + J..Ly, z) = A(X, z) + J..L(y, z), x, y, z E X and A, J..L E K.
The value (x, y) is called the inner product of the vectors x and y. In
case K = IR then (x, y) = (y, x) for all x, y E X. A vector space X is called
an inner product space if an inner product has been defined on X.
C[a, b] with the su prem urn norm is not an inner product space. Also £P,
p =1= 2, is not an inner product space. If X is an inner product space, then
we define the norm of x E X as Ilxll = (x, X)1/2. All properties of norm are
satisfied. Indeed
Ilxll 2:: 0, Ilxll = 0 if and only if x = 0,
IIAxl1 = IAlllxl1 since IIAxW = (AX, AX) = AX(X, x) = IAI21IxW,
and
Ilx + yll ::; Ilxll + Ilyll·
A metric is defined using the norm. If (X, II . II) is complete, then the
inner product space is called a Hilbert space.
Examples of Hilbert spaces are 1R, C, IRn , Cn , £2, and L2 among others.
Definition 1.11 A set C in a Banach space X is said to be convex if

ax + (1 - a)y E C whenever, x, y E C and 0 ::; a ::; 1. A set C is said to
be starshaped if there is at least one p E C such that (1 - A)p + Ax E C for
all x E C, and 0 < A < 1. The point p E C is said to be the star center of
C. Every convex set C is starshaped but not conversely.
Definition 1.12 Let C C X be a subset of a Banach space X. Then the
convex hull of C is defined as eo(C) = U::: AiXi : 0 ::; Ai ::; 1, E Ai = 1, Xi E
C}, the set of all convex combinations of points in C.
Definition 1.13 A Banach space X is called uniformly convex if for any

f > 0 there exists a 8 > 0, depending on f, such that if IIxll = lIyll = 1 and
IIx - yll 2:: f, then 1I~(x + y)1I ::; 1 - 8.
In other words, X is uniformly convex if for any two points x and y

on the unit sphere 5 = {x EX: IIxll = I}, the midpoint of the segment
joining x and y can be close to but not on that sphere, only if x and yare
sufficiently close to each other.
Examples. Every Hilbert space is uniformly convex and £P, 1 < p < 00,
is uniformly convex. However, C[O, 1] with the supremum norm, £1 and £00
are not uniformly convex.
Definition 1.14 A Banach space X is called strictly convex if and only if

x, y E X, x =1= 0 =1= y and Ilx + yll =
Ilxll + lIyll, imply that x Ay, A > =
o. Equivalently, X is a strictly convex Banach space if whenever x, y E
=
X, Ilxll Ilyll= 1 and x =1= y, then 11~(x + y)1I < 1.
Fixed Point Theory and Best Approximation: The KKM-Map Principle 5
A uniformly convex Banach space is strictly convex but not conversely.

The spaces ,e1 and L1 are not strictly convex.
The Banach space X* of bounded linear functionals on X is called the
dual space of X. It generates a topology for X called the weak topology.
For given E > 0 and a finite number of elements h, ... ,fn in X*, let
V(h, 12, ... .In; E) = {x EX: Ifi(X)1 < E, for every i = 1,2, ... , n}.
Then the family of all sets V(h, 12, ... , fn; E) for every choice of E and
any finite sequence h, 12, ... , fn, defines a base of neighbourhoods of zero
of a topology which is called the weak topology of X. (We denote by (j, x)
the value f(x) of f at x.) Under the weak topology, a normed linear space
X is a locally convex topological vector space. In the sequel, by the terms
weakly closed, weakly compact, weak closure of a set, we mean closed,
compact, closure of a set with respect to the weak topology, respectively.
The norm topology (or strong topology) and the weak topology of a
Banach space X are equivalent if and only if X is finite dimensional. A
sequence {x n } E X converges weakly to y E X if and only if lim (j, x n ) =
n~oo
(j, y) for every f E X*.

(i) Every weakly convergent sequence {xn} is bounded, and, moreover,
II lim xnll ~ lim inf Ilxnll.

n~oo n~oo
(ii) Norm convergence implies weak convergence but not conversely.

(iii) Each closed convex subset of a Banach space is weakly closed.
(iv) A weakly closed set is strongly closed but not conversely.
For every fixed vector x EX, the mapping of X* into IR or C, which
to each f E X* assigns the value f(x) of f at x, is a continuous linear
functional on X*; that is, an element of X**. Moreover, the norm of this
functional is equal to Ilxli. The canonical mapping of X into X** defined by
this correspondence between elements of X and continuous linear functionals
on X* is linear and one to one. Therefore, it is an isometric embedding of
X into X**.
Definition 1.15 A Banach space X is called reflexive if the canonical
embedding of X into X** is onto.
Hilbert spaces and uniformly convex Banach spaces are reflexive. For
1 < p < 00, the ,ep space is reflexive.
The following results are useful in the subsequent work.
(i) A Banach space X is reflexive if and only if its unit ball is weakly
compact.
6 CHAPTER 1
(ii) A Banach space X is reflexive if and only if every bounded sequence

of elements of X contains a weakly convergent subsequence.
(iii) A Banach space X is reflexive if and only if every decreasing sequence
of nonempty closed bounded convex subsets of X has a nonempty
intersection.
(iv) A Banach space X is reflexive if and only if X* is reflexive.
A reflexive Banach space is not necessarily uniformly convex. For example,
consider a finite dimensional Banach space in which the surface of the
unit ball has a "flat" part. Such a Banach space is reflexive because of its
finite dimension. But the "flat" portion in the surface of the ball makes it
nonuniformly convex.
Let X be a Banach space. Then
B = {x EX: IIxll ~ I} and S = {x EX: IIxll = I}

are called the unit ball and unit sphere, respectively. The closed ball Br of
radius r > 0 is given by
Br={XEX:llxll~r},
and the boundary of Bn denoted by 8B r = {x EX: IIxll = r}.

Let T : X -t Y be a mapping. Then
1. T is demicontinuous at Xo if Xn -r Xo => TX n -r Txo (weakly).
2. T is strongly continuous at Xo if Xn -r Xo (weakly) => TX n -r Txo.
3. T is weakly continuous at Xo if Xn -r Xo (weakly) => TX n -r TX n
(weakly).
4. Tis demiclosed if Xn -r Xo (weakly) and TX n -r y => y = Txo.
The notation -r stands for strong convergence and either of -" or -r
(weakly) denotes weak convergence.
If a sequence {xn} in a Hilbert space H converges weakly to x, then for
any y E H, y =I- x, the following inequality holds:
lim inf Ilx n - yll > lim inf IIx n - xii.

Definition 1.16 Let C be a subset of a Banach space X. Then a mapping
T : C -r X* is called monotone if
(Tx - Ty,x - y) 2: 0 for all X,y in C,
and strictly monotone if (Tx - Ty, x - y) >0 for all x, y E C(x =I- y).
Definition 1.17 A mapping T : C -r X* is called hemicontinuous if for
any x E C, Y E X and any sequence {t n } E lR+ , T(x + tny) -t Tx (weakly)
as tn -r 0 and n -r 00.
An important example of a monotone mapping from a Banach space X

into its dual space X* is given by the so-called duality mappings.
Definition 1.18 A gauge function is a real-valued continuous function J..L
defined on R+ = {t E R : t 2: O} such that
(i) J..L(O) = 0,
(ii) limHoo J..L(t) = +00, and
(iii) J..L is strictly increasing.
An example of a gauge function is J..L(t) = t.
Definition 1.19 Let X be a Banach space and X* its dual space. Let J..L(t)
be a given gauge function. The duality mapping in X with gauge function
J..L is a mapping J from X into the set 2x ', of all subsets of X*, such that
J(O) = 0;
and, for x=/; 0,
J(x) = {f E X* : (/, x) = IIfllllxll, IIfll = J..L(lIxll)}·

Definition 1.20 A Banach space X is called locally uniformly convex (LUG)
if and only if, for given € > 0 and an element Xo E X with IIxoll = 1, there
exists a 8(€, xo) > 0 such that
Xo - Y
11- 2 -11 ~ 1- 8(€,xo),
whenever IIxo - yll 2: € and lIyll = 1.
Remark. It is clear from the definitions that uniform convexity implies
local uniform convexity, but the converse is not true in general.
Definition 1.21 A Banach' space X is uniformly convex in every direction
(UCED) if and only if, for any € > 0 and every nonzero z EX, there exists
a number 8(f, z) > 0 such that if x - y = AZ, IIxll = lIylI = 1 and
x+y
11-
2 -11 > 1 - 8, then IAI ~ L
A uniformly convex space is a (UCED)-space, but the converse is not

always true. In fact, there are even reflexive Banach spaces that are (UCED)
but not isomorphic to a uniformly convex Banach space.
1,1,3. TOPOLOGICAL VECTOR SPACES
Let X be a nonempty set. A family T of subsets of X defines a topology

on X if it contains the empty set <p and the whole set X, and satisfy the
following:
8 CHAPTER 1
(i) the union of any arbitrary collections of members of T, is in T, and

(ii) the intersection of any finite collection of members of T, is in T.
The members of T are called open subsets of X under the topology
defined by T. The nonempty set X together with T, (X, T), is called a
topological space.
A subset A of X is said to be closed if AC = X - A is an open subset.
The closure A of A is the intersection of all closed sets that contain A.
The interior AO of A is the union of all open sets that are subsets of
A. A neighbourhood of a point x in X, N x , is any set which contains
an open set. The class of all neighbourhoods of a point x in X is called
the neighbourhood system of x. A topological space (X, T) is Hausdorff if
distinct points have disjoint neighbourhoods.
Let X be a vector space over ][(. Then T is a vector topology on X if it
is compatible with the vector space structure on X, that is,
1. the map (x,y) -t x + y of X x X -t X, for all X,y E X, and
2. the map (.x,x) -t .xx of JI{ x X -t X, for all .x E JI{ and x E X, are
continuous.
A vector space X with vector topology T, (X, T) is a topological vector
space. In brief, a topological vector space is a vector space X together with
a Hausdorff topology for which the vector operations are continuous.
A normed linear space is a topological vector space and so is a Hilbert
space.
Let X be a vector space over JI{ and C a subset of X. Then
(i) C is circled (balanced) if rC is contained in C for x E C and for all
Irl ::; 1.
(ii) C is absolutely convex if it is convex and circled.
(iii) C is absorbing if for any x E X there exists a r > 0 such that x E tC
for all t E JI{ with It I 2: r. Equivalently, C is absorbing if for each x E X
there exists a r > 0 such that x/r in C.
1.1.4. LOCALLY CONVEX SPACES
A vector topology T on X is said to be locally convex if T admits a local

base at 0 consisting of convex sets.
A vector space X with Hausdorff locally convex topology T is called a
locally convex space.
A seminorm in a vector space X is a map p : X -t JR+ satisfying the
following.
(i) p(x + y) ::; p(x) + p(y) for all x, y E X,
(ii) p(rx) = Irlp(x) for all x E X and r 2: O.
(iii) p(x) 2: 0 for all x E X.
A family IF of seminorms on X is said to be separating if to each nonzero

x(x =f. 0) corresponds apE IF with p(x) =f. O.
If IF is a separating family of semi norms on X, then f' defines a locally
convex topology on X with the property that every p E f' is continuous.
Let C be an absorbing subset of X. For each x E X, let Pc = inf{r >
0: x E rC}.
Then pc is called the gauge or Minkowski functional on C.
It is easy to see that for every seminorm p on a vector space X the
set {x EX: p(x) ::; I} is an absorbing, balanced and convex subset of
X. On the other hand, any absorbing, balanced and convex subset C of X
determines a seminorm on X. Given such a set C, define the gauge 9 of C
by g(x) = inf{r > 0 : x E rC}.
If p is a seminorm, then the set {x EX: p( x) ::; I} is absorbing balanced
and convex.
Every locally convex topological vector space has a base at 0 consisting
of absolutely convex sets. Consequently the topology of a locally convex
topological vector space is determined by its continuous seminorms.
The dual (conjugate) space X* of a normed linear space X, is the set
of all continuous linear functionals on X. The dual space X* is itself a
normed linear space. Consider the dual space X** of X*, the second dual
space of X. Each vector x E X gives rise to a functional gx in X** defined
=
by gx(J) f(x)Vf E X*.
The function h mapping x -+ gx is called the natural imbedding of X
into X**. It is obvious that h is linear and Ilh(x)1I = IIxll for all x E X, that
is, h is an isometry.
Let X be a vector space and Xl a vector subspace of X*. For any
f E Xl, let pj(x) = IIf(x)11 for all x E X. Then Pi is a seminorm on X.
The locally convex topology on X, defined by the family {Pi: f E Xd
of seminorms, is called the weak topology and is denoted by O"(X, Xd.
If for any x E X define qx on Xl by qx(J) = If(x)1 for all f E Xl, then
the locally convex topology on Xl determined by {qx : x E X} is called the
weak*-topology on Xl and is denoted by O"(XI'X).
1.2. Normal Structure

The concept of normal structure has been of fundamental importance in
some recent investigations concerned with determining fixed points of different
mappings.
Definition 1.22 Let C be a bounded convex set in a Banach space X
of diameter d. A point x E X is said to be a diametral point for C if
SUPyEC IIx - yll = d.
10 CHAPTER 1
Example. In the Banach space C[O, 1], with IIfll = maxo9:51 If(t)l, every
point of the bounded and convex set
C = {f(t) E C[O, 1] : °= f(O) :s f(t) :s f(l) = I}

is diametral.
Definition 1.23 A convex set G in a Banach space X is said to have

normal structure if, for each bounded convex subset C of G, that contains
more than one point, there exists a point x E C which is not diametral for
C.
Geometrically, G has normal structure if, for every bounded and convex
subset C of G, there exists a ball of radius less than the diameter of C
centred at a point of C and containing C.
Remark. We say that a Banach space has normal structure if each of its
bounded convex subsets has normal structure.
1. Every uniformly convex Banach space has normal structure.

2. A Banach space, uniformly convex in every direction, has normal structure.
3. Every convex and compact subset C of a Banach space has normal
structure.
There are Banach spaces which do not possess normal structure. For
example, the Banach spaces C[O, 1], £1, and LI do not have normal structure.
1.3. Fixed Points

Fixed point theorems are useful in the existence theory of differential equations,
integral equations, partial differential equations, random differential equations,
and in other related areas. Fixed point theory has very fruitful applications
in eigenvalue problems as well as in boundary value problems, including
approximation theory, variational inequality, and complementarity problems.
Definition 1.24 Let T : X -+ X be a function on a set X. A point Xo E X

is called a fixed point of T if Txo = Xo; that is, a point which remains
invariant under the transformation T is called a fixed point of T.
Example. Let T : [0,1] -+ [0,1] be defined by Tx = x/10. Then T(O) = 0,

and, hence 0, is a fixed point of T.
of the form Tx = °
In analysis and functional analysis, we frequently come across equations
and Tx = y. The main problem is to solve these
equations. There are often several methods available, some of which are
used to find exact solutions and others to find approximate solutions. Fixed
point theory has also been widely used. In order to illustrate the fact, let
us consider the simple equation
x2 - 7x + 12 = 0.
We know that x = 3 and x = 4 are roots of this equation.

This equation can be written as
x=
x2 + 12
7
. x 2 + 12
Let us consIder x = f(x) where f(x) = 7 .
Then x = 3 and x = 4 are two fixed points of f.
°
Thus, it is easy to see that the problem of finding the solution of an
equation g(x) = is the same as finding a fixed point of a function f(x)
where g(x) = f(x) - x.
In 1912, Brouwer proved the following important result.
Theorem 1.25 Let C be the unit ball in IRn and T : C --t C a continuous
function. Then T has a fixed point in C (or Tx = x has a solution).
The particular case of this theorem on the real line can be stated in the
following way:
Let T : [0,1] --t [0,1] be a continuous function. Then T has a fixed
point.
The proof of this result follows from the Intermediate Value Theorem.
Most of the problems arise in function spaces, and therefore, it is natural
to ask if the theorem can be extended to function spaces. Kakutani produced
an example that Theorem 1.25 does not hold, in general, for infinite dimensional
spaces.
Example. Let C = {x E £2: IIx\\ ~ I} be the unit ball in the Hilbert space
£2. For each x = {Xl, X2, X3, ... } in C, define a map T : C --t C by
Then IITxll = 1 and T is continuous.

Suppose, by way of contradiction, that T has a fixed point, say Txo =
Xo = {Xl, X2, ... , x n , ... } in C. Since IITxll = 1, IITxoli = IIxoll = 1. But
Txo {J1-lI xoIl 2,xl,x2,""xn , ... }

{0,XI,X2,X3,X4, ... ,x n , ... }
Xo
{Xl,X2,X3, ... ,X n , . . • } .
12 CHAPTER 1
This gives Xl = 0,X2 = O, ... ,Xn = 0, ... or Xo = {O,O,O, ... ,O, ... }. But,
=
this contradicts IIxoll 1. Hence, T is fixed point free.
Brouwer's Theorem was extended to infinite dimensional spaces by
Schauder in 1930 in the following way [246].
Theorem 1.26 Let X be a Banach space, C a compact convex subset of
X, and T : C -t C a continuous map. Then T has at least one fixed point
in C.
The compactness condition on C is a strong one. Many problems in
analysis do not have a compact setting. It is natural to modify the theorem
by relaxing the condition of compactness. Schauder proved a theorem for a
compact map. We define a compact map and then state the theorem.
Definition 1.27 Let T : X -t X be a map. Then T is called a completely
continuous compact map if T is continuous and T maps bounded sets to
precompact sets.
A compact map is always continuous but a continuous map need not be
compact. For example, an identity function is continuous, but it may not
be compact.
The following is known as the Schauder Fixed Point Theorem (second
form) [246].
Theorem 1.28 Let X be a Banach space, C a closed bounded convex subset
of X and T : C -t C a compact map. Then T has at least one fixed point
in C.
This theorem is of great importance in the numerical treatment of
equations in analysis.
In 1935, Tychonoff extended Brouwer's result to a compact convex
subset of a locally convex topological vector space [296].
Theorem 1.29 Let C be a nonempty compact convex subset of a locally
convex topological vector space X and f : C -t C a continuous map. Then
f has a fixed point.
1.4. The Banach Contraction Principle

Fixed point theorems are very useful in the existence theory of differential,
integral, and functional equations. Such results are used in applied mathematics,
engineering, and economics.
The Banach contraction theorem is important as a source of existence
and uniqueness theorems in different branches of analysis. This theorem
provides an illustration of the unifying power offunctional analytic methods
and of the usefulness of fixed point theorems in analysis.
In this section, we discuss the Banach Contraction Principle and some

of its extensions. In the end, we also give some applications.
Definition 1.30 Let X be a metric space and I : X -+ X. Then I is
said to be 01 Lipschitz class if there exists a real number k > 0 such that
d(fx,/y) :s; kd(x, y) lor all x, y EX. II k < 1, then I is called a contraction
map. In case d(fx, Iy) < d(x, y), x =I y, then I is said to be a contractive
map.
The Banach Contraction Principle is stated below.
Theorem 1.31 Let X be a complete metric space and I X -+ X a
contraction mapping. Then I has a unique fixed point.
Proof.
Set Xn+1 = Ix n , n = 0,1, . .. , where Xo is any fixed element in X.
We claim that {x n } is a Cauchy sequence. Indeed, we see that
d(X2' Xl) = d(fXI' Ixo) :s; kd(X17 xo).
Similarly, d(xn+1' xn) :s; kd(xn , xn-d

:s; knd(XI' xo).
By induction, for any p 2: 1,
d(x n+p , xn) < d(x n+p, xn+p-d + .. . + d(Xn+l' xn)

< kn+p-Id(XI,XO) + ... + knd(xJ,xo)
knd(xt, xo)[P-J + p-2 + ... + 1]
kn
< 1 _ k d(x}, xo) .
The right hand side goes to zero as n -+ 00 since k < l.

Thus, {xn} is a Cauchy sequence.
Since X is a complete metric space, the Cauchy sequence {xn} converges
to x EX. Hence, {x n +1} also converges to x.
But Xn+1 = IX n -+ Ix since I is continuous.
Since the limit is unique, we must have x = Ix.
For uniqueness of the fixed point, let us assume that x = lx, y = Iy, and
x =I y. Then 0 < d(x, Y) = d(fx,fY) :s; kd(x, Y) < d(x, y), a contradiction.
This completes the proof.
In the metric space X, let Br(x) denote the open ball with centre x and
radius r. When there is no ambiguity about x, we write B r •
Corollary 1.32 Let Br be the closed ball centred at Xo in the complete
metric space X, and let I: Br -+ X be a contraction map with constant k.
If d(xo, Ixo) :s; (1 - k)r , then Xn+1 = IX n -+ x E Br and x = Ix.
14 CHAPTER 1
Proof.
We show that I : Br --1 B r . Let x E B r . Then
d(fx, xo) < d(fx, Ixo) + d(fxo, xo)

< kd(x, xo) + (1 - k)r
< r.
By the Banach Contraction Principle, the result follows.
Remarks.
(i) If X is not a complete space, then I may not have a fixed point. For
example, let I : (0,1) --1 (0,1) be given by Ix = x/2. Then 1(0) = 0,
°
but rt (0,1).
(ii) If I is not a contraction function on a complete metric space X, then
I may not have a fixed point. For example, a translation map on R
does not have a fixed point.
(iii) If I : X --1 X is not a contraction, but fP, for some positive integer
p, is a contraction map on a complete metric space X, then I has a
unique fixed point.
Indeed, fP has a unique fixed point by the Banach contraction principle.
So fPxo = Xo say. Now, I fPxo = Ixo; that is, fP fxo = Ixo and Ixo is
a fixed point for fP. But fP has a unique fixed point. Hence Ixo = Xo.
(iv) If X is any set and fP : X --1 X has a unique fixed point, then I has
a unique fixed point.
(v) Let I: X --1 X be any function. If K : X --1 X is such that KIK- 1 :
X --1 X is a contraction on the complete metric space X, then I has
a unique fixed point.
For, if Xo is the fixed point of KIK-l, then K-1KIK-1xo = K-1xo,
or IK-1xo = K-1xo.
Theorem 1.33 Let X be a compact metric space, and let I :X --1 X be
contractive. Then I has a unique fixed point.
Proof.
Consider 4>(x) = d(x,jx). Since I is continuous, the function 4> is
continuous on X. Because X is compact, 4> attains its minimum, say 4>(xo) ,
at Xo E X.
In case Xo =1= Ixo, we get
4>(fxo) = d(f Ixo, Ixo) < d(fxo, xo) = ¢>(xo)
a contradiction since 4>(xo) is the minimum. This yields Xo Ixo. The

uniqueness follows easily.
Finally, consider the following exam pIe: Let X = [1, 00 ), and let f : X -t
X be given by fx = x + ~. Then f'(x) = 1 - ~ and hence d(fx, fy) <
d(x, y), x :I y. In this case f has no fixed point.
A mapping f : X -t X is said to be nonexpansive if d(fx, fy) ~ d(x, y)
for all x, y E X. A translation map f : IR -t IR defined by f(x) = x + p, p
a positive constant, is a nonexpansive map, but f has no fixed point. An
identity function is a nonexpansive map, and each point of the domain is a
fixed point. A nonexpansive mapping may not have a fixed point, or it may
have more than one. Therefore, it is interesting to study the problem of the
existence of solutions of fx = x and the properties of the solution set. For
nonexpansive mappings, the sequence of iterates X n +l = fx n , n = 0,1,2, ...
need not converge to a fixed point of f. For example, let f : [-1,1] -t [-1,1]
be given by fx = -x. Then for Xo =F 0, Xn+1 = fX n does not converge to
0= f(O).
We have the following for nonexpansive mappings.
Theorem 1.34 Let B be a compact convex subset of a normed space X
and let f : B -t B be a nonexpansive map. Then f has a fixed point.
Proof. Take a fixed Xo E B, and define fri : B -t B by
fri(X) = rdx + (1 - rdxo
where 0 < ri < 1 and ri -t 1 as i -t 00. Then each fri is a contraction

map, and there is an x ri such that fri x ri = Xri by the Banach Contraction
Principle. The bounded sequence {x ri } has a convergent subsequence {x rnp }
which converges to, X, say.
We claim that x is a fixed point of f.
Taking the limit as p -t 00, we get x = fx since f is continuous and

rnp -t 1.
The Banach Contraction Principle has been extended in many different
directions. An excellent reference for many of the results on contraction
mappings on complete metric spaces is the survey by Rhoades [234]. We
do not intend to retrace that ground here. We select only some recent
extensions of the Banach Contraction Principle where either f is not assumed
to be continuous or not assumed to be of contraction type.
Theorem 1.35 Let X be a complete metric space and let f : X -t X.
Assume further that for each c > 0 there is a <5 (€) > 0 such that if d( x, f x) <
<5 then f(Be(x)) C Be(x). If d(fny, r+ly) -t 0 for some y E X, then the
sequence ry converges to a fixed point of f [71].
16 CHAPTER 1
Proof.
We show that {fn y } is a Cauchy sequence. Let ry = Yn' Given & > 0
choose N so large that d(Yn' Yn+t} < 8(&) for all n ~ N. Since d(Yn, Yn+1) =
d(YN,!YN) < 8 we get f(Be(YN)) C Be(YN). This gives that YN+1 = fYN E
Be(YN) and fi YN = YN+i E Be(YN) by induction, for all i ~ O. Then
d(Yr' Yi) < 2& for all r, i ~ N implying that {Yn} is a Cauchy sequence and
converges to Y EX.
We claim that Y = fy. Suppose, by way of contradiction, that d(y, fy) =
/3 > O. Choose Yn E Bf3/3(Y) such that d(Yn,Yn+1) < 8(/3/3). By hypothesis
f(B{3/3(Yn)) C B{3/3(Yn). So fy E B{3/3(Yn)' Since d(fy, Yn) ~ d(fy, y) -
d(Yn,Y) ~ ~/3 implies fy ¢ B{3/3(Yn), a contradiction. Thus d(fy,y) = O.
In the following, it is shown that solving f(x) = 0 is equivalent to finding
a fixed point for a suitable function g.
Suppose that f is a differentiable function on a closed bounded interval
[a, b] such that f(a) < 0 and f(b) > O. If a::; f'(x) ::; f3 on [a, b] for positive
constants a and /3, then fx = 0 has precisely one root.
Define 9 : [a, b] -+ [a, b] by gx = x - J.Lfx, J.L i= O. By the Mean Value
Theorem we have
gx - gy = (x - y)(1 - J.L!'(t;)) , x < t; < y.
Thus d(gx,gy) ::; kd(x, y) where k = max{I(1 - J.La)l, 11 - J.L/3I}· Choose J.L
such that 9 is a contraction map on the closed bounded interval [a, b].
For such a J.L, the solution x of the equation fx = 0 can be obtained by
iteration. More precisely, x = lim Xn where Xn = Xn-l - J.LfXn-l, Xo E [a, b].
For rapid convergence of {x n }, J.L and [a, b] should be chosen so that
J.Lf'(x) is close to 1 on [a,b].
Caristi, in [44], proved the following theorem where neither continuity
nor a Lipschitz condition is required.
The function f : X -+ R. is said to be lower (upper) semicontinuous at
Xo if liminf f(x) ~ f(xo) (lim sup f(x) ::; f(xo)) as x -+ Xo·
Theorem 1.36 Let X be a complete metric space and </> : X -+ [0,(0)
a lower semicontinuous function. If T : X -+ X is such that for each
x EX, d(x, Tx) ::; </>(x) - </>(Tx), then T has a fixed point.
Note. If T is assumed to be continuous, then the proof is a simple one.
Indeed, for any fixed Xo E X let Xn = Tnxo. Then
Hence {</>(x n )} is a decreasing sequence.

Now
N
L d(Xi+!' Xi)
i=O
= d(xI,Xo) +d(X2,xd + ... +d(XN+I,XN)
< </>(XO) - </>(Xl) + 4>(Xl) - 4>(X2) + ... + </>(XN) - </>(XN+l)
</>(XO) - </>(XN+!)
< 4>(XO).
SO {xn} is a Cauchy sequence, and, since X is a complete metric space,
{xn} converges to y EX. Since T is continuous, Ty = y.
If T : X -r X is a contraction map, that is, d(Tx, Ty) ~ kd(x, y), 0 ~
k < 1, then conditions of Caristi's theorem are satisfied by taking </>( x) =
l~kd(x, Tx).
The proof of Theorem 1.36 is obtained by using a well known result of
Takahashi [280]. We need the following definition.
Let f : X -r X be a function. Then f is said to be a proper map if
f- (C) is compact for each compact set C C X.
1
Theorem 1.37 Let X be a complete metric space, and let </> : X -r (-00,00]
be a proper lower semicontinuous function, bounded from below. Suppose
that, for each U E X with inf </>( x) < 4>(u), there exists a v E X such that
xEX
v and 4>( v) + d( u, v)
=1= U ~ 4>( u). Then there exists an Xo E X such that
4>(xo) = infxEx 4>(x).
Proof.
Suppose infxEx 4>(x) < 4>(y) for every y E X, and let U E X. Define
inductively a sequence Un, n E N, starting with Uo = u. Suppose Un-l EX
is known.
Then
Sn = {w EX: 4>(w) + d(Un_l'W) ~ </>(un-d}
is nonempty. Choose Un E Sn such that
4>(un) ~ inf </>(w) + -21 {4>(un-d - inf </>(w)}. (1.1)

wESn
It is shown that {un} is a Cauchy sequence. If n < m, then

m-l
d(un, um) ~ L d(uk, Uk+!)
k=n
m-l
< L {4>(Uk) - 4>(Uk+!)}
k=n
(1.2)
18 CHAPTER 1
Hence, {Un} is a Cauchy sequence. Let Un -t v. Then, if m -t 00 in (1.2),
By hypothesis, there exists a z E X such that z -# v and 4>(z) + d( v, z) ~

4>(v). Hence,
4>(z) < 4>(v) - d(z, v)
< 4>(v) - d(z, v) + 4>(Un-l) - 4>(v) - d(Un-b v)
4>(un-d - {d(z,v) +d(un-I,v)}
< 4>(Un-l) - d(Z,Un-l).
This implies z E Sn. By (1.1) we have
Thus, 4>(z) < 4>(v) ~ limn--+oo 4>(u n ) ~ 4>(z), a contradiction. Therefore,

there exists an Xo E X such that 4>(xo) = infxEx 4>(x).
Using Theorem 1.37, Caristi's fixed point theorem is proved.
Proof of Theorem 1.36.
Suppose, by way of contradiction, that Tx -# x for every x EX. Then,
for every x E X, there exists wE X such that x -# wand 4>(w) + d(x,w) ~
° °
4>(x). So, from Theorem 1.37, we get an Xo E X with 4>(xo) = infxEx 4>(x).
For such an Xo E X, we have < d(xo, Txo) ~ 4>(xo) - 4>(Txo) ~ 4>(Txo)-
4>(Txo) = a contradiction.
Note. If X is a metric space and T : X -t X, then there exists a 4> : X -t
[0,00) satisfying d(x, Tx) ~ 4>(x) - 4>(Tx) if and only if L: d(Tnx, Tn+1x)
converges for all x EX.
The next two results require some preliminary definitions.
For x E X, the symbol O(x, 00) := {x, Tx, T 2 x, ... } denotes the orbit of
x. A map G: X -t [0,00) is said to be T-orbitally lower semicontinuous at
x if {x n } E O(x, 00) and limx n = x imply that Gx ~ liminfG(xn). The
metric space X is said to be T-orbitally complete if every Cauchy sequence
contained in O(x,oo) for every x E X converges in X. X is T-orbitally
complete at x if the convergence condition holds at that particular x.
If d(y, Ty) ~ 4>(y) -4>(Ty) for every y E O(x, 00), then L: d(Tnx, Tn+1x)
converges for this x since the sequence of partial sums is nondecreasing and
bounded above by 4>( x ).
The following is due to Bollenbacher and Hicks [17].
Theorem 1.38 Suppose that T : X -t X and 4> : X -t [0,00) where X is
a metric space. If there exists an x E X such that X is T -orbitally complete
at x and d(y, Ty) ~ 4>(y) - 4>(Ty), then the following hold:
(i) lim Tnx = X exists,

(ii) Tx = x if and only if G (x) = d( x, T x) is T -orbitally lower semicontinuous
at x,
(iii) d(Tnx, x) ~ </>(x) and d(x, x) ~ </>(x).
Proof.
The sequence {Tnx} is Cauchy. For example, if m > n,
d(Tnx, Tmx) < d(Tnx, Tn+1x) + .. . + d(Tm-1x, Tmx)
m- l
L d(Tkx, Tk+lx).
k=n
00
Since the series Ld(Tkx,Tk+ 1X) converges, {Tnx} is a Cauchy sequence.

k=l
Let Xn = Tnx ~ x. Since G is T-orbitally lower semicontinuous at x,
we get
o ~ d(x,Tx) = G(x) ~ liminfG(x n ) = liminfd(Tnx, Tn+lx) = o.

Thus Tx= X.
Assume that Tx = x and {x n } is a sequence in O(x, 00) with lim Xn = x.
Then G(x) = d(x,Tx) = 0 ~ liminfd(xn,Tx n ) = liminfG(x n). Finally,
d(x, Tnx) < d(x, Tx) + d(Tx, T 2x) + ... + d(Tn-1x, Tnx)
< [</>(x) - </>(Tx)] + [</>(Tx) - </>(T 2x)] + ... + [</>(Tn-1x) - </>(Tnx)
</>(x) - </>(Tnx) ~ </>(x).
Letting n ~ 00 gives d(x, x) ~ </>(x), and (iii) holds.
Hicks and Rhoades [116] have given the next result.
Theorem 1.39 Suppose that X is a complete metric space and that 0 <
k < 1. If T : X ~ X and there exists an x E X such that d(Ty, T2y) ~
kd(y, Ty) for all y E O(x, 00), then
(i) lim Tn x = x exists, and
(ii) Tx = x if and only if G (x) = d( x, Tx) is T -orbitally lower semicontinuous
at x.
Proof.
Set </>(y) = (1 - k)-ld(y , Ty) for y E O(x, 00). Let y = Tnx. Then
d(Tn+1x, Tn+2x) ~ kd(Tnx, T n+1 x ),
and
20 CHAPTER 1
Thus,
or d(y, Ty) ::; </>(y) - </>(Ty).

So (i) and (ii) easily follow which completes the proof.
The idea of a contraction has been generalized in many different ways.
A method of Altman's, in [2], uses an auxiliary function.
Let Q be a real-valued function satisfying
(1) 0 < Q(8) < 8 for 8 > 0 and Q(O) = 0,
i
(2) g(8) = 8/(8 - Q(8)) is nonincreasing on (0,00),
g(8)d8 < > 0, and

S1
(3) 00 for each 81
(4) Q (8) is nondecreasing.

A function f : X ---+ X is called a generalized contraction if dUx, fy) ::;
Q(d(x, y)) for all x, y E X where X is a metric space.
Theorem 1.40 Let f : X ---+ X, where X is a complete metric space,
be a generalized contraction map. Let Xn+1 = fx n, n = 0,1,2, ... , and
8n+l = Q(8 n ) with 81 = d(Xl' xo), where Q satisfies the above conditions.
Then {x n } converye8 to a unique fixed point of f.
Actually, Altman's version has the following condition on Q replacing
(1) by
(11) 0 < Q(8) < 8 for 0 < 8::; 81.
This form does not give uniqueness since 81 depends on the starting
point Xo . However, (1) is sufficient for the uniqueness and the rest of the
proof goes through as in [2].
Remark. The uniqueness is not guaranteed unless Q(s) < 8 for all 8 > 0,
as the following simple example illustrates [43].
Let X = [0,1] U [3,4] with the Euclidean metric.
Let f : X ---+ X be defined by
f(x) = { IX +~, 0::; x ::; 1 1
2x +4,3::;x::;4
and
Q(8) = { i28,
8, 0::; 8 ::; 1
1 < 8.
Clearly, f is a generalized contraction since d(x, y) ::; 1 implies dUx, fy) =
Ifx - fyl = ~Ix - yl = Q(d(x,y)). On the other hand, if d(x,y) > 1, then
5
dUx, fy) ::; 21x - yl = Q(d(x, y)).
But f has two distinct fixed points.

Theorem 1.40 was generalized for a pair of mappings, one of which is a
generalized contraction and the other an expansive [304].
Theorem 1.41 Let F and C be maps of a complete metric space X to
itself satisfying the following:
(I) d(Fx, Fy) ::; Q(d(x, y)) for all x, y E X, where Q satisfies (1), (2),
and g is a bounded function for all s E 1R+, (g(s) = s _ ~(s));
(II) d(Cx,Cy) 2: d(x,y) for all X,y E X, that is, C is an expansive map,
(III) F(X) ~ C(X).
Then Fx = Cx has a unique solution y, and lim (C- l Ftx -t y for every
n-too
X E X.
Proof.
Since the mapping C is one-to-one, therefore, C- l : C(X) -t X exists,
and from (III), we have
G-1F:X-tX.
We claim that C- l F is a contraction mapping. From (II)
d(CC-1x, GC-1y) 2: d(C-1x, C-1y),
that is, d(x, y) 2: d(C-1x, C-Iy). Also,
d(C-1Fx,C-1Fy)::; d(Fx,Fy)::; Q(d(x,y))::; kd(x,y).
Since X is a complete metric space, C-l F has a unique fixed point; that
is, C- 1 Fy = y, and the sequence of iterates Xn = (C- 1 F)nx, for x E X,
converges to a unique fixed point of C- 1 F.
In order to illustrate the theorem, we give the following example. Let
1
Fx = -2--' x E [0,1], and Cx = eX -1, x E [0,1]. Then F is a contraction;
+x
i.e.,
1
d(Fx, Fy) ::; kd(x, y), k = 2'
and C satisfies condition (II) since ICx - Cyl = lex - eYI = etlx - yl with
o ::; t
::; 1; hence, e t 2: eO = 1. Thus, the equation Fx = Cx has a unique
1
solution on [0, 1]. (Clearly, -2- = eX - 1 has a solution in [0, 1] by the
+x
classical theorem on a continuous function changing signs at the end points
of an interval.)
The next two theorems were given by Rhoades and Watson in [238].
In the metric space (X, d), let D represent the closure of the range of
the metric d, and let f : X -t X. Suppose that Q is a real-valued map
defined on D satisfying all three of the following:
22 CHAPTER 1
(a) 0 < Q(s) < s for all s E D\O and Q(O) = 0,

(b) Q is nondecreasing on D, and
(c) g(s) = s/(s - Q(s)) is non increasing on D\O.
The function f is said to be a generalized contraction (with respect to Q)
if there exist positive integers p and q such that for all x, y EX,
d(fPx, ry) ~ Q(M(x, y)),
where
0 ~ r, r' ~ p }.
M(x,y) = max { d(rx,ry),d(rx,r'x),d(JSy,r'y):
o ~ s, s' ~ q
Theorem 1.42 Suppose that f is a continuous generalized contraction,

Xo EX, and X is f -orbitally complete. Then f has a unique fixed point x,
and fn xo -+ x.
Theorem 1.43 Suppose that f is a generalized contmction in which either
p or q is 1, Xo EX, and X is f -orbitally complete. Then f has a unique
fixed point, x, and fn xo -+ x.
Corollary 1.44 Let f : X -+ X, where X is f -orbitally complete, and
suppose that Xo EX. If, for all x and y E X, d(Jx,fy) ~ Q(m(x, y)) where
m(x, y) = max{d(x, y), d(x, fx), d(y, fy), d(x, /y), d(y, fx)},
then f has a unique fixed point, x, and fn xo -+ x.
1.5. Fixed Point Theorems for Nonexpansive Mappings

We recall that a mapping T : X -+ X is called nonexpansive if
IITx - Tyll ~ IIx - yll for all x, y EX.
It is well-known that the fundamental properties of contraction mappings

do not extend to nonexpansive mappings. It is of great importance in
applications to find out if nonexpansive mappings have fixed points. In order
to obtain existence of fixed points for such mappings, some restrictions must
be made on the domain of the mapping or on the mapping itself.
The following well-known result is due to Kirk [150].
Theorem 1.45 Let X be a reflexive Banach space and C a closed bounded
convex subset of X. Let C have normal structure. 1fT: C -+ C is nonexpansive,
then T has a fixed point.
Proof.
Let <p = {D C C : T(D) CD; Dis nonempty closed and convex}. Since
C E <p, <p is nonempty; <p can be partially ordered by set inclusion.
A chain 1f; in <p has the finite intersection property.
Now, as a bounded closed convex set in a reflexive Banach space, C is
weakly compact. Therefore, the family 1f; of weakly closed subsets of <p has
nonempty intersection; that is, G = nC,EIl1Ci =/; 0.
Moreover, G is closed convex, and invariant under T; that is, T(G) C G.
Therefore, G E <p is a lower bound for 1f;. Then by Zorn's lemma, <p has a
minimal element, say Co.
If Co is a singleton, {xo}, our proof is complete since T(Co) C Co would
then imply Txo = Xo. It is shown that Co is singleton.
Let co(TCo) denote the closed convex hull of T(Co). Since T(Co) C Co,
we have co(Co) = d > 0. Since C has normal structure, there exists a point
Xo E Co which is not diametral; that is, there exists B(xo, dt) such that
0< d1 < d and Co C B(xo, d1 ).
Let P = {x E Co: Co C B(xo,d 1 )} = Co n {nYEcoB(y,dt)}.
Then F C Co. F =/; Co since d 1 < d. Now F is closed and convex. That
F is invariant under T follows as given here. If x E F C Co, and y E Co,
we have by the nonexpansiveness of T, IITx - Tyll ::; IIx - yll ::; d1 , so that
TCo C B(Tx, dt}. But then B(Tx, d1 ) is a closed convex set containing
TCo, so Co = co(TCo) C B(Tx, d1 ), and, by the definition of F, we have
Tx E F.
Thus, F is a closed convex invariant proper subset of Co contradicting
the minimality of Co in <p. Therefore, Co contains just one point.
Remark. This theorem remains true if X is any Banach space and C is a
convex weakly compact subset having normal structure.
It is worth noting that all the conditions of Theorem 1.45 are necessary.
The following examples support this claim [55].
(i) C is closed: Let X = 1R be a Hilbert space and C the interior of the unit
ball; that is, C = {x: IIxll < I}. Define T : C -+ C by Tx = ~(x + a),
where IIali = 1, a is real. Obviously, T is nonexpansive, but T has no
fixed point.
(ii) C is bounded. A translation in a Banach space is an isometry and
obviously has no fixed points.
(iii) C is convex. Let X = 1R be a Hilbert space and C the set containing just
the two points a and b. Define T : C -+ C such that Ta = b, Tb = a.
Clearly T is an isometry, but has no fixed points.
(iv) X is reflexive. Let X = C[O, 1] be a Banach space with sup norm.
°
It is known that C[O, 1] is not a reflexive Banach space. Let D =
{f(t) E C[O, 1] : = f(O) ::; f(t) ::; f(l) = I}. Define T : D -+ X by
T f(t) = t· f(t), t E [0,1]. Then T(D) C D, and T has no fixed point.
24 CHAPTER 1
(v) X has normal structure. Let Co be the Banach space of null sequences,
and let C be the unit ball in Co. Define the mapping T : C -+ C by
T(cl, C2, ... ) = (1, CI, C2, .. .). Then T is a nonexpansive mapping from
C to itself but has no fixed points since (x}, X2, X3, ... ) = (l, Xl, X2, ... )
would imply that Xl = X2 = ... = 1 and, hence, (Xl, X2, ... ) rt. Co. In
this case, the Banach space X = CO does not have normal structure.
An immediate consequence of Theorem 1.45 is the following well-known
result, which was proved independently by Browder [31], Gohde [99], and
Kirk [150].
Theorem 1.46 Let X be a uniformly convex Banach space and C a nonempty

closed bounded convex subset of X. If T : C -+ C is nonexpansive, then T
has a fixed point.
Proof.
Since every uniformly convex Banach space is reflexive and has normal
structure, the result follows from Theorem 1.45.
Definition 1.47 A mapping T from a Banach space X to itself is called

asymptotically regular if for any X E X lim IITn+lx - Tnxil = o.
n-+oo
A nonexpansive mapping is not necessarily asymptotically regular.

Notes.
(i) If X is a uniformly convex Banach space and {xn} and {Yn} are two
sequences such that IIxnll -+ 1, IIYnl1 ~ IIxnll and II Xn!Yn II -+ 1 as
n -+ 00, then IIx n - Ynll -+ 0 as n -+ 00 [55].
Indeed, let Zn = II~:II and Wn = 11;:11 . Then II znll = 1, IIwnll ~ 1 and
II~II-+ 1. By uniform convexity, we get that IIzn - wnll-+ 0; that
is, IIxn - Ynll -+ 0 as n -+ 00 [55].
(ii) The above is also valid for AX n + (1 - A)Yn, 0 < A < 1, in place of
Xn+Yn
2
Browder and Petryshyn [33] proved the following result for a nonexpansive
and asymptotically regular mapping in a Banach space.
Theorem 1.48 Let X be a uniformly convex Banach space and T : X -+ X

a nonexpansive mapping. If F(T), the set of fixed points ofT, is nonempty,
then the mapping T).. = AI + (1 - A)T,O < A < 1, is nonexpansive and
asymptotically regular. Moreover, F(T) = F(T)..).
Proof.
It follows from the definition of T).. that F(T) = F(T)..). Also, since
T is nonexpansive and I is the identity function, it follows that T).. is
nonexpansive. It only remains to prove that T>. is asymptotically regular.

Let z E F(T>.). Then
IITr+1x - zll = IITr+1 x - T>.zll :s; IIT"x - zll·
So the sequence {IIT"x - zll} is non increasing. Thus, it converges to some
p ~ o. If p = 0, then {IIT;+1x - T"xll} converges to 0 trivially.
Therefore, let us assume p > o. Then
Tr+1 x - z = >'(T"x - z) + (1 - >')(TT"x - z),
since T>. = >'1 + (1 - >.)T. Since IITr+1x - zll-+ p,
IIT"x - zll -+ p and IITT"x - zll :s; IIT"x - zll
we have
II (T"x - z) - (TT"x - z)1I -+ 0,
by note (i). Therefore,
IITr+1x - T"xll-+ O.
Theorem 1.49 Let T : X -+ X be a nonexpansive asymptotically regular
mapping in a Banach space X. Let F(T) be nonempty, and let T satisfy
the following condition:
(I - T) maps bounded closed sets into closed sets. (1.3)
Then, for each Xo E X, the sequence {Tnxo} converges to some point in
F(T).
Proof.
If y E F(T), then
IITn+1xo - yll :s; IITnxo - yll, n = 1,2, ...
so the sequence {Tnxo} is bounded. Let G be the closure of {Tn xo }. By
Condition (1.3), it follows that (I - T)G is closed. This, together with the
fact that T is asymptotically regular, gives 0 E (1 - T)G. So there exists a
z E G such that (I - T)z = 0; that is, z = Tz.
But this implies that either z = Tnxo for some n, or there exists a
subsequence {Tnixo} converging to z. Since z is a fixed point of T, we can
conclude that, in either case, the sequence {Tnxo} converges to z.
Remark. Let>. be such that 0 < >. < 1. Let T>. = >'1 + (1 - >.)T. Then T
satisfies Condition (1.3) if and only if T>. does. To see this, note that
1- T>. = (1 - >.)(1 - T).
The following well-known result for a strictly convex Banach space has
been given by Browder [31].
26 CHAPTER 1
Theorem 1.50 Let X be a strictly convex Banach space and T : X -7 X

a nonexpansive mapping. Then the set F(T) of fixed points of T is convex.
Proof.
Let us assume that F(T) consists of more than one point, otherwise
the result is proved. Suppose x and y E F(T). We will then show that
z = AX + (1 - A)y, 0 < A < 1, is also in F(T) .
In fact, since T is nonexpansive, we have
IIx - yll IITx - Tyll

< IITx-TzlI+I\Tz-TYI\
< I\x - zl\ + liz - yll
IIx - yll·
Since X is strictly convex, it follows that the vectors Tx - Tz and
Tz - Ty are linearly dependent. But this implies that the vector Tz is in a
straight line through Tx = x and Ty = y .
On the other hand, I\Tz - Txl\ ~ liz - xl\ and IITz - Tyl\ ~ liz - yl\ .
Thus, Tz must coincide with z, and the theorem is proved.
Remark. Theorem 1.50 is false in general Banach spaces, as the following
example of deMarr ([57]) illustrates.
Let X = lR.2; that is, the space of pairs x = (a, b) where a and b E R
with "maximum" norm
I\xll = max{lal, Ibl}.

Let T be a mapping defined by Tx = T(a, b) = (Ibl, b).
It is easy to see that T is nonexpansive and (1, 1) and (1, -1) are fixed
points of T. However, no other point in the segment joining these two points
is a fixed point of T.
In Hilbert space, the relationship between monotone and nonexpansive
mappings is expressed by the following:
Theorem 1.51 Let C be a subset of a Hilbert space Hand T : C -7 H a
nonexpansive mapping. Then the mapping I - T is monotone, where I is
the inclusion map.
Definition 1.52 A map f : X -7 X, where X is a Banach space, is said
to be demiclosed if for every sequence {x n } E X for which Xn ~ x and
fX n -7 y, we have y = fx.
Theorem 1.51 enables us to prove the .following useful property of nonexpansive
mappings in Hilbert spaces.
Theorem 1.53 In a Hilbert space H, for every nonexpansive mapping T :
C -7 H where C C H , the mapping I - T is demiclosed [31J.
Proof.
Let {x n } C C be a sequence that converges weakly to an element Xo
of C, and {xn - T(x n )} a sequence that converges to an element Yo in X.
Then we have
liminf Ilxn - xoll ~ liminf IIT(xn) - T(xo)1I = liminf IIxn - Yo - T(xo)lI·

n.-?oo n.-?oo n.-?oo
Note that, in a Hilbert space H, if Xn --+ Xo weakly and Xo =1= y, then

liminfllxn-xoll < liminfllxn-yll,soxo = yo+Txo. That is, (I-T)xo = Yo.
1.6. Quasi-nonexpansive Mappings and Fixed Points

In this section, we show that some results on fixed point theorems can be
obtained in the general setting of a Banach space, even when the hypothesis
of nonexpansiveness is considerably weakened. Essentially, we show that
part of the analysis does not require the full force of nonexpansiveness;
only the existence of at least one fixed point together with nonexpansiveness
about each fixed point is sufficient.
Definition 1.54 A mapping T : X --+ X is called quasi-nonexpansive
provided T has at least one fixed point in X (that is, F(T) is nonempty),
and if p E F(T), then
IITx - pil ::; IIx - pil holds for all x E X.
This concept, which Dotson Jr. [67] has labelled quasi-nonexpansive,

was essentially introduced, along with some other related ideas, by Diaz
and Metcalf [58]. It is clear that a nonexpansive mapping with at least one
fixed point is quasi-nonexpansive. A linear quasi-nonexpansive mapping on
a Banach space is nonexpansive on that space. But there exist continuous
and discontinuous nonlinear quasi-nonexpansive mappings that are not
nonexpansive. Dotson [67] gave the following example, which is continuous
quasi-nonexpansive but not nonexpansive.
Example. The mapping T : R --+ R defined by
x. 1
if x =1= 0
Tx = { 2 sm
o x ', if x = O.
is quasi-nonexpansive but not nonexpansive.

Here, Tx =1= x for any x i= 0 since if Tx = x, then x = ~ sin~, that is,
2 = sin ~ which is impossible. T is quasi-nonexpansive since for x E R we
have
IITx - 011 = II~IIII sin ~II ::; II~II < IIxll = IIx - 011·
28 CHAPTER 1
However, T is not a nonexpansive map. Indeed, if Xl = i7r and X2 =

1?7r' then IXI - x21 = ~(~ - 117) = lig7r' and I/xl - IX21 = ~li7r sin ~1r-
1?7r sin 1~7r I= ~I- 7~ - 1?7r 1= li:7r' Thus, I/xl - f X 21 > IXI - x21·
Dotson [67] proved the following.
Theorem 1.55 Let C be a closed bounded convex subset of a strictly convex
Banach space, and let T : C -+ C be quasi-nonexpansive. Then F(T) is a
closed convex set on which T is continuous.
1.7. Densifying Maps and Fixed Points

The theory of measure of noncompactness and densifying operators has
applications in general topology, geometry of Banach spaces, and the theory
of differential equations. A detailed study of this topic has been recently
given by Sadovskii [242], who also provides an up-to-date comprehensive
bi bliography.
The most widely used measure of noncompactness on metric spaces is
the one introduced by Kuratowskii [159] and used by Darbo [53], Furi and
Vignoli [93], Nussbaum [203], Petryshyn [223], and others.
The concept of measure of noncompactness, introduced by Kuratowskii
[159], is defined below.
Definition 1.56 Let D be a bounded subset of a metric space X. Define

the measure of noncompactness a(D) of D by:
a(D) = inf{f > 0: D admits a finite covering of subsets of diameter S; f}.
We state the following properties of a. For the proofs see Nussbaum

[203].
Let A be a bounded subset of a metric space X, and let Nr(A) = {x E
X: d(x, A) < r}. Then
1. a(A) S; c5(A), c5(A) = diameter of A;
2. if A C B, then a(A) S; a(B);
3. a(Nr(A)) S; a(A) + 2r;
4. a(A) = a(A);
5. a(A U B) = max{a(A) , a(B)};
6. if A is a bounded subset of X and coA its closed convex hull, then
c5(coA) = c5(A);
7. if A is a bounded subset of X and coA its convex hull, then a(coA) =
a(A).
Closely associated with the measure of noncom pact ness is the concept
of k-set contraction.
Definition 1.57 Let T : X -+ X be a continuous mapping of a Banach

space X. Then T is called a k-set contraction if, for all A C X with A
bounded, T(A) is bounded and a(T A) ~ ka(A), 0 < k < 1.
If
a(T A) < a(A), for all a(A) > 0,
then T is called densifying (or condensing) [203].
A k-set contraction, with k E [0,1), is densifying, but the converse is
not true.
If a(T(A)) ~ a(A), then T is called a I-set contraction [203].
Theorem 1.58 Let T be a completely continuous compact mapping of a
Banach space X into itself. Then T is a k-set contraction.
Proof.
Since T maps bounded sets to precompact sets, we have a(T(A)) =
o ~ ka(A) for a bounded subset A of X and all k E [0,1). Hence, T is a
k-set contraction.
Any contraction mapping T of a metric space X into itself is a k-set
contraction [92], [93].
Let (X, d) be a metric space, and let C B(X) denote the family of all
nonempty, closed bounded subsets of X. For A, B E CB(X), the Hausdorff
metric, denoted by H(A, B), is defined by
H(A, B) = max{sup d(a, B), sup d(b, An.

aEA bEB
When (X, d) is a complete metric space, then so is (CB(X), H).

Example. Let X = lR, A = [1,2], and B = [2,3]. Then sup d(a, B)
1, sup d(b, A) = 1, and H(A, B) = 1.
We state, without proof, the following generalization of the Cantor
Intersection Theorem [203].
Lemma 1.59 Let X be a complete metric space and AI, A 2 , ••• a decreasing
sequence of nonempty closed subsets of X. Assume that a(An) -+ 0 as n -+
00. Then Aoo = nn~lAn is a nonempty compact set, and An approaches
Aoo in the Hausdorff metric.
Theorem 1.60 Let C be a closed bounded convex subset of a Banach space
X. Let T : C -+ C be a continuous map. Let C I = co(T( C)) and C n =
co(T(Cn-l)), for n > 1. Further, assume a(Cn ) -+ 0 as n -+ 00. Then
F(T) =1= 0; that is, T has at least one fixed point.
Proof.
Clearly Cn is closed bounded convex and nonempty with C n ~ C n+!
for n ~ 1. Then, by the above lemma, Coo = nn~1 Cn is nonempty and
30 CHAPTER 1
compact, and Coo is convex. By our construction, T : C n -t C n +! so that

T : Coo -t Coo. Hence, by the Schauder Fixed Point Theorem, T has a fixed
point; that is, F(T) =/; 0.
Corollary 1.61 Let C be a closed bounded convex subset of a Banach space
X, and T : C -t C a k-set controction. Then T has a fixed point [53}.
Proof.
Define C n as above. To show that T has a fixed point, it is sufficient
to show that a( Cn) -t 0 as n -t 00 .
Consider
a(Cr) = a(co(T(C))) a(T(C))

< ka(C).
This implies that a(Cn ) ::; kna(C) -t 0 as n -t 00 and completes the proof.
Let X be a metric space and T : X -t X nonexpansive. Then T is a
I-set con traction.
The following results have been given by Furi and Vignoli [91].
Theorem 1.62 Let T : C -t C be a 1-set contraction defined on a closed
bounded convex subset C of a Banach space X. Then
inf{lIx - T(x)11 : x E C} = o.
Proof.
Let Xo E C . Define T>. : C -t C by
T>.(x) = (1 - A)XO + AT(x), 0::; A < 1.

The mapping T>. is a A-set contraction for 0 ::; A < 1. Indeed, if A C C,
then
T>.(A) = (1 - A)XO + AT(A) .
Hence,
a(T>.(A)) a((1 - A)Xo + AT(A))

< (1 - A)a(xo) + Aa(T(A))
Aa(T(A)).
Therefore, it follows from the result of Darbo [53] that T>. has at least one
fixed point x>. in C for any A, 0 ::; A < 1.
Furthermore, T>.(x) converges to T(x) uniformly on C as A -t 1. But,
IIx>. - T(x>')11 = liT>. (x>.) - T(x>.)II. Therefore, IIx>. - T(x>.)II-t 0 as A -t 1;
and, hence, inf{lIx - T(x) II : x E C} = o.
The following lemma of Martelli [181] is stated without proof.
Lemma 1.63 Let T be a mapping of a compact topological space X into

itself. Then there exists a nonempty subset K C X such that K = T (K) .
The following result has been very widely used.
Theorem 1.64 Let T : C -7 C be a densifying mapping defined on a closed
bounded convex subset C of a Banach space X. Then T has at least one
fixed point [93], [203], [242].
Proof.
For Xo in C, consider the sequence {Tn(xo) : n = 1,2, ... }, and let
K be its closure. Then K is invariant and compact. Therefore, by Lemma
1.63, there exists a non empty subset Me K such that M = T(M).
Consider F = {B C C: M C B, B closed convex invariant under T}.
Let A = n{B: B E F}. Clearly, A = co(T(A)) , the convex closure of T(A).
Since a(co(T(A))) = a(T(A)), we get that A is compact. Then, by
the Schauder Fixed Point Theorem, there exists a point z in A such that
T(z) = z.
A few fixed point theorems are proved for mappings with a boundary
condition.
Let X be a Banach space, and B Br = =
{x EX: IIxll < r} denote
the open ball of radius r about the origin, BBr = {x EX: Ilxll = r} the
boundary of B, and B = B u BB the closure of B. Let T : B -7 X satisfy
the following boundary condition:
if T(x) = kx, for some x in BB, then k ::; 1. (p)

We will make use of the following mapping.
Let R : X -7 B be defined by the formula
Rx= {
rx
nxrr '
IIxll ~ r
x , IIxli ::; r.
Then R is called the radial retraction of X onto B.
The following lemma is due to Nussbaum [203].
Lemma 1.65 Let X be a Banach space and B the open unit ball of X about
the origin. Then the radial retraction R : X --t B is a J-set contraction.
Proof.
Let A C X be a bounded set. Clearly, R(A) C co( {O} U A).
Therefore,
a(R(A)) ::; a(co({O} U A)) = a( {O} U A) = a(A).
The following results are due to Petryshyn [223].

32 CHAPTER 1
Theorem 1.66 Let B be an open ball about the origin in a Banach space
X. If T : B -+ X is a densifying mapping that satisfies the boundary
condition (p), then F(T), the set of fixed points ofT in B, is nonempty.
Proof.
Define the radial retraction R : X -+ B. Then R is a I-set contraction
of X onto B.
Now, if for all x in B we define the mapping TI(x) = R(T(x)), then
Tl is a continuous mapping of B into B is also densifying. Indeed, since
T : B -+ X is densifying, R : X -+ B is a I-set contraction, and, therefore,
a(Tl (B)) = a(R(T(B))) :::; a(T(B)) < a(B). Hence, by Theorem 1.64, Tl
has at least one fixed point z in B. But then z is also a fixed point of T.
Indeed, if z E B, then T(z) = z since the assumption that IITzll 2:: r
gives T(z) = ~z, which contradicts the fact that IIzll < r. If z E Band
z is not a fixed point of T, then k = ~ > 1, which contradicts condition
(p). Thus, z is a fixed point of T and, hence, F = F(T) is a nonempty set
in B.
Corollary 1.67 If T : B -+ X is densifying and satisfies anyone of the
following conditions
(i) T(B) C B,
(ii) T(oB) c B,
(iii) IIT(x) - xll 22:: IIT(x) 112 -lIxI12,
for all x in oB,
then the set of fixed points F(T) of T is nonempty.
Proof.
By Theorem 1.66, it is sufficient to show that each of the given conditions
implies condition (p) . It is obvious that each of (i) and (ii) implies (p).
Hence, we must show that (iii) implies (p). Suppose T(x) = kx for some x
in oB. Then (iii) implies that (k - 1)2 2:: k 2 - 1 or that k :::; 1; that is, (p)
holds.
Corollary 1.68 Let B be the open unit ball in a Hilbert space H, and let
T : B -+ H be a mapping. Let To : B -+ H be a densifying mapping such
that the following two conditions are satisfied:
(i) (T(x), x) :::; IIx1l2, and
(ii) IIT(x) - To(x)11 :::; Ilx - T(x)lI, for all x on B.
Then F(T) c B is nonempty.
Proof.
By Theorem 1.66, it suffices to show that conditions (i) and (ii) imply
condition (p) for To. Thus, suppose To(x) = kx for some x in B and, without
loss of generality, assume k > O. Then (ii) shows that IITx - kxll :::; Ilx -
T(x)1I or that 2(T(x), x)(1 - k) ~ (1 - k2)(X, x). This implies k ~ 1. That

the assumption k > 1 leads to the inequality 2(T(x), x) 2:: (1 + k)(x, x) >
2(x, x), contradicting (i).
Corollary 1.69 Let T = S + C be a map from B to X such that S is
a contraction on B, and C is completely continuous on B. If T satisfies
condition (p) on B, then F(T) is nonempty.
Definition 1.70 Let C be a subset of a Banach space X and f : C -7 X
a map. If {x n } C C is a bounded sequence and {x n - fx n } is a convergent
sequence implying that there exists a subsequence {x ni } which is convergent,
then f is said to be demicompact.
The following results of Petryshyn [223] generalize Theorem 1.66.
Theorem 1.71 Let D be a bounded open subset of a Banach space X with
o in D and let T : D -7 X be a i-set contraction satisfying (p) on D. If
(I - T)(D) is closed, then F(T) i= 0. In particular, if T is demicompact
and a i-set contraction, then F(T) is nonempty and compact.
Proof.
For each t, 0 < t < 1, consider the t-set contraction T t of D into X
defined by Tt(x) = tT(x). It is easy to see that T t satisfies condition (p)
on D for each t in (0,1). Choose a sequence {t n } E (0,1) which converges
to 1. For each tn, there exists an Xn E D such that Tt n (x n ) = x n . Since
T(x n ) - Xn = (1 - tn)T(xn) and T(D) is bounded, it follows that
T(xn) - Xn -70 as n -700.
In view of this and the assumed closed ness of (I - T)(D), we see that
oE (I - T)(D). Hence, F(T) i= 0. If we assume that T is demicompact
and I-set contraction on D, then (I - T)(D) is closed and thus, F(T) i= 0.
Furthermore, F(T) is also compact since T is demicompact on D.
Remarks.
1. The set (I - T) (D) is certainly closed if T is densifying.
2. If D is also convex, and T(D) C D, then (p) holds on D.
Theorem 1.72 Let D be a bounded open subset of Banach space X and
T : D -7 X a i-set contraction such that T satisfies anyone of the following
conditions:
(i) There exists an Xo in D such that if T (x) - Xo = a( x - xo) holds for
some x E aD, then a ~ l.
(ii) D is convex and T(D) CD.
Then, if (I - T)(D) is closed, we have F(T) i= 0. In particular, if T is
demicompact and a i-set contraction, then F(T) is nonempty and compact.
34 CHAPTER 1
Proof.
The theorem is proved first for condition (i).
Consider the set G = D - Xo = {x - Xo:X ED}. It follows that G is
compact bounded open 0 E G, {)G = {)D-xo, and G = D-xo. Furthermore,
G is convex if D is convex.
Define T': G --t X by T'y = Tx - Xo, where y = x - Xo,X E D.
Then T' is a I-set contraction, and T' satisfies condition (p) on {)G.
Furthermore, (I -T')(G) is closed since (I -T')(C) = (I -T)(D). Thus,
T' and G satisfy all the conditions of Theorem 1.71. Hence, there exists a
y in G such that T'(y) = Yi that is, T(x) - Xo = x - Xo with x E D.
The second part of the Theorem also follows since the demicompactness
of T implies the same for T'.
Condition (ii) implies condition (i). Suppose condition (ii) holds and let
Xo be any fixed element in D. Then G = D - Xo is convex, 0 E G, and
T'({)G) C G since T'({)G) = T({)D) - Xo C D - Xo = G and D is convex.
Hence, by Remark 2 following Theorem 1.71, T' satisfies condition (p) on
{)G, that is, condition (i) is satisfied.
1.8. Multivalued Mappings and Fixed Points
The study of fixed point theorems for multivalued mappings was initiated
by Kakutani [139], in 1941, in finite dimensional spaces and was extended
to infinite dimensional Banach spaces by Bohnenblust and Karlin, in 1950,
[16] and to locally convex spaces by Fan [90], in 1952.
Fixed point theorems for multifunctions are useful in control theory
and have been effectively used in tackling problems in economics and game
theory.
The developments of geometric fixed point theory for multifunctions
were initiated by Nadler, Jr. [195] and subsequently pursued by Markin
[180], Assad and Kirk [4], Browder [26, 27], Himmelberg [119], Lami-Dozo
[160], Lassonde [162, 163], and others.
Let X and Y be two sets. A multifunction (set-valued map) p from X
to Y, denoted by F: X --t Y, is a subset P ~ X x Y.
The inverse of F : X --t Y is the multifunction p-l : Y --t X defined
by (y,x) E p-l if and only if (x,y) E P. The values of F are the sets
F(x) = {y E Y : (x, y) E F}i the fibres of F are the sets F-1(y) = {x E
X : (x,y) E F} for y E Y. Thus, the value of F- 1 for y E Y is the fibre
P-l(y).
For A C X, the set
F(A) = UxEAF(x) = {y E Y : p-l(y) n A 1= 0}

is called the image of A under Fj for BeY, the set
F-1(B) = UYEBF-1(y) = {x EX: F(x) n B # 0},

the image of B under F- 1 , is called the inverse image of B under F.
A multifunction F : X -+ X is said to have a fixed point if Xo E F(xo)
for some Xo E X.
Next, we define the continuity of multifunctions:
Let X and Y be two topological spaces. A multifunction F : X -+
Y is called upper semicontinuous if the inverse image of a closed set is
closed, and lower semicontinuous if the inverse image of an open set is
open. A multifunction F is called continuous if it is both upper and lower
semicontinuous.
The multifunction G : R -+ R defined by
G( ) _ { {O}, if x #0
x - [-1,1], if x= 0
is upper semicontinuous but not lower semicontinuous and the multifunction

F : R -+ R defined by
F(x) = { {O}, if x =0
[-1,1], if x #0
is lower semicontinuous but not upper semicontinuous.
Definition 1. 73 Let X and Y be two topological spaces. A multifunction

F : X -+ Y is said to be closed if it is closed as a subset of X x Y, and
F is compact if the image F(X) of X under F is contained in a compact
subset ofY.
We now state some important results which are used in the sequel.
Theorem 1.74 Assume that X, Y, and Z are topological spaces.

1. If F : X -+ Y is upper semicontinuous with compact values and Y is
HausdorjJ, then F is closed.
2. If F : X -+ Y is upper semicontinuous with compact values, then F(K)
is compact whenever K C X is compact.
3. If F : X -+ Y and G : Y -+ Z are upper semicontinuous, then G 0 F
is upper semicontinuous.
Theorem 1.75 Assume that X and Yare topological spaces and F : X -+
Y is a multifunction.
36 CHAPTER 1
1. IfY is compact Hausdorff, then F is upper semicontinuous if and only

if given a net {xa} in X
Xa -+ X
Ya E F(xa) } => y E F(x).
Ya -+ Y
2. F is lower semicontinuous if and only if for each net {xa} in X with

Xa -+ x and Y E F(x), there exists a subnet {x,6} of {xa} and a net
{Y,6} with Y,6 E F(x,6) such that Y,6 -+ y.
Fixed point theory for a multifunction was originally initiated by von
Neumann in the study of game theory. Kakutani [139] proved a generalization
of Brouwer's theorem to multifunctions.
Theorem 1.76 If K is a nonempty closed bounded convex subset of IRn
and F : K -+ K is an upper semicontinuous multifunction with nonempty
closed convex values, then F has a fixed point.
The multivalued analogue of Schauder's fixed point theorem was given
by Bohnenblust and Karlin [16].
Theorem 1.77 If K is a nonempty compact convex subset of a Banach
space and F : K -+ K is an upper semicontinuous multifunction with
nonempty closed convex values, then F has a fixed point.
The multivalued analogue of Tychonoff's fixed point theorem was given
by Fan [90] and Glicksberg [95] independently. They proved the following
result.
Theorem 1.78 If K is a nonempty compact convex subset of a locally
convex Hausdorff topological vector space and F : K -+ K is an upper
semicontinuous multifunction with nonempty closed convex values, then F
has a fixed point.
Himmelberg [119] generalized the Fan-Glicksberg fixed point theorem
as follows:
Theorem 1.79 If K is a nonempty convex subset of a locally convex Hausdorff
topological vector space E and F : K -+ K is an upper semicontinuous
multifunction with nonempty closed convex values and F(K) is contained
in a compact set of K, then F has a fixed point.
Recently, Lassonde [162] has given a generalization of the Himmelberg
fixed point theorem to multifunctions factorizable by certain upper semicontinuous
multifunctions.
The following preliminaries will be needed [298].
Let Xi, i= 0,1 , 2, ... , n be subsets of topological vector space E. Let

F : Xo -t Xo be a multifunction of the form
F = Fn 0 Fn- l 0 •.. F o,
that is,
FQ Fl F2 F.
F : Xo -t Xl -t X2 -t ... :..'f X n + l = Xo.
Such multifunctions arise in a natural way in minimax and coincidence
theory.
Definition 1.80 Let X, Y be topological spaces. A multifunction F : X -t
Y is said to be a Kakutani multifunction if
(i) F is upper semicontinuous, and
(ii) either F is single valued (in which case, Y is assumed to be a Hausdorff
topological space) or, for each x E X, F(x) is a nonempty compact
convex subset of Y (in which case, Y is assumed to be a convex set in
a Hausdorff topological vector space) .
Definition 1.81 A multifunction F : X -t Y is said to be a Kakutani
factorizable multifunction if F = Fn 0 Fn- l 0 .•• Fo , that is, if there is a
diagram
Fo Fl F2 F
F : X = Xo -t Xl -t X2 -t . . . ~ Xn+l = Y
where each Fi is a Kakutani multifunction. The multifunctions Fi are called
the factor functions and the spaces Xi are called factor spaces. We note that
if Fi is multivalued, then Xi+! is a convex set in a topological vector space.
The following is due to Lassonde [162].
Theorem 1.82 Let K be a nonempty convex subset of a locally convex
Hausdorff topological vector space E. If F : K -t K is a K akutani factorizable
compact multifunction, then F has a fixed point.
Let C be a subset of a Banach space X. For each x E C, let the inward
set of C at x, Ic(x), be defined by
Ic(x) = {x+r(u-x):u E C and r > O}.

A mapping f : C -t X is said to be inward if, for each x E C, f(x), lies
in Ic(x) and it is weakly inward if f(x) lies in Ic(x). The outward set
Oc(x) = {x - r(u - x) : u E C and r > O} . If f(x) lies in Oc(x) for each
x in C, then f is called an outward map, and it is weakly outward if f(x)
lies in Oc(x).
Note: If g : C -t X is given by g(x) = 2x - f(x), then f and g have the
same fixed points since x - g(x) = -(x - f(x)). For any y in Oc(x), if we
put z = 2x - y, then z lies in Ic(x).
38 CHAPTER 1
Browder [27] considered the following interesting case where the domain
and range are different.
Theorem 1.83 Let C be a nonempty compact convex subset of a locally
convex topological vector space X and F : C ~ 2 x upper semicontinuous
with F(x) nonempty closed and convex for each x E C.
If, additionally, either F satisfies
(i) Fx n Ic(x) =10 for each x E C, or
(ii) Fx n Oc(x) =10 for each x E C,
then F has a fixed point.
(The proof will be given in Chapter 2.)
Definition 1.84 LetX be a metric space andCB(X) the family of nonempty
bounded closed subsets of X. A multifunction F : X ~ CB(X) is called
a Lipschitz mapping, with Lipschitz constant A ~ 0, if H(F(x), F(y)) ~
Ad( x, y), for any x, y EX. F is called nonexpansive if A = 1, and a set-
valued contraction if A < 1.
Theorem 1.85 Let (X, d) be a metric space and F : X ~ CB(X) a
Lipschitz mapping with Lipschitz constant A. If Xn ~ xo, then d(x n1 F(xn)) ~
d(xo, F(xo)); that is, d(x, F(x)) is a continuous function of x.
Proof.
Id(x n1 F(x n )) - d(xo 1F(xo)) I < d(x n1 xo) + H(F(x n ), F(xo))

< d(xnl xo) + Ad(xn1 xo)
(1 + A)d(x n , xo).
Hence, d(xn, F(x n )) ~ d(xo, F(xo)) since Xn ~ Xo.

Nadler Jr. [195] gave the following as a multivalued analogue of Banach
Contraction Principle.
Theorem 1.86 Let (X, d) be a complete metric space and F : X ~ CB(X)
a multivalued contraction map. Then F has a fixed point in X.
Proof.
Let Xo E X and Xl E F(xo). Then there exists X2 E F(XI) such that
Similarly, there is X3 E F(X2) such that

By induction, we get a sequence of points Xn , such that
Thus,
For m > n,
d(xm' xn) < d(xm' xm-d + ... + d(xn+1' xn)

< (A m - 1 + ... + An)d(Xl, xo)
An _ Am
1- A d(xl,x) ~ 0, as m,n ~ 00,
Hence, {xn} is a Cauchy sequence and Xn ~ x. Now d(xn,F(x n )) <

d(xn' Xn+1)' By Theorem 1.85, d(x, Fx) = limn.-+oo d(xn' Fx n ) ~ limn.-+ oo
d(xn,xn+d =O. Hence, x E F(x), that is, F has a fixed point.
Definition 1.87 A mapping F : X ~ CB(X) is said to be nonexpansive
if
H(Fx, Fy) ::; Ilx - yll for all x, y E X.
A mapping F : X ~ 2x is demiclosed if
xn ~ x and Yn E FX n such that Yn ~ Y then y E Fx.
Definition 1.88 A Banach space X is said to satisfy Opial's condition if

for each Xo E X and each sequence {x n } in X weakly converying to Xo the
inequality
lim inf IIx n - xII > lim inf IIx n - xoll
holds for all x ::/= Xo.
Every Hilbert space and fP(l < p < 00) space satisfy Opial's condition.
Theorem 1.89 Let F : K ~ C(X) be nonexpansive and let X satisfy
Opial's condition. Then I - F is demiclosed. (C(X) denotes the set of
nonempty compact subsets of X.J
Proof.
Since the domain of I - F is weakly compact, it is enough to prove that
the graph of 1- F is sequentially closed. Let (x n , Yn) E G(I - F) where
G(I - F) denotes the graph of I - F such that Xn ~ x, and Yn ~ y. Then
x E K and we prove that y E (I - F)(x). Since Yn E Xn - Fx n , Yn = Xn - Zn
for some Zn E Fx n . As F is nonexpansive, there exists z~ E Fx such that
(1.4)
40 CHAPTER 1
In (1.4) taking limits, we have
lim inf IIx n - xII > lim inf IIzn - z~ II

n~oo n~oo
But Fx is compact and Yn -+ y, hence, there exists a subsequence of

{z~}, again denoted by {z~}, converging to Z E Fx. So from (1.5), we
get liminfn~oo IIx n - xii ~ limn~oo inf IIx n - y - zli. By Opial's condition,
we have y + Z = x. Thus, y = x - Z E x - Fx.
The following theorem is due to Lami Dozo [160].
Theorem 1.90 Let X be a Banach space which satisfies Opial's condition.

If K is a nonempty convex weakly compact subset of X and F : K -+ C(K)
is a nonexpansive mapping, then F has a fixed point in K.
Proof.
Let Xo E K be a fixed element and let {k n } be a sequence in (0,1)
which converges to 1. Define
(1.6)
Then Fn : K -+ C(K), and each Fn is a contraction. By Theorem 1.86,

there exists an Xn E K such that Xn E Fnxn. Since K is weakly compact,
there exists a subsequence of {x n }, again denoted by {x n }, converging
weakly to x E K. From (1.6) we have
So, IIx n - znll = (1 - kn)lIxo - znll.

Hence, Yn = Xn - Zn E (I - F)x n and Yn -+ O.
This means that (xn, Yn) E G(I - F) with Xn -t x, and Yn -t O. Since
1- F is demiclosed 0 E (I - F)x, that is, x E Fx.
The following results are on the same lines, and in each of these T
satisfies the following condition:
for all x E K, for all Y E Tx, (x, y] n K =f. 4> (1.7)

where (x,y] = {(1- a)x + ay,O < a S; I}.
Theorem 1.91 Let X be a Banach space, K a nonempty closed and starshaped

subset of X. Let T : K -+ 2 x be a nonexpansive mapping such that the
condition (1.7) holds. Further, assume that T(K) is bounded and (I - T)K
is closed, then T has a fixed point [183].
Proof. First it is shown that there is a sequence {xn} E K, and a sequence

{Yn} E X with Yn E T(x n ) such that
Xn - Yn -t 0 as n -t 00.
Let q be a starcenter of K. For each n E N, define a set-valued map
Tn: K -t 2X by
1 1
Tn(x) = (1- -)Tx +-q (1.8)
n n
Then Tnx E 2 x and Tn satisfies the Condition (1.7) since so does T. Each
Tn is a contraction map for n EN. Therefore, by Theorem 1.86, for each
n E N, there exists an Xn E K such that Xn E Tn(xn) [195J.
Therefore, by (1.8) we have
1 1
Xn E (1- -)Txn + -q.
n n
This implies that there is a Yn E Tx n , n E N such that
1 1
Xn - Yn = -q - -Yn·
n n
Since T K is bounded,
Xn - Yn -t 0 as n -t 00.
Now by the assumption that (J -T)K is dosed, 0 E (J -T)K. Hence, there

is an x E K such that x E Tx.
Theorem 1.92 Let X be an Opial space and K a weakly closed starshaped
subset of X. Let T : K -t 2x be a nonexpansive mapping satisfying the
Condition (1.7), and let T(K) ~ B for some weakly compact subset B of
X. Then T has a fixed point [183J.
Proof. Since X is an Opial space, we have that if Xn -t x weakly and
y i= x, then lim infimum Ilx n - xII < lim infimum IIx n - yli.
If (I - T)K is closed, then the proof should follow from Theorem 1.9l.
Let Y be a limit point of (J - T)K. Then there is a sequence {Yn} with
Yn E (1 - T)x n for some Xn E K and Yn -t y. This implies that for each
n E N, Xn - Yn E TX n and Yn -t y.
Since the sequence {xn - Yn} ~ B, there is awE B and a subsequence
x ni - Yni -t wEB weakly. Since Yni -t y, it follows that x ni -t Y + w
weakly. Let z = Y + w.
Since K is weakly dosed, z E K. Without any loss of generality, assume
that Xn -t z weakly.
42 CHAPTER 1
Now, for each n E N, Xn - Yn E TX n implies that there is a Zn E Tz

such that IIxn - Yn - znll ~ IIx n - zlI·
Since Tz is compact, there is a subsequence Zni -+ t E Tz, and Yni +
zni -+ Y + t. Then, it follows that lim infimum IIxni - t - yll ~ lim infimum
Ilxni - zlI· Hence Y + t = z, i.e., Y = Z - t E (I - T)K. This implies that
(I -T) is closed, and the remaining prooffollows from the proof of Theorem
1.91.
Itoh and Takahashi [135] proved the following.
Theorem 1.93 Let K be a weakly compact starshaped subset of a Banach

space X which satisfies Opial's condition. Let F be a nonexpansive mapping
from K into C(X), and, for each x E oK, let Fx ~ K. Then F has a fixed
point in K.
Proof.
Let Xo be the starcenter of K. Choose a sequence {k n } such that 0 <
k n < 1 and k n -+ 0 as n -+ 00. Define Fn : K -+ C(X) by Fnx =
knxo + (1 - kn)Fx, x E K. Then, each Fn is a (1 - kn)-contraction and
Fnx ~ K for each x E oK. By Theorem 1.86, there exists an Xn E K
such that Xn E Fnxn. This implies that there is a Yn E FX n such that
Xn = knxo + (1 - kn)Yn. By the weak compactness of K, we can assume,
without loss of generality, that {xn} converges weakly to some element
x EK.
Since IIx n - Ynll --t 0 as n -+ 00 and I - F is demiclosed, we have
o E (I - F)x; that is, x E Fx.
The following is due to Ko [154].
Definition 1.94 Let K be a convex subset of X. The mapping F : K -+

CB(X) is said to be semiconvex on K, iffor any X,Y E K, z = kx+(I-k)y,
where 0 ~ k ~ 1, and for any Xl E Fx, YI E Fy, there exists Zl E Fz such
that IIZIII ~ max{lIxIII, IIYIII}·
Let K be a nonempty subset of a Banach space X. A map F : K -+

CB(X) is said to be inward if Fx ~ IK(x) for all X E K, and weakly inward
if Fx ~ IK(x) for all x E K.
Theorem 1.95 Let K be a nonempty weakly compact convex subset of a

Banach space X, and let F : K -+ C(X) be a nonexpansive and weakly
inward mapping. If I - F is demiclosed or semiconvex on K, then F has a
fixed point [306}.
Proof.
Let Xo E K. Choose a sequence {k n } such that 0 < k n < 1 and k n -+ O.
Define the mapping Fnx = knxo + (1 - kn)Fx for all x E K. Then, by
Theorem 1.86, Fn has a fixed point Xn for each n. Hence, there exists a
Yn E FX n such that
=
Xn knxo + (1 - kn)Yn.
If I - F is demiclosed on K, then by the weak compactness of K there
exists a subsequence {xnJ of {xn} which converges weakly to an element
Z in K.
Further, we have IIxni - Ynill = l~ti IIxo - xnill -t 0 as i -t 00. Thus,

o E (I - F)z, that is, z E Fz.
Suppose 1- F is semiconvex on K . We have d(xn' Fx n ) ::; IIx n - Ynll ::;
l~'kn Ilxo - xnll -t 0 as n -t 00.
So, inf{d(x,Fx) : x E K} = O. Define Hr = {x E K : d(x, Fx) ::; r}
where r > O. It can be seen due to semiconvexity (Ko [154]) that Hr is a
weakly closed convex subset of K for every r > O. The family {Hr : r > O}
has the finite intersection property. Since K is weakly compact, we have
n{ Hr : r > O} f: 0. But, any point in n{ Hr : r > O} is a fixed point of F.
The following interesting corollaries are worth mentioning.
Corollary 1.96 Let K be a nonempty weakly compact convex subset of a
Banach space X, which satisfies Opial's condition. If F : K -t C(X) is
a nonexpansive mapping which is also weakly inward, then F has a fixed
point {306}.
Proof.
Since X satisfies Opial's condition and F is nonexpansive, it follows
that I - F is demiclosed. Hence the result follows .
Corollary 1.97 Let K be a nonempty compact convex subset of a Banach
space X and let F : K -t C(X) be nonexpansive and weakly inward. Then
F has a fixed point {}306}.
Definition 1.98 Let X be a Banach space and F : X -t 2x. Then F is
said to be convex if for any x, Y E X and z = Ax + (1 - A)y,O ::; A ::; 1
and for any Xl E F(x), Yl E F(y), there exists Zl E F(z) such that IIZIII ::;
Allxlli + (1 - A)IIYlli.
Theorem 1.99 Let K be a nonempty weakly compact closed convex subset
of X. If F : K -+ 2K is upper semicontinuous, infxEK d(x, F(x)) = 0, and
1- F is convex on K, then F has a fixed point in K {154}.
Proof.
Let r > 0, define Hr = {x E K : d(x, F(x)) ::; r}. Then Hr f: 0, for
any r > 0, since infxEK d(x, F(x)) = O.
Hr is convex. Indeed, let x, Y E Hr. and z = Ax + (1 - A)y. Then
d(z, F(z)) ::; Ad(x, F(x)) + (1 - A)d(y, F(y)) ::; rA + r(1 - A) = r.

44 CHAPTER 1
Thus, z E H r , and Hr is convex. Also, Hr is closed.

Thus, Hr is closed and convex and hence is weakly closed for each r > O.
The family {Hr : r > O} has the finite intersection property. Therefore, by
the weak compactness of K, nr>oHr =I- 0.
Let x E nr>oHr' Then d(x, F(x)) ::; r for any r > 0, hence, d(x, F(x)) =
OJ that is, x E F(x) since F(x) is closed.
Therefore, any point in nr>oHr is a fixed point of F.
Chang and Yen [45] gave the following result that extends several results
and unifies earlier ideas.
Theorem 1.100 Let C be a nonempty weakly compact convex subset of a
Banach space X and F : C ~ 2x a mapping such that x ~ d(x,Fx) is
lower semicontinuous. If
(i) inf{(d(x, Fx) : x E C} = 0, and
(ii) d(z,Fz) ::; 0(max{d(x, Fx), d(y, Fy)}) for all X,y E C,O ::; A ::; 1,
z = AX + (1 - A)Y, where 0 : IR+ ~ IR+ is nondecreasing, continuous
from the right at 0, with 0(0) = O.
Then F has a fixed point.
Several interesting results are derived as corollaries.
If F is upper semicontinuous, then the map x -t d(x, Fx) is lower
semicontinuous (see Downing and Kirk [69]).
If F : C ~ 2x is continuous with respect to Hausdorff metric, then the
map x ~ d( x, Fx) is continuous, hence, is lower semicontinuous.
Recall that F : X ~ 2x is continuous if it is continuous from the metric
topology of X to the Hausdorff metric topology of F : X ~ 2x induced by
the metric of X.
Note: Id(x, Fx) - d(y, Fy)1 ::; d(x,y) + H(Fx, Fy).
The following interesting results are easily derived.
Corollary 1.101 If C is a nonempty weakly compact convex subset of
X and F : C ~ 2 x is continuous or upper semicontinuous such that
conditions (i) and (ii) of Theorem 1.100 are satisfied, then F has a fixed
point.
In case 1- F is semiconvex, then F satisfies (ii), and hence the following
result due to Ko [154] is a corollary.
Corollary 1.102 Let C be as in Corollary 1.101 and F : C ~ 2c upper
semicontinuous and inf{d(x, Fx) : x E C} = O. Further, if I - F is
semiconvex, then F has a fixed point.
The following results are given in [45].
(a) Let C be a nonempty closed bounded convex subset of X and F : C ~
2c a I-set contraction. Then
inf{d(x,Fx): x E C} = O.
(b) Let C be a nonempty closed bounded convex subset of X and F : C -+

2° a nonexpansive map. Then
inf{d(x,Fx) : x E C} = O.
The following result is easy to derive from Theorem 1.91.

Theorem 1.103 Let C be a nonempty weakly compact convex subset of
X and F : C -+ 2° either a 1-set contraction or nonexpansive mapping
satisfying (ii) of Theorem 1.100. Then F has a fixed point.
The following is obtained on the same lines. In this case, F : C -+ 2 x
is taken.
Theorem 1.104 Let C be a nonempty weakly compact convex subset of X
and F : C -+ C(X) a nonexpansive map satisfying (ii) of Theorem 1.100
such that Fx C Io(x) for each x E C. Then F has a fixed point. (C(X):
compact subsets of X.)
1.9. Integral Equations

In this section, some applications of fixed point theorems have been illustrated.
The equations
g(x) = ~b k(x,y)g(y)dy,
g(x) = fx + ~b k(x, y)g(y)dy,
g(x) = ~b k(x, y)g(y)2dy

where the function 9 is unknown but all other functions are known, are
integral equations. Integral equations occur in applied mathematics, engineering
and mathematical physics. They also arise as representation formulas in the
solutions of differential equations. The most general linear integral equation
in y( x) can be written as
h(x)y(x) = f(x) + l a
b(X)
k(x, t)y(t)dt.
This equation is called a Volterra integral equation when b( x) = x,
h(x)y(x) = f(x) + l x
k(x, t)y(t)dt.
46 CHAPTER 1
When h =0 it is called a Volterra equation of the first kind. In case
l
h(x) = 1, we get
y(x) = f(x) + x
k(x,t)y(t)dt,
a Volterra integral equation of the second kind. In case b( x) = b, a constant,
we get
h(x)y(x) = f(x) + lb k(x, t)y(t)dt.
If h(x) = 0, it is called a Fredholm equation of the first kind, and if h(x) = 1,
it is called a Fredholm equation of the second kind. Respectively, these
equations are
- f(x) lb k(x, t)y(t)dt, and
y(x) = f(x) + lb k(x, t)y(t)dt.
1. The following initial value problem

J2y
dx 2 = AY(X) + g(x), x > 0,
with
y(O) 1,
y'(O) 0,
reduces to an integral equation
y(x) = 1 + A foX (x - ~)y(~)d~ + foX (x - ~)g(~)d~,

the Volterra integral equation.
2. The two point boundary value problem
d2 y
dx 2 = AY, for a < x < b, with y(a) = O,y(b) = 0
reduces to the integral equation y(x) = A l k(x,~)y(~)d~,

x
where
(x-b)(e-a) c <_ x
b-a , ..
{
k(x,~) =
(x-a)(e-b) c >_ x',
b-a , ..
that is, the Fredholm integral equation.

The shape of a transmitted signal y(t) over a finite time duration and
with finite frequency bandwidth, a, must satisfy the integral equation
\()-1
Ay t -
1
-1
sin a(t - T) d
7r
()
t- T
T,
in order to mimmize the energy loss involved in transmitting it. As a

parameter, A is called the eigenvalue.
The above integral equation is a Fredholm integral equation of the
second kind, with f(x) = O.
Integral equations (either Volterra or Fredholm) are homogeneous if
f(x) = O.
An integral equation of the form
Ty(x) = fa k(x, t, y(t))dt
is a nonlinear integral equation and is known as the Urysohn integral

equation. The following nonlinear integral equation occurs in the theory
of radiative transfer.
1
H(p,) = 1 + -2Wop,H(p,)
11
o
H(p/)
--,dp,', 0 :S p, :S 1,
P, + p,
where H(p,) is unknown, Wo is a parameter, with 0 :S Wo :S 1 (see Leggett
[166]).
The nonlinear integral equation of the form
p,(x) = 1b k(x, y)f(y, p,(y))dy

is known as the Hammerstein integral equation. In the case where k is
not very large, the contraction mapping theorem gives the existence and
uniqueness, otherwise, the Schauder's fixed point theorem is used.
Now, we give applications of the Banach Contraction Principle.
(i) Consider the integral equation
f(x) = y(x) = A 1b k(x, t)y(t)dt + g(x) (1.9)
where k(x, t) is a continuous function on the square a :S x :S b, a :S t :S

b, 9 is a continuous function on [a, b], and A is a real number. If k and
f are continuous and M = sup Ik(x, y) I with A < Md-a) , then there is
a unique solution of the integral Equation (1.9).
48 CHAPTER 1
Define T : C[a, b] -t C[a, b] by
Ty(x) = A lb k(x, t)y(t)dt + g(x).
Then T is a contraction mapping for IAI < Md-a)' If Yl and Y2 are two
continuous functions, then
so T is a contraction on C[a, b], a complete metric space, and has a

unique fixed point.
(ii) Consider the functional equation y(x) = f(x,y(x)). Suppose f: X X
IR -t IR such that
(1.10)
for all x E X, A E (0,1), and f is continuous for all y!, Y2 E lR. Then
there is a unique continuous function 9 : X -t 1R such that gx =
f(x,gx) for all x EX.
Consider T : C(X) -t C(X) given by
Tg(x) = f(x,g(x)).
T is continuous since f is. It is easy to show that T is a contraction.
Thus by the Banach Contraction Principle, T has a unique fixed point;
that is, a continuous function 9 : X -t 1R such that
g(x) = T(g) = f(x,gx) for all x E X.

(iii) Consider the initial value problem
dy
dx = f(x, y), y(xo) = Yo (1.11)
The initial value problem (1.11) is equivalent to the problem of solving

the integral equation
</>(x) = Yo + 1 x
xo
f(t, </>(t))dt (1.12)
for continuous function </>.

Suppose, there exists a solution </> to (1.11). Then
d
dx </>(x) = f(x, </>(x)), and </>(xo) = Yo·
On integration from Xo to x we get </>(x)-</>(xo) = J:a

f(t,</>(t))dt; that
is, (1.12) holds. Conversely, if </> is a continuous solution of (1.12), then
</>(x + h) - </>(x)
h = *[l:+ h
f(t, </>(t))dt -1: f(t, </>(t))dt]
= !lx+h
h x
f(t,</>(t))dt = f(l, </>(I))h = f(I,</>(I)),
h
where x < t < x + h.
Taking the limit as h ~ 0 we get </>'(x) =
f(x, </>(x)). From (1.12),
</>(xo) = Yo + J:oo f(t, </>(t))dt = Yo means that </> is a solution of (1.11).
(iv) Next, consider the initial value problem
dy
dx = f(x, y), y(xo) = Yo· (1.13)
Let f be continuous on R = {(x, y) : a :::; x :::; b, c :::; y :::; d}, containing

the point (xo, Yo) in its interior and satisfying a Lipschitz condition
in R.
Then for sufficiently small k > 0, there is a unique solution of (1.13)
on [xo - k,xo + k].
Proof.
A function h satisfies (1.13) if and only if hx = Yo + f(t, h(t))dt, J:a
which is true if and only if h is a fixed point of T defined on C[a, b] by
(Th)(x) = Yo + lxox
f(t, h(t))dt.
Let M = sup{lf(x, y) I : (x, y) E R}, and choose k > 0 so that Lk < 1

and [xo - k, Xo + k] ~ [a, b]. If C = {h E C[xo - k, Xo + k] : Ihx - yol :::;
Mk}, then C is a closed subset of C[xo - k, Xo + k], a complete metric
space, and hence, is complete. T maps C into C and is a contraction
map. Therefore T has a unique fixed point implying that (1.13) has a
unique solution.
Remark. We can have a solution under more general assumptions by
considering a different metric on [0,7] . Consider d1 (I, g) = maxt e-ptlf(t)-
g(t)1 where p > O. Using this metric we have
dl (Th}, Th 2 ) = maxe-ptl
t
r (f(x, hI (x)) -
Jo
f(x, h2 (x))dxl
50 CHAPTER 1
For K = p, the map T is a contraction with respect to this metric,

hence, existence and uniqueness are guaranteed.
(v) Consider f(x) = ).. J:K(x, y)f(y)dy+g(x), the Volterra Integral equation.
Let T : C[a, b] -+ C[a, b] be defined by
Tf(x) = )..l K(x,y)f(y)dy +g(x).

x
It is easy to see that
11Th -Thll II>. l x

K(x, y)(fl (y) - h(y))dyll
< )..M(x - a) maxllh(x) - h(x)lI,

where M = maxK(x,y). Also, ITn h _Tn hi ::; )..nMn~maxllh- 'x-a\"
1211, that is, d(Tn h, Tn h) ::; )..n Mn (b~~)" d(h, h). So Tn is a contraction
and T has a unique fixed point.
(vi) Consider the nonlinear integral equation of the form
f(x) = )..1 k(x, y)g(y, fy)dy.

1
(1.14)
Assume that k(x,y) is continuous for all x,y E [0,1] and g(y,t) is
continuous for all y E [0,1] and all t such that
Suppose that g(y, t) satisfies
L is constant and Ik(x, y)1 ::;; M. Then (1.14) has a unique solution in
L2[0, 1] provided 1)..1 < Lk·
11
Define T by
T f = ), k(x, y)g(y, fy)dy,
and a fixed point of T is a solution of (1.14) It is easy to show that T

is a contraction and has a unique fixed point.
1:
(vii) A nonlinear integral equation of the type
g(t) = x(t) + k(t - u)F(x(u))du (1.15)
arises in nonlinear feedback systems, where F satisfies a condition
that is,
IIFul - CUt - FU2 + cU211 ::; 1](c)lut - u21,
where 1](c) = max{la - cl, 1,8 - el}. An abstract version of an equation
of type (1.15) is the equation
g=x+KFx, (1.16)
where K is a bounded linear operator on a Banach space X and f is

a nonlinear operator on X such that
with 1] a function defined on the positive reals. The equation (1.16) is

called an abstract Hammerstein equation written as
(I + cK)x = 9 + K(cI - F)x.

If (/ + cK) has an inverse, then x solves (1.16) if and only if x is a
fixed point of
Tx = (I + CK)-l[g + K(cI - F)x].

Now, for any xl, X2 E X, we get
IITxl - TX211 ::; 11(1 + cK)-lKII1](c)ll x l - x211·

If (/ + CK)-l exists and 11(1 + cK)-l KII1](c) < 1, then for any 9 E X,
the equation (1.16) has a unique solution x.
An interesting application of this theorem may be found in the existence
of periodic solutions to the Navier-Stokes equation.
52 CHAPTER 1
(vii) The contraction mapping principle is useful in the existence and uniqueness
of trajectories f(t) E Gl[O, T] that are solutions of nonlinear ordinary
differential equations of the form
d
dtf(t) = G(t,J(t)), 0 < t ::; T, f(O) = fo (1.17)
Here G(t, f) is a function continuous in each argument and Lipschitz

continuous with respect to f. There exists an M > 0 such that
IIG(t, ft} - G(t, 12)11 ::; Mllft(t) - h(t)ll, for all t E [0, T].
Since G(t, f) is continuous, IIG(t, fll ::; k on some bounded region
containing (0, fo).
Choose T, the time interval, so that TM < 1 and It I < T, Ilf(t) - fOil ::;
kT. With G[-T, T], the space of continuous functions on It I < T with
metric d(ft(t),h(t)) = SUPtE[O,T]lft(t) - h(t)l, (1.17) is equivalent to
f(t) = fo + lt G(x, f(x))dx.
Using the Banach Contraction Principle, we get existence and uniqueness.

(ix) Another application is in the Implicit Function Theorem. Let f be a
continuous function on Ixl ::; a,lyl ::; b such that
(i) f(O,O) = 0,
(ii) Ilf(xt, Yl) - f(X2, Y2)11 ::; k(lxl - x21 + IYl - Y21), k E (0,1).
Then Y = ex + f(x,y) has a unique solution Y = h(x) with h(O) =0
and h defined in the interval
1- k }
Ixl ::; a min { a, lei + k b .
Furthermore, Ilhxl - hX211 ::; I~~: IXI - x21.

(x) Consider
1
ll(x) = 1 + -2Wxll(x)
11o x
ll(y)
--dy, 0::; x ::; 1.
+y
(1.18)
ll(x) is an unknown function required to be in G[O, 1], W is a parameter,

and 0 ::; W ::; 1 [166].
The following integral
ll(x) = 1 + xll(x) (I w(y) dy, 0::; x ::; 1, (1.19)

Jo x+y
arises in general laws of scattering, where w(y) is an even polynomial

in y with J; w(y)dy ::; 1/2. Integral equations of the form (1.19) also
arise in other contexts. Consequently, a direct attack on (1.18) may
yield better insight into a number of related problems.
The equation (1.18) suggests the direct iteration
Hm +1(x) = 1+-21 WxHm (x) m

11
H (y)
o x +y
dy 0::;x::;l,m=0,1,2, ....
(1.20)
with Ho(x) = 1,0 ::; x ::; 1.
We then get
1 1
Ht(x) = 1 + 2"Wxln(1 + ;),0::; x::; 1.
The exact calculation of H2(X), however, involves evaluation of the

integral
r 1
-y-ln(1 _
Jo x + y y
~ )dy,
0 ::; x ::; 1,
which leads to complexities. However, we could apply the Banach Contraction

Principle with the information
IIH1 - Holl = max II HI (x) - Ho(x) II

[0,1)
1
2W1n2 ,
or
IIH1 - Holl < .34658W.
If the operator T in C[O, 1] defined by
T(H) = 1 + -21WXH(x) r1 H(y) dy

Jo x+y
is a contraction mapping of the closed ball B r (1) with the contraction factor
k and r 2: (l~k) ~W In 2, then the existence of a solution, H(x), of (1.18),
and the convergence of the sequence H m , generated by (1.20), follows from
the Banach Contraction Principle.
1.10. The Method of Successive Approximations

The method of successive approximations is very useful in determining
solutions of integral, differential, and algebraic equations.
54 CHAPTER 1
In the case where f : X -+ X is a contraction mapping, then the

sequence of successive approximations Xn+l = fx n , n = 0, 1,2, ... , converges
to a fixed point of f.
Consider the following:
Example 1. Solve the equation x 2 = 2 for x. Let x = fx = !(x + 2/x).
Then f is a contraction function and the sequence Xn+l = fx n , n =
0,1,2, . .. , converges to a solution of x 2 = 2. In fact, if Xo = 2, then Xl = 1.5,
X2 = 1.41 and so on, and the sequence Xn converges to J2.
Consider the following.
Example 2. Find the roots of x 2 - 2x - 3 = o. Write X = fx = (x 2 - 3)/2.
If Xo = 4, then f is not a contraction in the neighbourhood of Xo and
the sequence of successive approximations Xn+1 = fx n, n = 0,1,2, ... , with
Xo = 4 does not converge. In fact, it yields Xl = 65, X2 = 19.6, X3 = 191
and so on.
In many physical problems, integral equations of the form fx = a +
l
J; K(x, y)fydy arise where a = f(O) and K are given. Consider the integral
equation fx = a+ J; k(x, y)fydy. If, on a suitable interval, sup x
IK(x, y)ldy =
k < 1, then fx = a + foX K(x, y)fydy has a unique solution, and the
sequence Xn+1 = fX n converges to the solution of integral equation. For
example, if we take fx = 1 + f; fydy, then T f = 1 + f; fydy, which gives
TO = 1, T 20 = 1 + X, T 30 = 1 + X + x 2/2, ... ,. Thus fx = exp X satisfies
l
the equation
fx = 1 +
x
fydy.
If we take the Volterra integral equation of the second type, fx = gx +
f: K(x, t)ftdt. In the case where f is continuous for 0 :s: X ~ a and if
K (x, t) is continuous for 0 :s: x :s: a, and 0 :s: t :s: x, then the sequence
Yn(x) = g(x) + l x
K(x, t)Yn_l(t)dt, n = 1,2, ... ,
converges to the solution y(x) of
y(x) = g(x) + l x
K(x,t)y(t)dt.
l
For example, take
x
y(x) = x - (x - t)y(t)dt.
Then y(t) = 0 gives YI(X) = x, Y2(X) = x- ~~ and Yn(x) converges to y(x) =

sinx. If we take fx = x + J;U(t))2dt, then fn+l(X) = x + J;Un(t))2dt
with fo(x) = 0 converges to f(x) = tanx .
1.11. The Iteration Process for Continuous Functions

The following results are for continuous functions on a closed bounded
interval. We know that if f : [a, b] 4- [a, b] is a continuous function, then f
has a fixed point (Brouwer fixed point theorem).
The following result deals with the convergence of the sequence of
iterates for continuous functions on closed intervals. In this section, we
give the convergence of the sequence of iterates for continuous functions as
well as other functions on a closed interval. First, we give a result due to
Hillam [117].
Theorem 1.105 If f : [0,1] 4- [0,1] is a continuous function and Xo in

[0, 1] is any arbitrary point, then the sequence of iterates given by Xn+1 =
°
fx n , n = 0,1, ... converges to a fixed point of f if and only if lim IXn+I -
Xn I = as n 4- 00.
Proof.
If {xn} converges to a fixed point, then lim(xn+l-x n ) = 0. Iflim(xn+l-
xn) = 0, then {xn} converges to a fixed point. It is shown by contradiction.
Assume that {xn} does not converge. Since [0, 1] is compact, there exist
two subsequences of {xn} that converge, ZI and Z2, respectively. Assume
that ZI < Z2.
It is sufficient to show that fx = x for all x in (Zb Z2). Suppose this is
not the case, and an x exists in (zt, zz) such that fx =I- x. Then, a 8 >
could be found such that [x - 8, x + 8] C (Zl' Z2) and fxo =I- Xo whenever Xo
°
°
in (x - 8, x + 8). Assume Xo - fxo > (a similar argument can be given for
the other case as well), and choose N so that Irx - r+Ixl < 8 for n > N.
Since Z2 is a cluster point, a positive integer n > N must exist such that
fn x > x. Let no be the smallest such integer. Then ro-1x- < x < fn ox
and since fn ox - fno-IX < 8 we have fno-Ix - fno-IX < x, a contradiction.
It is interesting to note that for a continuous function f : [a, b] 4- [a, b],
the following statements are equivalent.
1. f is asymptotically regular; that is, limn-+oo IXn+I - xnl =
in [a, b] where Xn+I = fx n.
°for all x
2. f admits no cycle of order 2; that is, if for each x in [a, b] with x =I- fx,
then x =I- j2x.
3. {r(x)} converges for each x in [a, b].
For nonexpansive mappings, we have the following due to Bailey [6].
If f[a, b] -+ [a, b] is a nonexpansive mapping, then Xn+I = Hfxn + x n }
converges to a fixed point of f.
The following is due to Hillam [118].
56 CHAPTER 1
Theorem 1.106 Let f [a, b) -+ [a, b) be a map such that If X - fyl <
klx - yl for all x, y E [a, b] .
Let Xl E [a, b] be arbitrary, and let Xn+1 = (1- >')xn + >.fxn where>. = lik'
Then {xn} converges monotonically to z E [a, b) where fz = z.
Proof.
Assume that fXn =1= Xn for all n. Suppose fXI > Xl, and let p be the
first point greater than Xl such that fp = p.
Since fXI > Xl and fb :S b, the continuity of f implies there is such a
point.
We claim that if Xl < X2 < . .. < Xn Xi for i = 1,2, ... , n,
then fX n+1 > Xn+1 and Xn+1 < p.
Suppose p < Xn+l, then Xn .(fxn - xn).
Hence
that is, klx n - pi < Ifx n - fpl, a contradiction since f is of Lipschitz class.
Thus, Xn+l Xn+1 by the choice of p.
By using induction, it follows that Xn < Xn+I < p for all integers n.
Since a bounded monotone sequence converges, {xn} converges to some
point y.
Now Iy - fyl :S Iy - xnl + IXn - fXnl + Ifx n - fyl = Iy - xnl + il xn+l -
xnl + If X - fy l -+ 0 as n -+ 00. Thus, y = fy.
Similar arguments hold if f Xl < Xl .
1.1Ll. THE MANN ITERATIVE PROCESS
Suppose A = (anj) is an infinite real matrix satisfying

(i) anj 2: 0 for all n,j E ~ and anj = 0 for j > n.
(ii) 2:7=1 anj = 1 for all n .
(iii) limn anj = 0 for all j.
Let C be a convex subset of a linear space X, f : C -+ C and Xl E C.
The Mann iterative process M(XI, A,J) [68] is defined by
n
Vn = Lanjxj, Xn+l = fVn, n = 1,2, . . .
j=l
If X is a Banach space, C is a closed convex subset of X and f : C -+ C

a continuous map, then convergence of either {xn} or {vn } to a point y
implies the convergence of the other to y and implies fy = y.
The Mann process M(Xl, A,J) is said to be normal, provided A = (anj)

=
satisfies (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv) an+1,j (1 - an+1,n+t}anj, j = 1,2, ... , n =
1,2, ... and (v) either ann = 1 for all n or ann < 1 for all n > 1.
The sequence {v n } in a normal Mann process M(Xl' A, f) satisfies Vn+1 =
(1 - O'n)vn + O'nfv n where 0 ~ O'n < 1 for all n and E~ O'n diverges.
An iteration scheme due to Ishikawa, called an I-scheme [24], is defined
as follows .
Let f : C -+ C. For Xo E C, let Yn = f3nfx n + (1 - f3n)x n , n ~ 0
and Xn+1 = (1 - O'n)xn + O'n/Yn, n ~ 0 where 0 :s: O'n ~ f3n < 1 for all n,
lim n -+ oo f3n = 0, and E O'nf3n = 00.
Mann [179] considered the following.
Let / be a continuous self map of [a, b], a compact interval in R Then
the sequence {xn} E [a, b] given by the following Mann iteration scheme
converges to a fixed point of /.
n _
:to = Xo E [a, b], xn+1 = fx n , Xn = l:: Xkk.

1
The following is due to Rhoades [235].

If / is a continuous nondecreasing self map of [a, b] then the sequence
{xn} given by
Xo E [a, b], Xn+1 = (1 - cn)xn + cnfx n ,

where Co = 1,0 :s: Cn < 1 and E Cn =
00, converges to a fixed point of f.
Rhoades [235] considered the Ishikawa iteration scheme for continuous
functions on [0,1]. He gave the following:
Theorem 1.107 Let f: [0,1] -+ [0,1] be a continuous/unction and {O'n}
and {f3n} satisfy (i) 0 ~ O'n , f3n ~ 1, (ii) lim n-+ oo O'n = 0, (iii) E O'n
diverges and lim n-+ oo f3n = O. Then the sequence of iterates
0/ the Ishikawa scheme converges to a fixed point 0/ f.

Proof.
We first show that {xn} converges. Suppose 0 :s: 6 < 6 :s: 1 are two
distinct limit points of {x n }, and let X* E (66). If f (x*) > x*, then by the
continuity of /, there is a number 8 E (0, (x* -6)/2) such that Ix - x*1 < 8
implies /(x) > x. Since 6 is a limit point of {x n }, we can choose an integer
N such that XN > x* and f3n < 8/2, IXn+l - xnl < 8/2 for all n ~ N.
If XN ~ X* + 8/2, then XN+1 > XN - 8/2 ~ x*. If XN < x* + 8/2,
then f(XN) > XN, so that YN = f3N/(XN) + (1 - f3N)XN > XN > x* . Also,
YN < 8/2+ (1- f3N)XN < 8/2+XN so that IYN - x*1 < 8, and f(YN) > YN·
58 CHAPTER 1
Therefore, xN+1 - XN = an(J(YN) - YN) > 0, and XN+l > XN > x*. By
induction, each Xn > x* for n ~ N, contradicting that 6 is a limit point.
Similarly, f(x*) < x* leads to the contradiction that 6 is a limit point.
Therefore, every point of (6,6) is a fixed point of f.
It then follows that {xn} converges. Call the limit~. Suppose f(~) >~.
With i = (J(~) - ~)/2, since Xn --+ ~ and f is continuous, we can find an
N such that n > N implies f(YN) - XN > i. Thus, limm(xN+m - XN) ~
limm L:~~ E an = 00, a contradiction to the fact that each Xn E J. The
assumption f(~) < ~ also leads to a contradiction, so that ~ is a fixed point.
1.11.2. THE SEQUENCE OF ITERATES OF NONEXPANSIVE MAPPINGS
The sequence of successive approximations for nonexpansive mappings,

unlike contraction mappings, may fail to converge. For example, if
f : lR --+ lR is given by f(x) = 1 - x,
then Xn+1 = fXn gives, for Xo = 1 say, X2n = 1 and X2n+l = 0 for n ~
1. Also, rotation about the origin in the plane is another example where
Xn+l = fXn(xo =1= 0) does not converge.
An early result, concerning the convergence of the sequence of successive
approximations, is due to Krasnoselskii [157].
Theorem 1.108 Let X be a uniformly convex Banach space and C a closed
convex bounded subset of X . If f : C --+ C is nonexpansive and f(C) is
compact, then the mapping defined by
1 1
f lX = -x + -fx
2" 2 2
has the property that its sequence of iterates always converges to a fixed
point of f.
Since f and h have the same fixed points, the limit of a convergent
2
sequence given by
is necessarily a fixed point of f.

More generally, if C is a convex set in a Banach space X and f : C --+ C
is a nonexpansive mapping, then for A E (0,1),
f>..x = AX + (1 - A)fx
is a nonexpansive map and has the same fixed points as f. Schaefer [245]
proved that the sequence Xn+1 = AX n + (1 - A)fxn converges to a fixed
point of f under the assumptions of Theorem 1.108. Since a nonexpansive
mapping may have more than one fixed point, the limit of Xn+I = AX n +
(1 - A)fxn can depend on Xo and on A as well.
In 1966, Edelstein [74] succeeded in relaxing the condition of uniform
convexity and proved Theorem 1.108 for strictly convex Banach spaces.
Diaz and Metcalf [58] gave a theorem for strictly convex Banach spaces for
sequences of the type
Xn+I = AXn + (1 - A)fxn (see Kirk [149]).
In 1971, Petryshyn [223] extended the result to densifying nonexpansive
mappings. Recall that a nonexpansive mapping f with f(C) compact is a
special case of a densifying mapping.
Theorem 1.109 Let X be a strictly convex Banach space, C a closed
bounded convex subset of X, and f : C --t C a densifying nonexpansive
mapping. Let /Ax = AX + (1 - A)fx for constant A, with 0 < A < 1. Then,
for each Xn E C, the sequence Xn+I = AX n + (1 - A)fx n , n = 0,1,2, ...
converges strongly to a fixed point of f in C.
Proof.
The set of fixed points of f, F(J) =I 0. Also, F(J) = F(/A). Since f
is densifying and nonexpansive, and 0 < A < 1, /A is also a densifying
nonexpansive map of C into C.
Since /A is nonexpansive and X is strictly convex, we have that
li/Axo - yll < IIxo - yll for y E F(J) and Xo E C\F(J).
In order to show that {xn+d converges strongly to a point in F(J), it

is enough to show that {x n } contains a convergent subsequence {xnJ and
that its limit x = lim Xn lies in F(J).
Now, for each Xo E C, the sequence Ao = {ff(xo) : n = 0,1, ... } is
bounded and is transformed into Al = {ff(xo) : n = 1,2, ... }. Hence,
a(Ao) = a(AI)' and, therefore, a(Ao) = 0 since f is densifying. Thus, {xn}
contains a convergent subsequence {xnJ. If we put z = lim Xnil then it
follows that z E F(J).
The condition that f be densifying (or, in particular, that f(C) be
compact) can not be eliminated. Genel and Lindenstrauss [94] have shown
that there exists a closed bounded convex subset C of the Hilbert space £2,
and a nonexpansive mapping f : C --t C such that for some Xo E C, the
sequence {xn} defined by
has no convergent subsequence.

The following theorem is due to Petryshyn and Williamson Jr. [225].
60 CHAPTER 1
Theorem 1.110 Let C be a closed subset of a Banach space X, and let

I : C -t X be continuous such that
(i) F(f) =I 0,
(ii) lor each x E C and every p E F(f), II/x - pil ~ IIx - plI, and,
(iii) there exists an Xo E C such that Xn = rxo E C, lor each n ~ 1.
Then {xn} converges to a fixed point of f in C if and only iflimn-+ oo
d(xn' F(f)) = O.
Proof.
If limn-+oo d(xn' F(f)) = 0, then we show that {xn} converges to x=
Ix.
Let limn-+oo d(xn' F(fr) = O.
Then for given l > 0, there exists N such that
d(xn, F) < l/2 for all n ~ N.
Since for all i,j ~ N,
IIXi - xjll ::; IIxi - pil + lip - Xjll, pE F(f).
Now, IIxi - Xjll ::; 211xnl - pll·

Taking info over p E F(f)
This implies that {xn} is a Cauchy sequence. Since X is complete, {xn}

converges to x E C. Since I is continuous, F(f) is closed and lim n-+ oo d(xn' F) =
O. This implies that x E F(f).
In 1981, Das, Singh and Watson [54] gave the following result.
Theorem 1.111 Let C be a closed subset of a Banach space X, and let
I: C -t X be quasi-nonexpansive map with F = F(f). Suppose that Xl E C
is such that
Xn+l = cnlxn + (1 - cn)xn
yields {xn} either as a sequence in a normal Mann process or a sequence
of iterates (xn+1 = Ix n ). lllimn-+ood(xn,F) = 0, then {xn} converyes to
a fixed point 01 I.
Remarks.
(i) In this case, L: C n being divergent is not required. Also, it is evident
that if C n = 1 for each n, then the theorem holds for complete metric
spaces.
(ii) If Cn = 1 for each n, one gets Theorem 1.106 of [225] in so far as I is
not assumed to be continuous.
In 1970, Dotson Jr. [68] considered the iteration process given below and
discussed the convergence of the sequence given by Xn+1 = (1 - cn)xn +
cnfxn.
Let C be a closed subset of a Banach space X and let f : C -t X. Let
{c n } be a sequence such thatCn E (0,1) for each n. Let Xl E C be such
that X n +l is defined by
X n+l= (1 - cn)xn + cnfxn
for each n. If 0 < Cn < 1 and E n diverges, then {xn}
C is a normal Mann
process [68].
Results in the same direction were also given by Reinermann [233] and
Rhoades [236].
Recently, Edelstein and O'Brien [79], and Ishikawa [132] independently
proved that even strict convexity in Theorem 1.108 is not essential. Edelstein
and O'Brien considered f>..x = )..fx + (1 - )..)x, (ff(xo) = xn) whereas
Ishikawa considered the sequence of the type
Xn+l = (1 - cn)xn + cnfxn,

where {cn} E (0, l),cn :::; f < 1 and ECn = +00.
They proved, independently, that the sequence defined above has the
property that
lim IIxn+1 - xnll = O.
n-+oo
If the range of f is precompact, then the sequences {ffxo} and {x n }, where
Xn+1 = (1- Cn )xn +cnf X n , converge to a fixed point of f (a further im proved
result is given in [20]).
The following is due to Dotson Jr. [65].
Theorem 1.112 Let H be a Hilbert space and f : H -t H a monotonic,
nonexpansive operator on H. For Yo E H, define T : H -t H by Tu =
-fu + Yo for all u E H. Suppose 0 :::; Cn :::; 1 for all n = 1,2, ... , and
Ef' cn (1- cn ) dive ryes. Then
xn+1 = (1 - en)xn + cnTxn
converges to the unique solution u = p of the equation
u+ fu = Yo.
Proof.
It is clear that T is nonexpansive and satisfies R(Tx - Ty, x - y) :::; 0,
for all x, y E H. Since Tp = p, we have
IIXn+1 - pll2 = 11(1 - cn)(xn - p) + cn(Txn - Tp)11 2

= (1 - cn)2l1xn - pll2 + 2cn (1 - cn)R(Tx n - Tp, Xn - p) + c;IITxn - Tp1l2.
62 CHAPTER 1
Since R(Txn - Tp, Xn - p) :S 0, cn (1- cn) 2: 0 and IITxn - Tpil :S IIxn - plI,
we get
that is,
This gives
n
IIXn+1 - pll2 :S {II[1- 2ck(l- ck)]}lIxl _ p1l2.
k=l
Note that for 0 :S c:S 1,0 :S 2c(1 - c) :S !.
L cn (1- cn) diverges, it follows that limn-too Ilxn+1 -
00
Since pil = o.
1
Hence, {xn} converges strongly to p.
The first nonlinear ergodic theorem for nonexpansive mappings, given
below, was proved by Baillon in 1975 [8].
Let C be a closed bounded convex subset of a Hilbert space Hand
f : C -t C a nonexpansive map. Then, for each x E C, the Cesaro means,
that is,
n-l
sn(x) = -1 '""' .
L..J P(x)
n i=O
converges weakly to some y E F(J).
First we give a few definitions. Let C be a closed convex subset of a
Banach space X and f : C -t C. Then f is said to be a Lipschitzian
mapping if there exists, for each integer n 2: 1, a corresponding real number
An > 0 such that
for all X,y E C.

A Lipschitzian mapping f is said to be nonexpansive if An = 1 for all
n 2: 1. It is said to be asymptotically nonexpansive if limn-too An 1. =
Reich [229] and Bruck [35] [36] independently generalized Baillon's theorem
and proved the following in a uniformly convex Banach space with a Frechet
differentiable norm.
If X is a uniformly convex Banach space having a Frechet differentiable
norm, C is a closed bounded, convex subset of X, and f : C -+ C an
asymptotically nonexpansive mapping, then {rx} converges weakly to a
fixed point of f if and only if f is weakly asymptotically regular at x.
Hirano [121] proved that Baillon's theorem remains valid in uniformly
convex Banach spaces satisfying Opial's condition.
Iffor each x, y E C, f :C -+ C, C is a closed, convex subset of a Hilbert

space H
where limi-too ai = 0 is said to be asymptotically nonexpansive.

Hirano and Takahashi [122] proved the following for asymptotically
nonexpansive.
Theorem 1.113 Let C be a closed convex subset of a Hilbert space Hand

f : C -+ C such that (i) f is asymptotically non expansive, and (ii) for each
z E C, {r z} is bounded.
Then for each x E C, Sn (x) = ~ L?';Ol fix converges weakly to a fixed
point of f.
Recently, Tan and Xu [287] proved the following:
Theorem 1.114 If X is a uniformly convex Banach space satisfying Opial's

condition, C a closed bounded convex subset of X, and f : C -+ C an
asymptotically nonexpansive mapping, then for each x E C the sequence
{rx} almost converges weakly to a fixed point of f; that is, there is a
y E F(f) such that weak limn-too ~ L?;~ fi+k x = y uniformly in k ~ o.
This theorem also gives that {fnx} converges weakly to y if and only if f
is weakly asymptotically regular at Xj that is, weak lim n-too(fn+1 x - fn x ) =
o.
A sequence {xn} is weakly almost convergent to x if ~ 2:7:01 Xi+k -l. x
uniformly in k = 0,1, ....
1.11.3. CONVERGENCE CRITERIA IN CONVEX METRIC SPACES
Takahashi [284] introduced a notion of convex metric spaces and studied

the fixed point theory for nonexpansive mappings in such a setting. For
further investigations in this setting the reader may consult Rhoades, Singh
& Whitfield [237], and Naimpally, Singh & Whitfield [196], and references
therein.
For convex metric spaces, Kirk [148] and Goebel and Kirk [98] use
the term "hyperbolic type space." They studied the iteration processes
for nonexpansive mappings in the abstract framework and generalized and
unified several known results.
Ding [61] deals with Ishikawa's iteration scheme to construct fixed points
of quasi-contractive, generalized quasi-contractive, and quasi-nonexpansive
mappings in convex metric spaces. His results generalized and unified earlier
results.
Definition.
64 CHAPTER 1
Let (X, d) be a metric space, and I = [0,1]. A continuous mapping

W : X X X X I -t X is said to be a convex structure on X if for each
(x, y, >.) E K X K X I and u E X,
d(u, W(x, y, >.)) :s; >.d(u, x) + (1 - >.)d(u, y).

X together with a convex structure W is called a convex metric space. A
nonempty subset K of X is said to be convex if W(x, y, >.) E K for all
(x, y, >.) E K X K X I. Obviously, all normed linear spaces and their convex
subsets are convex metric spaces. But, there are many examples of convex
metric spaces which are not embedded in any normed linear space.
The following results are due to Ding [61].
Theorem 1.115 Let K be a nonempty closed convex subset of a complete
convex metric space X and let T : K -t K be a quasi-contractive mapping;
that is, there exists a constant q E [0, 1) such that for all x, y E K,
d(Tx, Ty) :s; q. max{d(x, y), d(x, Tx), dey, Ty), d(x, Ty), dey, Tx)}.
Suppose that {X n } is the Ishikawa type iterative scheme defined by
Yn = W(Txn' xn , f3n), n = 0,1,2, ... ,

where {an} and {f3n} satisfy 0 :s; an, f3n :s; 1 and En an diverges. Then
{x n } converges to a unique fixed point of Tin K.
Theorem 1.116 Let D be a closed subset of a complete convex metric
space X, and let T : D -t X be a quasi-nonexpansive mapping. Suppose
that for some Xo ED, the iterative sequence {x n } defined by
Xn+1 = W(TYn, xn , an), Yn = W(Txn' xn ,{3n), n = 0,1,2, ... , (1.21)
°
where < an :s; 1 and 0 :s; f3n :s; 1 satisfies {x n } CD. Then {x n } converges
to a fixed point of T in D if and only if there exists a closed
subset G of X such that
(i) d(Tx,p) :s; d(x,p) for xED and pEG,
(ii) liminfd(xn,G) = 0 as n -t 00.
Proof.
We first show the necessity. Let {x n } converge to x*, a fixed point of
T, and let G ={x*}. Obviously, G is a closed subset of X. Since T is
quasi-nonexpansive and Xn -t x*, conditions (i) and (ii) are true.
Now we prove the sufficiency. By (1.21) and condition (i) we have that
for all pEG,
d(xn+l'P) d(W(TYn' Xn, an),p) ~ and(TYn,P) + (1 - an)d(xn'P)

< and(Yn,p) + (1 - an)d(xn,p)
and(W(Txn,xn,,Bn),P) + (1- an)d(xn,p)
< xn,Bnd(Txn,P) + an (1- ,Bn)d(xn,P) + (1- an)d(xn'P)
< [an,Bn + a n (1- ,Bn) + (1 - an)]d(xn,p) = d(xn'P)·
Hence, we have
d(xn+l' G) ~ d(xn' G). (1.22)
From (1.21) and condition (ii), it follows that
lim d(xn' G) = liminfd(x n , G) = O. (1.23)
Let £ > O. Then there exists an no such that d(xn' G) < £/2 for n ~ no.
Hence, if n, m ~ no we have
d(xn, xm) ~ d(xn,P) + d(xm,P) ~ 2d(x no ,p),
for all pEG. It follows that
and so {xn} is a Cauchy sequence. Let Xn ~ X* E D. Since the metric dis

continuous and G is closed, it follows from (1.23) that x* E G. By condition
(i), we have d(Tx*, x*) ~ d(x*, x*) = 0 and so X* = Tx*.
Theorem 1.117 Let D be a closed convex subset of a complete convex
metric space X with W continuous, and let T : D ~ D be a continuous
mapping such that
(i) F(T) =I 0,
(ii) T is a quasi-nonexpansive; that is, d(Tx,p) ~ d(x,p) for all xED
and p E F(T),
(iii) for each x E D\F(T), there exists a Px E F(T) such that d(Tx,px) <
d(x,px),
(iv) there exists an Xo E D such that the iterative sequence {xn} defined
by (1.21) contains a convergent subsequence {xnJ converging to some
x* ED.
Then x* E F(T) and Xn ~ x*.
Proof.
Conditions (i) and (ii) imply that F(T) is a nonempty closed subset
of X and lim d(xn, F(T)) = d exists. Hence, it suffices to show that d = 0,
66 CHAPTER 1
for then Theorem (1.116) may be applied. If x* E F(T), then d = o. If

X* rJ. F(T), then by the condition (iii) there exists a P = Px. such that
d(Tx*,p) < d(x*,p). By the continuity of Wand T, for each n E N,Tnx =
W(W(Tx, x, f3n), x, an) is also a continuous mapping on D. For all n E N,
we have
d(Tnx*, p) d(W(W(Tx*, x*, f3n), x*, an),p)

< a nd(W(Tx*,x*,f3n),P) + (1- an)d(x*,p)
< anf3nd(Tx*,p) + a n (1- f3n)d(x*,p) + (1 - an)d(x*,p)
< anf3nd(x*,p) + a n (1- f3n)d(x*,p) + (1 - an)d(x*,p)
d(x*, p). (1.24)
On the other hand, by the continuity of Tnj and condition (iv), we have
d(Tnjx*,p) = d(Tnj(Iimxnj)'p) = limd(x nj +llP) = limd(xn,p)

= limd(xnj'p) = d(Iimxnj,p) = d(x*,p), as n --7 00,
where the middle equalities hold since condition (ii) implies that lim d(x n , p)
exists as n --7 00. This is a contradiction, hence, x* E F(T), and the theorem
holds.
1.11.4. ITERATIVE METHODS FOR VARIATIONAL INEQUALITIES
Variational inequality theory is an effective tool for problems arising in

different branches of mathematics.
There is a close relationship between the variational inequalities and
the fixed point theorems. The well known theorem due to Hartman and
Stampacchia [112] follows from the Brouwer fixed point theorem.
Let C be a closed bounded convex subset of IRn and f : C --7 IRn a
continuous function. Then there exists a u E C such that
(ju, v - u) ~ 0 for all v E C. (1.25)
Note: u satisfies (1.25) if and only if u is a fixed point of
P(I - f) : C --7 C,
where P is a metric projection onto C.
If u is a fixed point of P(I - f), then P(I - f)u = u and ((1 - f)u -
u, u - v) ~ 0 for all v E C, that is, (- fu, u - v) ~ O. Hence, (ju, v - u) ~ 0
for all v E C and (1.25) is satisfied.
Similarly, if (ju, v - u) ~ 0 for all v E C, then u is a fixed point of
P(I - f)·
The following algorithm gives the solution of the variational inequalities.
Theorem 1.118 Let C be a closed convex subset of a Hilbert space Hand

f : C -t H a continuous function such that 1 - p f is a contraction function.
Then there exists a unique solution u of
(Iu, v - u) ~ 0 for all v E C,
and u = lim Un, where
un+! = P(I - pf)un , Uo E C.
Let f : C -+ H be a map of Lipschitz class; that is,
IIfu - fvll ::; kllu - vII for all u, v E C,
and f strongly monotone; that is, there exists a constant a > 0 such that
allu - vll2 ::; (Iu - fv, u - v) for all u, v E C.
Then 1 - p f is a contraction for 0 < p < ~ .

Note: It is easy to see that
11(1 - pJ)u - (I - pf)vll 2 lIu - vll2 - 2p(Ju - fv, u - v) + p211fu - fvll 2

(1- 2pa + k 2l)lIu - v1l 2.
Then 1 - p f is a contraction map if 1 - 2pa + k 2p2 < 1; that is,

2a
p < k2'
For results in the following section we refer to Noor [198].
Let H be a real Hilbert space with its dual H', whose inner product and
norm are denoted by (.,.) and 11 · 11, respectively. Let C be a closed convex
set in H. We denote by (".) the pairing between H' and H.
Given continuous mappings T, 9 : H -+ H', we consider the problem of
finding u E H such that g(u) E C, and
(Tu,g(v) - g(u)) ~ (A(u),g(v) - g(u)), for all g(v) E C, (1.26)
where A(u) is a nonlinear continuous mapping such that A(u) E H'. The
inequality (1.26) is known as the general mildly nonlinear variational inequality.
If g(u) = u E C, the Problem (1.26) is equivalent to finding u E C such
that
(Tu, v - u) ~ (A(u)v - u), for all v E C. (1.27)
68 CHAPTER 1
If the nonlinear transformation A(u) == 0 (or A(u) is independent of the

solution u, that is A(u) == f (say)), then (1.26) is equivalent to finding
u E C such that g(u) E C and
(Tu,g(v) - g(u) ~ 0, for all g(v) E C. (1.28)
If A(u) == 0 and 9 = I, the identity mapping, then Problem (1.26) is

equivalent to finding u E C such that
(Tu, v - u) ~ 0, for all v E C. (1.29)

If C* = {u E H' : (u, v) ::; 0 for all v E C} is a polar of the convex cone
C in H, then Problem (1.26) is equivalent to finding u E H such that
g(u) E C, (Tu - A(u)) E C*, (Tu - A(u),g(u) = O. (1.30)

Lemma 1.119 If C is a convex set in H, then u E H is the solution of
(1.26) ¢:> u satisfies
g(u) = Pc[g(u) - pA(Tu - A(u))), (1.31)
where p > 0 is a constant and Pc is the projection of H onto C. Here A

is the canonical isomorphism from H' onto H such that for all v E Hand
f E H',
(/, v) = (Af, v). (1.32)
From Lemma 1.119 we conclude that Problem (1.26) can be transformed
into the fixed point problem of solving
u = F(u),
where
F(u) = u - g(u) + Pc[g(u) - pA(Tu - A(u))]. (1.33)
This formulation is useful in approximation and numerical analysis of variational
inequalities. One obtains an approximate solution of (1.26) by an iterative
algorithm for (1.33).
Algorithm 1.
Given Uo E H, compute un+! by the iterative scheme
Un+! = Un - g(un) + Pc[g(u n) - pA(Tun - A(un)), n = 0,1,2, ... (1.34)
where p > 0 is a constant.
SPECIAL CASES
If g(u) = u E C, then Algorithm 1 reduces to
Algorithm A. Given Uo E H, compute Un+! by the iterative scheme

Un+! = Pc[u n - pA(Tun - A(un ))], n = 0,1,2,... (1.35)
If A(u) == 0, then Algorithm 1 becomes

Algorithm B. Given Uo E H, compute Un+! by the iterative scheme
Un+l = Un - g(u n ) + Pc[g(un ) - pATun], n = 0, 1,2,. .. (1.36)
If g(u) = U E C and A(u) == 0, then Algorithm 1 reduces to the one

given below.
Algorithm C. Given Uo E H, compute Un+l by the iterative scheme
Un+l = Pc[un - pATun], n = 0,1,2, ... (1.37)
Theorem 1.120 Let the mappings T, 9 : H -+ H' be strongly monotone

and Lipschitz continuous, respectively. If the mapping A is Lipschitz continuous,
then
Un+l -+ U strongly in H,
for
Ip - 0' + ')'(k -
{32 2
1) I< J(a + ')'(k - 1)2 - ({32 - ')'2)k(2 - k)) k
{32 -')'2 ' < 1,
-')'
0' > ')'(1- k) + JU32 - ')'2)k(2 - k) and ')'(1 - k) < 0',
where Un+! and u satisfy (1.34) and (1.26), respectively.

Proof.
From Lemma 1.119, we conclude that the solution U of (1.26) can be

characterized by the relation (1.31). Hence, from (1.31) and (1.33) we obtain
IIUn+! - ull lIu n - U - (g(u n ) - g(u)) + Pc[g(un ) - pA(Tun - A(un ))]

-Pc[g(u) - pA(Tu - A(u))]11
< lIu n - u - (g(u n ) - g(u))11 + IIPc[g(un) - pA(Tun - A(un ))]
-Pc[g(u) - pA(Tu - A(u))]11
< 211un - u - (g(u n ) - g(u))11 + lIu n - u - pA(Tun - Tu)
+pA(A(un ) - A(u))II, (1.38)
since Pc is a nonexpansive mapping.
Since T, 9 are both strongly monotone and Lipschitz continuous, one
gets
70 CHAPTER 1
and
IIUn - U - pA(Tun - Tu) 112 ::; (1 - 2pa + p2 ,82) IIUn - U1I2. (1.40)
From (1.38), (1.39), (1.40) and by using the Lipschitz continuity of A, one
gets
lIun+! - ull < {(2}1 - 28 + (12)) + p, + }1 - 2ap + p2,82} II Un - ull
{k + p, + t(p)} II Un - ull
ellun - ull,
where
k 2} 1 - 28 + (12,
t(p) }1 - 2ap + p2,82,
and
e = k + p, + t(p).
Now t(p) assumes its minimum value for (5 = ;2 with t(p) = }1- a 2/,82.
We claim thate < 1. For p = (5, k + P'Y + t(P) < 1 implies that k < 1 and
a > ,(1- k) + }(,82 - ,2)k(2 - k). Thus, e = k + P'Y + t(p) < 1 for all p
with
Ip - a + ,(k - 1)
(.12 2 ,(1 - k) + }(,82 - ,2)k(2 - k) and ,(1 - k) < a.

Since e < 1, the problem (1.33) has a unique solution u and consequently,
the iterative solution Un+l obtained from (1.34) converges to u, the exact
solution of the problem (1.26).
Remarks.
1. If 9 = I, the identity mapping, then (1.33) becomes

F(u) = Pc[u - pA(Tu - A(u))),
and e= P'Y + t(p) < 1 for 0 < P < 2(a - ,)/((32 - ,2),p, < 1 and
, < a.
Consequently, F has a fixed point, which is the solution of (1.27) [201].
2. If 9 = I, the identity mapping, and A(u) == 0, then k = 0" = 0 and
(1.33) becomes
F(u) = Pc[u - pATu],
and e = t(p) < 1 for 0 f3y'k(k - 2),
and
Ip - a I y'a 2 - f32(2k - k 2)
13 2 < 13 2 •
Thus, F has a fixed point, which is the solution of the problem (1.28)
[200].
Ky Fan's Best Approximation Theorem
2.1. Introduction
The Banach Contraction Principle, the Brouwer fixed point theorem, the
Schauder fixed point theorem, and a fixed point theorem for nonexpansive
maps due to Browder, Gohde, and Kirk are for self-maps; that is, for maps
where the domain and range are the same. These results have been extended
recently when the domain and range space need not be the same, but the
domain is a subset of the range. There are even results where the topologies
of the domain space and the range need not be the same. One of the earlier
results due to Rothe is stated below.
Let B be the closed unit ball of a Banach space X, I : B -+ X
continuous, 1(8B) C Band f(B) compact. Then I has a fixed point.
The condition that 1(8B) C B is, in general, sufficient to guarantee the
existence of a fixed point for f. Recently, weaker assumptions have been
considered and interesting generalizations have been obtained.
The importance of Ky Fan's best approximation theorem [86] is due to
its unifying nature. One can easily derive most of the fixed point theorems
under weaker assumptions as corollaries.
The well known best approximation theorem of Ky Fan has been of great
importance in nonlinear analysis, approximation theory, minimax theory,
game theory, fixed point theory, and variational inequalities.
Interesting extensions have been given by several researchers and a
variety of applications, mostly in fixed point theory and approximation
theory, has also been given by many.
Multivalued analogues also have been considered by researchers and
interesting applications in the study of fixed points of multifunctions have
been given by them.
Consider the function I : C -+ X, where C is a nonempty subset
of a normed linear space X. We seek a point x E C which is a best
approximation for fx; that is, seek an x E C such that
IIx - Ixll = dUx, C) = inf{lIfx - yll : y E C}.

We note that y is a solution of (*) if and only if y is a fixed point of
Pc 0 I, where Pc is the metric projection on C.
73
74 CHAPTER 2
The metric projection P = Pc of X onto C is defined by P(x) = {y E

C: Ilx - yll = d(x,C)}. The set P(x) is closed and bounded and is convex
if C is convex.
If f satisfies a suitable boundary condition (for example, fx E C for all
x E C; that is, f : C -+ C), then the set of solutions of (*) coincides with
the fixed point set of f (see Park [209], [216], [219], [221] for details).
In the study of fixed points we note that there are different theorems
dealing with different boundary conditions. We give below a list of a few
such conditions.
1. Let f : C -+ X with f(aC) ~ c, (aC stands for the boundary of C).
2. If f : C -+ X with x -I fx, then there exists ayE Ic(x) such that
IIx - fxll > lIy - fxll·
3. If f : C -+ X and x -I fx, then the line segment [x,Jx] has at least
two points of C.
4. If f : C -+ X and x -I fx, then there exists a number A (real or
complex depending on whether the vector space is real or complex)
such that IAI < 1 and y = AX + (1 - A)fx E C.
5. If f : C -+ X and x -I fx for x E ac, then there exists ayE C such
that IIfx - yll < IIx - fxll·
6. If f : C -+ X and x -I fx for x E ac, then
·
11m d((l - h)x
h
+ hfx, C) < II x - f x.
II
h-+O+
In case C is a ball B of radius r and center 0, the boundary conditions

are:
(i) If f : B -+ X and fx = ax for some x E aB, then a ~ 1
(Leray-Schauder condition).
(ii) If f: B -+ X, then
IIfx - xll 2 2: IIf x ll 2 - II x ll 2 for all x E aB
(Altman's condition).
A similar set of boundary conditions, for dealing with the fixed point
theorems of multifunctions, were considered.
Theorem 2.1 below, established by Ky Fan in 1969, has been of great
importance in nonlinear analysis. We give a proof based on Sehgal [248].
[90]. Banach
Theorem 2.1 Let C be a nonempty compact convex subset of a normed
linear space X and let f : C -+ X be a continuous function. Then there
exists ayE C such that
lIy - fyll = d(fy, C) = inf{lIx - fyll : x E C}. (2.1)

Proof.
Let m : C -t 1R+ be defined by m(x) = min{lly - Ixll : y E C}.
Since I is continuous on C for each x E C there exists ayE C such that
m(x) = Ily - Ixll·
Define a set-valued function G : C -t 2c by
G(x) = {y E C: lIy - Ixll = m(x)}.

Then G(x) =1= 0 and G(x) is a closed, convex subset of C for each x E C.
The upper semicontinuity of G is shown as follows: Let A be a closed
subset of C and let {x o' } ~ G-I(A) converge to an Xo E C. This implies
that there is a yO' E G(xO') n A. That is, Ya E A and IlyO' - IxO'l1 = m(x O' ).
Since A is compact, there is a Yo E A and a subnet {YO"} of {Ya} such that
YO" -t Yo and hence Ilyo - Ixoll = m(xo); that is, Yo E Gxo n A.
This implies that Xo E G-I(A). Thus, G is upper semicontinuous.
By Ky Fan's fixed point theorem we get that there is a Yo E C such
that Yo E GyO, that is, Ilyo - lyoll = d(jyo,C).
The compactness condition in Theorem 2.1 cannot be dropped as is
illustrated by the following example in Hilbert space.
Example. Let B be the unit ball in the Hilbert space £2. Let I be defined
by
I(x) = {y'1-llxI12,XI,X2," " Xn, ... } for x E B.
Then 11/(x)11 = 1 and I : B -t B is a continuous function.
If (2.1) holds, then I must have a fixed point, that is, Ix = x. Since
II/(x) II = IIxll = 1,
that is, Xl = 0 = X2 = X3 •••• Therefore, IIxll = 0 which contradicts Ilxll = 1.

So (2.1) fails.
Schauder's fixed point theorem given in Chapter 1 follows as a corollary
of Theorem 2.1. We restate it here as Theorem 2.2.
Theorem 2.2 Let C be a compact convex subset 01 a normed space X and
let I : C -t C be a continuous mapping. Then I has a fixed point.
In this case d(jy, C) = 0 and so Iy = y.
We need the following definitions from Approximation Theory. For details
see Cheney [46].
Let X be a normed linear space and let C be a nonempty subset of X.
Let x EX. An element y E C is called an element of best approximation
to x if
Ilx - yll = inf{llx - zll : z E C}
76 CHAPTER 2
where P(x) = {z E C : Ilx - zll = d(x, C)}. The set-valued map Pc : X -t

2 c is said to be the metric projection. Often Pc(x) is abbreviated P(x). Q
is also used in place of P.
If P(x) f 0 for every x E X, then C is called proximinal. If P(x)
contains at most one element for every x EX, then C is called a Chebyshev
set.
If C is a Chebyshev set then P is a single valued mapping of X onto
C and is called the Chebyshev map or the best approximation operator. If
the space is a Hilbert space then P is called the proximity map (see Cheney
and Goldstein [49]).
The following is due to Reich [230] where C is not a compact subset of
X.
Theorem 2.3 Let C be a closed convex subset of a Banach space X such
that the metric projection on C is upper semicontinuous. If f : C -t X is
continuous and f (C) is relatively compact, then there is ayE C such that
Ily - fyll = d(Jy,C).
Proof.
Let Q be the metric projection on C. Define F(x) = Q(J(x)) for each
x E C.
Then F is upper semicontinuous and F(x) is nonempty compact convex
subset of C for each x E C. Since f(C) is relatively compact, so F(C) is
also relatively compact because the image of a compact set under an upper
semicontinuous map with compact point images is compact. So the result
follows from Himmelberg's theorem [119].
An interesting extension of Ky Fan's Theorem, established by Lin [175]
is given below for noncompact set C, continuity however is replaced by a
stronger condition.
Theorem 2.4 Let B be a ball of radius r and centre 0 in a Banach space
X and let f : B -t X be a continuous densifying mapping. Then there
exists a Yo E B such that Ilyo - fyoll = d(Jyo, B).
Proof.
Define the radial retraction R : X -t B by
if Ilxll::; r,
Rx= { x
rx
lfxlT if Ilxll ~ r.
Then R is a continuous I-set contraction from X onto B. Denote g(x) =

Rfx. Then 9 is a continuous map from B into B.
Also, for each nonempty bounded subset A of B with a(A) > 0 we have
a(gA) = a(Rf A) ~ a(f A) < a(A).
Thus g is a densifying map and has a fixed point Yo = gyo = Rfyo [30].
Now,
Ilyo - fYol1 IIRfyo - fYolI
IIfyo - fYo!l = 0, if !IfYo II ~ r

{
IIlrfY~11 - fYoll = IIfyo - rll = IIfYolI - r, if !IfYo II 2: r.
For each y E B we have IIfyoll- r ~ IIfyoll- Ilyll ~ Ily - fyoll·

Hence lIyo - fYol1 = d(fyo, B).
The following well known result is due to Petryshyn [223].
Theorem 2.5 If f : B -t X is a continuous densifying mapping, where B

is a closed ball about the origin in a Banach space X, then f has a fixed
point provided one of the following conditions is satisfied.
(i) If fx = ax for some x E aB then a ~ 1.
(ii) f(B) ~ B.
(iii) f(aB) ~ B.
(iv) Ilfx - xl1 2 2: IIfxl12 - IIxl1 2 for all x E aB.
As in the proof of Theorem 2.4, we obtain that there is a Yo E B such
that Rfyo = Yo. If IIfYo11 ~ r, then Yo = Rfyo = fyo and Yo is a fixed
point of f. In case IIfYoll > r we show that it leads to a contradiction. In
. . r fyo IlfYoll
fact, IIfYoll > r ImplIes that Rfyo = IIfYoli' Thus, fyo = -r-Yo and
"Yo" = r, that is, Yo E aB. If Yo E aB and Yo # fyo, then a = 111;011 > 1, a
contradiction to condition (i).
It is easy to see that each of (ii) and (iii) implies (i). We show that
(iv) implies (i). Suppose fx = ax for some x E aB. Then (iv) implies that
(a - 1)2 2: a 2 - 1 or that a ~ 1; that is, that (i) holds.
Lin [175] derived several known fixed point theorems as corollaries. Some
further results are also given by Lin and Yen [177].
2.2. Ky Fan Type Theorems in Hilbert Space

Let C be a closed, convex subset of a real Hilbert space H. Then for each
a t/. C there exists a unique b E C nearest to a, that is,
lIa - bll = d(a, C) = inf{lla - xii: x E C}.

78 CHAPTER 2
In this case C is a Chebyshev set and
Pc(x) = {y E C: Ilx - yll = d(x,C)}

is the best approximation operator or the proximity map on H (see Cheney
and Goldstein [49]).
Theorem 2.6 The proximity map P satisfies the following properties:
(i) (x - Px,Px - Py) ~ 0 for all X,y E H,
(ii) IIPx - Pyll ::; IIx - yll for all x, y E H, and
(iii) IIx - PxW + IIPx - yW ::; IIx - yW, x rf. c, Y E C.
Proof.
(i) For 0 ::; A ::; 1,
IIx - PxW < IIx - APy - (1 - A)PxIl 2

IIx - Px + A(PX - Py)W
IIx - Pxll 2 + A211Px - PyW + 2A(X - Px, Px - Py).
That is,
A211Px - pyll2 + 2A(X - Px, Px - Py) ~ O.
This will be violated for small A unless (x - Px, Px - Py) ~ O.
(ii) (x - Px, Px - Py) ~ 0 implies that (x, Px - Py) ~ (Px, Px - Py).
Similarly, (y- Py, Py- Px) ~ 0 implies that (y, Py- Px) ~ (Py, Py-
Px); that is, (-y, Px - Py) ~ (-Py, Px - Py).
Adding we get
(Px - Py,x - y) ~ (Px - Py,Px - Py).
This implies that

IIPx - pYIl ::; IIx - yll·
Equality holds if IIx - Pxll = lIy - Pyll·
(iii) For x E Hand y E C
IIx - Pxll 2 + IIPx - yW

< IIx - Pxll 2 + IIPx - yW + 2(x - Px, Px - y)
IIx - Px + Px _ Yll2
IIx _ Y1l2.

Note: If H is a Hilbert space, f : H --t H is a nonexpansive map and / is the
identity map, then / - f is monotone; that is, «(1 - J)x- (/ - J)y, x-y) ~ O.
Put I - 1= T. Then I = I - T.
Since I is nonexpansive, Il/x - Iyll ::; Ilx - Yl12
::; Ilx - Yl12 + IITx - Ty112.
Now 11(1 - T)x - (I - T)Y112
Ilx - y - (Tx - Ty)W

Ilx - Yl12 + IITx - Tyl12 - 2(Tx - Ty, x - y)
< Ilx - yW + IITx - Ty112, only if (Tx - Ty, x - y) :2: o.
Thus, T is monotone.
The following theorem is proved in a Hilbert space [275].
Theorem 2.7 Let H be a Hilbert space and C a closed convex subset 01
H. Let I : C -t H be a nonexpansive map with I (C) bounded. Then there
exists ayE C such that Ily - Iyll = d(fy, C).
Proof.
Let P : H -t C be the proximity map. Then PI: C -t Cis nonexpansive.
Set B = co(PI(C))(PI = Pol).
Then B is closed bounded and convex and T = PI: B -t B. By
Browder's Fixed Point Theorem, T has a fixed point. That is, Plxo = Xo
for some Xo E B.
Therefore, Ilxo - Ixoll = d(fxo, C).
We give the following.
Corollary 2.8 If C is a closed bounded convex subset of H and I : C -t H
is a nonexpansive map then there is a Yo E C such that
Ilyo - IYol1 = d(fyo, C).
The following fixed point theorems are derived as corollaries.

1. Let H be a Hilbert space and C a closed bounded convex subset of
H. Let f : C -t H be nonexpansive. Assume for any u E BC with
u = P fu that u is a fixed point of f. Then I has a fixed point [33].
Proof.
By Corollary 2.8, there exists ayE C such that Ily - Iyll = d(fy,C) .
In case Iy E C then there is nothing to prove.If Iy ¢ C, then y =
Ply E BC, so Iy = y by the hypothesis.
2. Let Br be a closed ball of radius r and centre 0 in a Hilbert space
H. Let I: Br -t H be a nonexpansive map with the property that if
Ix = ax for some x E BBn then a ::; 1. Then I has a fixed point [223].
Proof.
80 CHAPTER 2
There exists ayE Br such that Ily - fyll = d(fy, B r ). If fy ~ Br then

y = Pfy E aBr , that is,
Ilyll = r, so a = Ilfyll = Ilfyll > ~ = 1, a contradiction.

Ilyll r r
Therefore, fy E Br and f has a fixed point.

A short proof of a result established by Schoneberg is given below [247].
3. Let C be a nonempty closed bounded convex subset of H and let
f : C -+ H be a non expansive map such that for each x E ac
Ilfx - yll ~ Ilx - yll for some y E C.
Then f has a fixed point.

Proof.
There is ayE C such that
Ily - fyll = d(fy,C).
Let fy ~ C. Then y = Pfy E ac.

By hypothesis Ilfx - yll ~ Ily - xii for some x E C.
Also, Ilfy - Pfyl12 + IIPfy - xl1 2 ~ Ilfy - xW ::; Ilx - Y112.
This will be true only if Ilfy - P fyll = 0 since IIPfy - xl1 2 = Ily- x11 2.
Thus y = fy.
The following result is also due to Schone berg [247].
4. Let C be a nonempty closed, convex subset of H and let f : C -+ H
be a nonexpansive map such that there exists a bounded subset M of
C satisfying the following condition:
for all x E C there exists ayE M such that Ilfx - yll ~ Ilx - YII. Then
Proof.
Let B = co(M), the convex closure of M. By Corollary 2.8, we get a
y E B such that
Ily - fyll = d(fy, B).
If f(y) rt B, then by hypothesis there exists a Yo E M such that Ilfy-yoll ~
Ily - Yoll· But IIPfy - fYl12 + IIPfy - YoW ~ Ilfy - YoW ~ Ily - yo112; that
is, Ily - f(y)112 + Ily - yoW ~ lIy - Yo 112 implies Ily - f(y)112 ~ O. This gives
that y = fy.
5. Let C be a closed convex subset of a Hilbert space Hand f : C -+ H
a nonexpansive mapping. Let f(C) be bounded and f(aC) c C. Then
Proof.
By Theorem 2.7, there is a Yo E C such that lIyo - fyoll = d(Jyo, C).
If fyo E C, then Yo = fyo. Otherwise Yo E BC, and since f(BC) c c,
fyo E C and hence Yo = fyo.
Browder raised the following question [29].
Let C be a closed convex subset of a Banach space X, and let f : C -+ C
be a nonexpansive mapping. For any k E [0,1) and any Xo E C, the mapping
defined by
ik(x) = kf(x) + (1 - k)xo
maps C into itself and is a contraction with Lipschitz constant k. For k

sufficiently close to 1, ik is a contractive approximation of f.
By the Banach Contraction Principle there exists a unique fixed point
Xk of ik in C for any k E [0,1); that is,
It is natural to ask if the sequence {xd converges to a fixed point of f. One

cannot expect, in general, an affirmative answer to this question as there
are nonexpansive mappings which do not have fixed points.
An affirmative answer in the following setting was given by Browder
[29] and is stated next.
Theorem 2.9 Let C be a closed bounded convex subset of a Hilbert space

H and let f : C --+ C be a nonexpansive mapping. Define ik(x) = kf(x) +
(1-k)xo, where 0 < k < 1 and Xo is an arbitrary point in C. Let fkXk = Xk.
Then Xk converges to Yo, where Yo is a fixed point of f
closest to Xo.
The following result was established by Singh and Watson [274] where
f is not necessarily a self-map andC is not bounded.
Theorem 2.10 Let H be a real Hilbert space and C a closed convex subset
of H. Let f : C --+ H be a nonexpansive mapping with f(C) bounded and
f(aC) ~ C. Suppose that 0 E C. Let fk(X) = kf(x) + (1 - k)xo for some
Xo E C and 0 < k < 1, k --+ 1, and let ikXk = Xk. Then Xk converges
strongly to Yo, where Yo is the fixed point of f closest to Xo.
Proof.
The fixed point set, F(J), of f is nonempty [275] and F(J) is closed
and convex [31]. So there exists a unique closest point to Xo, say Yo = fyo.
For the sake of convenience we take Xo = O. Now,
82 CHAPTER 2
that is,
This gives
IlxkW::; l~k(Xk'YO)::; (XbYO)::; Ii xkliliYoli,

that is, Ilxkll ::; IiYoli.
Since {xd is bounded, a subsequence Xk. of {Xk}, converges weakly to
x. For the sake of convenience, write {Xi} in place of {XkJ. Then
IIXi - IXil1 Ilkdxi - IXil1
= (1 - ki)lllxill-T 0 as i -T 00.
Hence Xi - IXi -T o.
Since I - I is demiclosed [28], (I - f)x = 0; that is, Ix = x. Since
Ilxill ::; IIYoll, so Ilxll ::; IIYoll· But Yo is closest to Xo = 0, so Ilxll = IIYoll·
This implies that X = Yo, and so Xi ~ Yo weakly. Again
IlyoW ;::: II xil1 2= Ilxi - Yo + Yol12

= IIXi - YoW + IlyoW + 2(Xi - Yo, Yo).
The last part of the right side goes to 0 as i -T 00, giving Ilxi - Yoll -T o.
Thus Xi converges to Yo strongly.
Since Xi is any subsequence of Xb the sequence Xk converges strongly
to y.
Remark. In this proof, the condition that I - I is monotone is not used.
The following examples are given.
Example 1. Let I: [-1,1] -T lR. be given by I(x) = 1 - x. Then 1(-1) =
2 ¢ [-1,1], that is, I is not a self-map. But I does have a fixed point.
Example 2. Let I : [0,00) -T lR. be given by I(x) = 1/(1 + x). Then I is
a nonexpansive mapping and I(xo) = Xo = (v's - 1}/2. But [0,00) is not
bounded.
We need the following definitions [28].
Let X be a Banach space, S a nonempty subset of X, I a map of S into
X. Then I is said to be semicontractive if there exists a map V of S X S
into X such that I(x) = V(x, x) for X in S, while:
(a) for each fixed x in S, V(·,x) is nonexpansive from S to X;
(b) for each fixed x in S, V(x,.) is strongly continuous from S to X,
uniformly for u in bounded subsets of S (that is, if {Vj} converges
weakly to v in Sand {Uj} is a bounded sequence in S, then V (Uj, Vj) -
V( Uj, v) -T 0 strongly in S).
Let 5 be a nonempty closed bounded convex subset of a Banach space

X. A continuous map f : 5 ~ X is said to be a LANE map (locally
almost nonexpansive) if for given x E 5 and £ > 0, there exists a weak
neighbourhood N x of x in 5 (depending on £) such that Ilf(u) - f(v)11 ~
Ilu - vii + £ for all u and v E N x [203].
Lemma 2.11 Let 5 be a nonempty closed subset of a Banach space X,
and f a continuous 1-set contraction map of 5 into 5. 5uppose that f(5)
is bounded and (I - f)(5) is closed in X. Then f has a fixed point in 5
[176}.
The following was established by Lin and Yen [176}.
Theorem 2.12 Let 5 be a nonempty closed convex subset of a Hilbert space
X, f a continuous 1-set contraction map of 5 into X. 5uppose that either
(I - P 0 f) (5) is closed in X or (I - Po f) (cl co( Po f (5) )) is closed in X,
where P is the proximity map of X into 5. If f(5) is bounded, then there
exists a point u in 5 such that
Ilu - f(u)11 = d(J(u),5).
Proof.
Since Pis nonexpansive in a Hilbert space, therefore Po f is a continuous
I-set contraction map of 5 into 5 and also of cl co(P 0 f(5)) into cl co(P 0
f(5)). Since f(5) is bounded, Po f(5) is also bounded. By Lemma 2.11,
there exists a point u in 5 such that Po f(u) = u. Hence
Ilu - f(u) II = II P (J(u)) - f(u) II = d(J(u), 5).
Corollary 2.13 Let 5 be a nonempty closed convex subset of a Hilbert
space X, f a continuous densifying map of 5 into X. If f(5) is bounded,
then there exists a point u in 5 such that
lIu - f(u)11 = d(J(u), 5).
Proof.
Let P be the proximity map of X into 5. Since P is nonexpansive ([49])
and f is continuous densifying, P 0 f is also a continuous densifying map
of clco(P 0 f(5)) into cl co(P 0 f(5)). Also, (I - Po f)(clco(P 0 f(5))) is
closed in X. Since f is also a I-set contraction map, by Theorem 2.12 there
lIu - f(u) II = d(J(u), 5).
Corollary 2.14 Let 5 be a nonempty closed convex subset of a Hilbert
space X, and f a nonexpansive map from 5 into X. If f (5) is bounded,
lIu - f(u) II = d(J(u), 5).
84 CHAPTER 2
Proof.
Following the same proof as that of Corollary 2.13, Po f is a nonexpansive
and continuous I-set contraction map of cl co(Pof(S)) into cl co(Pof(S)).
Also, (I - Po f)(cl co(P 0 f(S))) is closed in X . By Theorem 2.12, there
Ilu - f(u)11 = d(J(u) , 8).

Now we consider some maps which are neither continuous densifying
nor nonexpansive. We prove that the above result is still true for these
maps [176].
X, f a continuous semicontractive map of S into X. If f(8) is bounded,
Ilu - f(u)11 = d(J(u),S).
Proof.
The function f is a I-set contraction map. Since f is semicontractive,
there exists a continuous map V : 8 x 8 --+ X such that f (x) = V (x, x) for
x E 8, V(·, x) is a nonexpansive map of S into X and V(x,·) is a completely
continuous map of 8 into X, uniformly for x in 8. Since the proximity map
P is nonexpansive from X to 8, it is easily seen that Po V has all the
properties which V has. Therefore P 0 f is a continuous semicontractive
(I-set contraction) map and (I - Po f)( cl co( Po f (S) )) is closed in X. By
Theorem 2.12 there exists a point u in 8 such that
Ilu - f(u)11 = d(J( u), S).

X, 9 a nonexpansive map of 8 into X, and h a strongly continuous map of
8 into X. If f = 9 + hand f (8) is bounded, then there exists a point u in
8 such that
Ilu - f(u)11 = d(J(u),S).
Proof.
Since f = 9 + h is a semicontractive map under the representation
V(u, v) = g(u) + h(v), this theorem follows from Theorem 2.15.
Theorem 2.17 Let 8 be a nonempty closed bounded convex subset of a
Hilbert space X and f a LANE map of S into X. Then there exists a point
u in S such that
Ilu - f(u) II = d(J(u), S) .
Proof.
A LANE map f is a I-set contraction map. Let P be the proximity map
of X into S. Since f is a LANE map and P is a nonexpansive map, then
Po f is also a LANE map of S into S and 1- Po f is demiclosed. Now,
we claim that (I - Po J)(S) is closed. For y E cl((I - Po f)(S)), there
exists a sequence {x n } in S such that Xn - Po f(x n ) -+ y. Since S is weakly
compact, there exists a subsequence {x n;} of {x n } such that Xnj -+ xES.
Without loss of generality we assume that Xn -+ x. By the demiclosedness
of I -Pof, x-Pof(x) = y and y E (I -Pof)(S). Therefore (I -Pof)(S)
is closed in X. By Theorem 2.12, there exists a point u in S such that
Ilu - f(u)11 = d(J(u),S).
2.3. Applications to Fixed Point Theorems

Theorem 2.18 [176] Let S be a nonempty closed convex subset of a Hilbert
space X, and f a continuous J-set contraction map of S into X. Suppose
that either (I - Po f)(S) is closed in X or (I - Po f)(cl co(P 0 f(S))) is
closed in X, where P is the proximity map of X into S. Assume f(S) is
bounded and f satisfies one of the following conditions:
(1) For each xES, there is a number>' (real or complex, depending on
whether the vector space X is real or complex) such that 1>'1 < 1 and
>.x + (1 - >.)f(x) E S.
(2) For xES with x =I: f(x), there exists y in Is(x) = {x + c(z - x): for
some z E S, some c> O} such that
Ily - f(x)11 < Ilx - f(x)ll·

(3) f is weakly inward (that is, f(x) E clIs(x) for each XES).
(4) For any u on the boundary of S if u = Po f (u), then u is a fixed point
of f·
(5) For each x on the boundary of S, Ilf(x) - yll ~ Ilx - yll for some y in
S.
Then f has a fixed point in S.
Proof.
Assume that f satisfies condition (1). By Theorem 2.12 there exists a
point u in S such that Ilu - f(u)11 = d(J(u),S). Suppose f has no fixed
point in S, then 0 < Ilu - f(u)ll. To this u, there is a number>' such that
1>'1 < 1 and >.u + (1 - >.)f(u) = xES. Therefore
o < Ilu - f(u)11 = d(J(u) , S) ~ Ilx - f(u)11
= 1>.lllu - f(u)11 < Ilu - f(u)11,
86 CHAPTER 2
which is a contradiction. Hence, f has a fixed point in S.

Assume that f satisfies condition (2). By Theorem 2.12, there exists a
point u in S such that
Ilu - f(u)11 = d(f(u), S).

If u # f(u), then there exists a y in Is(u) such that Ily- f(u)11 < Ilu- f(u)ll.
If YES, this contradicts the choice of u. Therefore y rt S and there exists a
z E S such that y = u+c(z-u) for some c > 1. That is, z = ~y+ (1- ~)u =
(1 - (3)y + f3u, where f3 = 1 - ~,O < f3 < 1. Hence
liz - f(u)1I = 11(1 - (3)y + f3u - f(u) II ~ (1- (3)lIy - f(u)11 + f3l1u - f(u) II
< (1 - (3)llu - f(u)11 + f3l1u - f(u)11 = lIu - f(u)ll,
which contradicts the choice of u. Therefore u = f(u).
Assume that f satisfies condition (3). For each xES, f(x) E clIs(x). If
x # f(x) then there exists a point y in Is(x) such that y E B(f(x), II x-{(x)II),
where B(f(x), IIx- {(x)ll) is an open ball with centre f(x) and radius IIx-{(xlII.
Therefore Ily - f(x)11 < Ilx - f(x)lI, and f satisfies condition (2). Hence f
has a fixed point in S.
Assume that f satisfies condition (4). By Theorem 2.12, there exists
a point u in S such that lIu - f(u)1I = d(f(u), S). If f(u) E S, then
d(f(u), S) = 0 and u is a fixed point of f. If f(u) ¢ S, then from IIf(u) -
Po f(u) II = d(f(u),S) = IIf(u) - ull and the uniqueness of the nearest
point, P 0 f (u) = u. This implies that u lies on the boundary of S. By
hypothesis, u is a fixed point of f.
Assume that f satisfies condition (5). Using Theorem 2.12 and following
the same proof as that of (2), f has a fixed point in S.
Remark. The conditions (1) and (2) were first considered by Fan [86] and
Browder [26] in an attempt to extend fixed point theorems to inward and
weakly inward maps. The study of inward and weakly inward maps was
initiated by Halpern and Bergman [110]. The condition (4) was considered
by Browder and Petryshyn [33]. Schoneberg [247] considered condition (5).
The above theorems in Hilbert space are further extended.
Theorem 2.19 Let S be a nonempty closed convex subset of a Hilbert space
X J and let f be either a continuous densifying map or a nonexpansive map
of S into X. If f(S) is bounded and f satisfies anyone of the five conditions
of Theorem 2.18, then f has a fixed point in S.
Proof.
Following the same proof as that of Theorem 2.12 and Theorem 2.18,
we can show that (I - Po f)( cl co(P 0 f(S))) is closed in X, where P is the
proximity map of X into S. From Theorem 2.18, f has a fixed point in S.

X, and f a continuous semicontractive map of S into X. If f(S) is bounded
and f satisfies anyone of the five conditions of Theorem 2.18, then f has
a fixed point in S.
X, g a nonexpansive map from S into X, and h a strongly continuous map
from S into X. If f = 9 + h, f(S) is bounded, and f satisfies anyone of
the five conditions of Theorem 2.18, then f has a fixed point in S.
This is just a corollary of 2.20.
Theorem 2.22 Let S be a nonempty closed bounded convex subset of a
Hilbert space X, f a LANE map of S into X. If f satisfies anyone of the
five conditions of Theorem 2.18, then f has a fixed point in S.
Proof.
As proved in Theorem 2.17, (I - Po f)(S) is closed in X, where P is
the proximity map of X into S. From Theorem 2.18, f has a fixed point in
S.
Denote Br,R = {x EX: r < IIxll < R},Br,R = {x EX: r ::; IIxll ::;
R},O<r<R.
Recently, the following is given in [261].
Theorem 2.23 Let X be an infinite dimensional Banach space, f : BR ~
X a J-set contraction mapping. Suppose that there is a 8 > 0 such that
IIf(x)1I 2: (1 + 8)lI x ll for x E {)B r ,
and that f satisfies the following condition:

(E) If {un} is any sequence in BR such that Un - f(u n ) ~ 0 as n ~ 00,
then there exists u E Br,R with u - f(u) = O.
Then there exists a u in Br,R such that
lIu - f(u)1I = d(f(u),BR) = d(f(u),Br,R).
Theorem 2.24 Let X be a Banach space, f : B R ~ X a J-set contraction

mapping. Suppose f satisfies the following condition:
(E) If {un} is any sequence in BR such that Un - f(u n ) ~ 0 as n ~ 00,
then there exists u E BR with u - f(u) = O.
Then there exists u in B R such that
lIu - f(u) II = d(f(u), BR).
The following is an application of Theorem 2.23 [261].

88 CHAPTER 2
Theorem 2.25 Suppose that X and f are the same as in Theorem 2.23.
Then f has a nonzero fixed point u in Br,R if f satisfies anyone of the
following six conditions on the outer boundary 8BR.
(i) For each x E 8BR with Ilf(x)1I > R, there exists y in IBR(x) such that
lIy - f(x)1I < IIx - f(x)ll·
(ii) f is weakly inward; that is, f(x) E IBR(x) for each x E 8BR .
(iii) x i= )..f(x), for each x E 8BR with IIf(x)1I > Rand)" E (0,1).
(iv) IIf(x) - xII i= IIf(x)lI- R, for each x E 8BR with IIf(x) II > R .
(v) For each x E 8BR, with IIf(x)1I > R, there exists (\I E (1,00) such that
IIf(x)W~ - Rex ~ IIf(x) - x II ex .
(vi) For each x E 8BR with Ilf(x)1I > R, there exists f3 E (0,1) such that
IIf(x)II" - R" ~ Ilf(x) - xII"·
In this section, we discuss recent results given on cones and spheres. A
few fixed point theorems are derived as corollaries. Several mathematicians
have proved fixed point theorems on cones in Banach spaces and have given
interesting applications in various areas.
Let X be a real Banach space. A nonempty subset K of X is called
a cone if K is closed and whenever x, y in K and a, b in JR, a :2: 0, b ~ 0,
then ax+by in K. Set Kr = {x E K: Ilxll < r}, 8Kr = {x E K: Ilxll =
r},Kr,R = {x E K : r < Ilxll < R}, and Kr ,R = {x E K: r ~ Ilxll ~ R}.
Lin gave the following [173].
Theorem 2.26 Let f be a continuous densifying map from K R --+ K.
Then there exists a u in KR such that Ilu - full = d(fu, KR)'
Proof.
Define h : K --+ B(O, R) by
X, if Ilxll ~ R
{
hx = Rx/llxll, if Ilxll:2: R .
Then h is a continuous I-set contraction. Let gx =
hfx. Since K is a
cone, we get KR = B(O, R) n K and h : K --+ B(O, R) n K. This gives
9 : K R --+ K R. Since 9 is a continuous densifying map, it has a fixed point
say y = gy, [203] . Now, for this y in KR we have
Ily - fyll Ilhfy - fyll

Ilfy - fyll = 0, if Ilfyll ~ Rand
lIy - fyll = IIRfy/(llfyll) - fyll Ilfyll- R, if Ilfyll ~ R.
For each x in KR, we get
Ilfy - yll = Ilfyll- R ~ Ilfyll- Ilxll ~ Ilfy - xii·

Hence Ily - fyll = d(Jy, KR).

Lin [173] proved several fixed point theorems. The following is given as
an illustration.
Theorem 2.27 Let f : K R -+ K be a continuous condensing map.
If for each x E K R with x i= fx there exists ayE K n h< R (x), where
h<R(X) = {x + A(Z - x) : Z E KR and A> O} such that
Ily - fxll < IIx - fxll,

then f has a fixed point.
Proof.
By Theorem 2.26, there is a u E K R such that Ilu - full = d(J u, K R). If
Ii<R(u)nK = KR, then u = fu, otherwise, there exists ayE KnIi<R = KR
such that
lIy - full < Ilu - full,
a contradiction.
Results of Ky Fan type are given here when the continuous condensing
function is defined on a sphere. A few fixed point theorems are also derived
[172].
The following notations are used.
Sr = {x EX: Ilxll = r},Br = {x EX: Ilxll ~ r},

IA(x) = {x + c(z - x)1 for some Z E A, and some c > O},
where X is a Banach space, r a positive number, and A is a subset of X.
It is clear that A c IA(x).
The following result is due to Lin [172].
Theorem 2.28 Let Sr be a sphere with center at the origin and radius r
in a Banach space X. Let f be a continuous condensing map from Sr into
X. If
Ilf(x)11 ~ r for each x E Sr,
then there exists a point u E Sr such that
Ilu - f(u)11 = d(J(u),Sr) = d(J(u),Br).
Proof.
Define
if Ilxll ~ r,
R(x) = { ~~/lIxll, if Ilxll ~
r.
90 CHAPTER 2
Then R is a continuous I-set contraction map from X onto B r • Let g(x) =

R 0 f (x). Then 9 is also a continuous condensing map. Since II f (x) II ;::: r for
each x E Sr, we have
IIg(x)1I = 11,~f(~)1I11 = r,
this implies that g(x) E Sr and 9 : Sr -+ Sr. From Massatt [184], 9 has a
fixed point in Sr, say u. Therefore
lIu - f(u) II IIg(u) - f(u) II = IIR(f(u)) - f(u)1I
= 11,~f(~)II - f(U)11 = IIf(u)1I - r.

For any x E Sr or x E B r , we have
IIf(u)1I - r ~ IIf(u)II - IIxll ::; IIf(u) - xII·
Hence
lIu - f(u) II = d(f(u),Sr) = d(f(u), B r ).
The following is due to Park [210].
Theorem 2.29 Let Sr, X, Br and f be the same as in Theorem 2.28. Then
either f has a fixed point u E Sr or there exists a point u E Sr such that
0< lIu - full = d(fu,1Br(U)) .
Proof.
By Theorem 2.28, there is au E Sr such that lIu - full = d(fu, B r ). If
IIu - full = 0, then u is a fixed point. Suppose 0 < lIu - full. Then it is
shown that
lIu - full ~ IIfu - zll for all z E IBr(U).
In fact, for z E IBr(U)\B r , there exist an x E Br and c > 1 such that
z = u + c(x - u). Suppose that lIu - full> IIfu - zll. Since
1 1
-z + (1 - -)u = x E Bn
c c
we have
1 1
IIfu - xII ~ -lifu -
c
zll + (1- -)IIfu
c
- ull < lIu - full,
which contradicts lIu - full = d(fu, B r ). Moreover, since the norm is
continuous, we have
IIu - full ~ IIfu - zll for all z E IBr(u).
The following fixed point theorem is derived from Theorem 2.29 [210].
Theorem 2.30 Let Sr, X and f be the same as in Theorem 2.29. Then f
has a fixed point whenever one of the following conditions is satisfied for
x E Sr with x =1= fx:
(i) There exists ayE I Br (x) satisfying
lIy - fxll < IIx - fxll·

(ii) There exists a number A (real or complex, depending on whether X is
real or complex) such that 1>. I < 1 and
(iii) fx E IBr(x).
(iv) there exists ayE Br satisfying
lIy - fxll < II x - fxll·
(v) limh~o+ d[(l- h)x - h(fx),Br]/h O. =

(vi) There exists a number A (as in (ii)) such that
AX + (1 - A)fx E B r .
(vii) fx E IFBr(x) = {x + c(y - x) EX: y E Br,Re(c) > D.

(viii) f(Sr) C Sr.
Proof.
(i) Suppose that f has no fixed point. Then, by Theorem 2.29, there exists
a u E Sr satisfying
0< Ilu - full = d(fu,lBr(u)).
On the other hand, there exists ayE IBr(u) satisfying
Ily - full < lIu - full,
a contradiction.
=
(ii) Let y AX + (1 - A)fx. If x =1= fx, then
Ily - fxll = IIAX - Afxll = IAllix - fxll < II x - fxll
since IAI < 1. Therefore, (ii) => (i).

(iii) For A = 0, AX + (1 - A)fx = fx E IBr(x). Hence, (iii) => (ii).
(iv) Since y E Br C IBr(x), (iv) => (i).
(v) It is well known that (iii) <=> (v).
(vi) It is clear that (vi) => (ii) .
92 CHAPTER 2
(vii) It is well known that (vii) <=> (vi).

(viii) Note that (viii) implies any of (i)-(vii).
Let R : X\ (Int Br) -T Sr be the radial retraction defined by, R( x) =
rx/llxll for x
E X\(Int Br). Then, R is a continuous I-set-contraction [203].
Another fixed point theorem for maps satisfying the so-called Leray-
Schauder boundary condition is the following [210].
Theorem 2.31 Let Sr, X and f be the same as in Theorem 2.28. Then f
has a fixed point whenever one of the following conditions is satisfied:
(ix) fx i= ax for each x E Sr and 0' > 1.
(x) IIfx - xll 2 2: IIfxl12 - r2 for each x E Sr.
(xi) IIx - fxll > IIfxll for each x E Sr, x i= fx.
Proof.
(ix) Let 9 = Ro f : Sr -T Sr. Then 9 is a continuous condensing map. From
Theorem 2.28, replacing f by g, one gets a point u E Sr such that
Ilu - gull = d(gu, Sr) = o.

Therefore,
r 1
u = gu = IIfull fu and ;lIfullu = fu.
Hence, by (ix), ~lIfull :S 1 or IIfull :S r. On the other hand, IIfull 2: r

by hypothesis of Theorem 2.28.
Therefore, Ilfull = r and hence u = gu = fu.
(x) If fx = ax in IIfx - xl1 2 2: IIfxll2 - r2, then a :S 1. Therefore, (x)
implies (ix).
(xi) Clearly (xi) => (x).
2.4. Prolla's Theorem and Extensions

In this section, Prolla's extension of Fan's best approximation theorem will
be discussed.
Recently, Prolla proved a theorem of Ky Fan type by introducing a
second function g. If 9 = I, then one gets Ky Fan's Theorem 2.1. Prolla
used fixed point theorem for muItifunctions to prove his result, and gave
applications in approximation theory. Several extensions of Prolla's theorem
have been given, and its application in fixed point theory and coincidence
theory are also given by many.
Prolla's theorem has also been studied for single valued case as well as
for multifunctions.
Prolla introduced the following definition of an almost affine mapping
in a normed linear space [227].
Definition 2.32 Let X be a normed linear space and K a nonempty convex

subset of X. A mapping 9 : K --+ X is almost affine if and only if for all
x, y E K and u E X,
IIg(AX + (1 - A)Y) - ull ~ AlIg(x) - ull + (1 - A)lIg(y) - ull

for each A with 0 < A < 1.
Using this notion of almost affinity, Prolla [227] proved
Theorem 2.33 Let K be a nonempty compact convex subset of a normed
linear space X and 9 : K --+ K a continuous, almost affine, onto mapping.
Then, for each continuous mapping f : K --+ X there exists an x E K
satisfying
IIgx - fxll = dUx, K).
Notes:
(i) If 9 = I, an identity function, then one gets Theorem 2.1.
(ii) If fx E K for all x E K then a coincidence result is obtained, that is,
there is an x E K such that fx = gx.
In order to relax compactness of K, we need the following:
Let X be a normed linear space and C a subset of X. A sequence {Yn}
in C is called a minimizing sequence for x E X if IIx - Ynll--+ d(x,C). The
set C is called approximatively compact if for all x EX, each minimizing
sequence for x has a subsequence which converges to a point of C.
If C is approximatively compact, then each x ¢ C has a nearest point
in C, that is, C is proximinal, and C is closed.
If a sequence {Yn} in C is a minimizing sequence for x E X and converges
to Y E C, then Y is a nearest point in C to x, that is, Y E Px.
If C is an approximatively compact subset of X and Px for some x E X
is a singleton, then every minimizing sequence for x converges to Px.
A compact set is approximatively compact. The converse is not true. For
example, the closed unit ball of an infinite dimensional uniformly convex
Banach space X is approximatively compact but not compact.
Theorem 2.34 A closed, convex set C in a uniformly convex Banach space
X is approximatively compact.
Proof.
Indeed, let Y E X and {yn} in C such that llYn - yll --+ d(y,C). Then
sup IIYnll < 00. Since C is closed and convex there exists a Yo E C and
Yk E C such that Yk --+ Yo. Since
Yk - Y --+ Yo - y,
94 CHAPTER 2
so
IIYa - YII ::; liminf IIYk - YII = d(y, C) ::; IIYa - Ylli
that is, IIYa - YII = d(y, C).
By the definition of {Yn} we get IIYni - YII -t d(y, C) = IIYa - YII. Since
X is a uniformly convex Banach space we get
Yni - Y -t Ya - Yi that is, Yni -t Ya E C.
If C is an approximatively compact set in X, then for each x E X
P(x) = {y E C: IIx - YII = d(x,C)}

is nonempty and the map P : X -t 2c is upper semicontinuous [267].
The following is also due to Reich [230].
Theorem 2.35 Let C be an approximatively compact convex subset of X
and let f : C -t X be a continuous function, with f(C) relatively compact.
Then there is ayE C such that lIy - fyll = d(Jy, C).
Proof.
Let P : X -t 2c denote the metric projection on C. Consider the map F
that assigns to each x E C the set Pf(x). Then F is upper semicontinuous.
Also, F(x) is nonempty compact convex subset of C for each x in C. If
f(C) is relatively compact then so is F(C) because the image of a compact
set under an upper semicontinuous mapping with compact point images is
compact. Now the result follows from Himmelberg's Theorem [119].
The following proposition is useful in the subsequent work [250].
Theorem 2.36 Let M be a nonempty approximatively compact subset of
a Banach space X and let Q : X -t 2M be the metric projection of X onto
M defined by
Q(x) = {y EM: lIy - xII = d(x, M)}.
Then (a) Q(x) i= 0 and (b)Q(A) = U{Q(x) : x E A} is compact for any
compact subset A in X.
Proof.
(a) Let x EX. Choose a sequence {yn} <;; M such that llYn-xII -t d(x, M).
Since M is approximatively compact, there exists a subsequence {YnJ
and ayE M such that Yni -t y. This implies that lIy - xII = d(x, M),
that is, y E Q(x).
(b) Let {Yn} be a sequence in Q(A). Then, there is a sequence {x n } <;; A
such that for each n, Yn E Q(x n }, that is llYn - xnll = d(xn, M). Since
A is compact, we may assume that there is an x E A with Xn -t x.
Since d(xn, M) --+ d(x, M) and
d(x, M) ~ Ilx - Ynll ~ IIx - xnll + IIxn - Ynll = IIx - xnll + d(xn' M),
it followsthat IIx - Ynll --+ d(x, M). Since {Yn} ~ Q(A) ~ M and M is
approximatively compact set, the above relation implies the existence of a
Y E M and a subsequence {YnJ of the sequence {Yn} with Ynj --+ y. This
proves that Q(A) is a compact subset of M.
The following is given in [250].
Theorem 2.37 Let M be a nonempty convex subset of a normed linear
space X and let Q : X --+ 2M be the metric projection satisfying
(a) Q(x) # 0 for each x EX,
(b) Q maps compact subsets of X onto compact subsets of M and 9 : M --+
M is a continuous, almost affine onto map such that
for any compact set D ~ M,g-l(D)is compact. (2.3)
Then for any continuous mapping f : M --+ X with f(M) relatively compact,
there exists an x E M such that
IIg(x) - f(x)II = d(J(x), M).

Proof.
Define a multifunction G : M --+ M by
G(x) = {y EM: g(y) E Q(J(x))}.
Since 9 is an onto map, it follows by condition (a) that G(x) # 0 for any
x E M. Also, since 9 is almost affine and continuous, we deduce that G(x)
is closed and convex subset for each x E M. It is shown that G is an upper
semicontinuous multifunction.
Let A be a closed subset of M and x a limit point of G-l (A). Choose a
sequence {x n } ~ G-l(A) ~ M such that Xn --+ x. Since for each n, G(x n ) n
A # 0, choose a sequence {Yn} ~ M with Yn E G(x n ) n A. This implies
that for each n,
(2.4)
Let B denote the closure of the set f(M) and D = Q(B). By condition (b),
D is a compact subset of M. If C = g-l(D), then by (2.3) C is a compact
subset of M. Further, for each n,
Hence, there exists ayE M and a subsequence {YnJ of the sequence

{Yn} with Ynj --+ y. Thus, by (2.4) IIg(y) - f(x)II = d(J(x)' M). This
96 CHAPTER 2
implies that Y E G(x) n A, that is, x E G- 1 (A). Consequently, G is an

upper semicontinuous multifunction. Since G(M) ~ C, the multifunction G
satisfies the conditions of Himmelberg's Theorem [119]. Hence there exists
an x E M with x E G(x). This implies that IIg(x) - f(x)1I = d(f(x), M).
Remark. If M is an approximatively compact set then Q satisfies conditions
(a) and (b) of Theorem 2.37.
Remark. If M is a compact subset of X in Theorem 2.37, then clearly

f(M) is compact. Further, the continuity of 9 implies that for any compact
set D,g-l(D) being closed is a compact subset of M. Thus, Theorem 2.33
is a special case of Theorem 2.37.
Remark. In case 9 = I, an identity function, and M is compact then

Theorem 2.1 of Ky Fan [86] is obtained.
Remark. In case 9 = I and M is an approximatively compact convex

subset of X, then one gets Theorem 2.35 [230].
Throughout, X stands for a normed linear space and M a nonempty
subset of X. Now the theorem due to Prolla is stated for weakly approximatively
compact sets.
The following preliminaries are needed.
Definition 2.38 A subset M of X is called approximatively weakly compact
(A We) if and only if for each y E X and sequence {x n } in M with
IIx n - YII-+ d(y,M), (2.5)
there exists an x E M and a subnet {x a } of {x n } satisfying -+ x weakly.

Xa
Note that the conditions in Definition 2.38 imply that IIx-yll = d(y, M).
Clearly, a compact set is AWC. Further, since (2.5) implies that {x n }
is bounded, it follows that any subset of an infinite dimensional reflexive
Banach space is AWC but not necessarily compact.
Theorem 2.39 Let M be a nonempty convex and AWe subset of a normed
space X and 9 : (M, W) -+ (M, W) a continuous, almost affine, onto
mapping satisfying
g-l (D) is weakly compact if D is weakly compact. (2.6)
Then for any continuous mapping f : (M, W) -+ (X, II . II) with f(M)
relatively compact in (X, II . II), there exists an x E M satisfying
IIgx - fxll = d(fx, M).

In case g = I, the identity function, we have the following.

Corollary 2.40 Let M be a convex AWe subset of X and f : (M, W) -+
(X, II . II) a continuous mapping. If f(M) is relatively compact, then for
some x E M
=
IIx - fxll dUx, M).
Remark. It may be noted that if M is a compact subset of X and f : M -+
X is a continuous mapping, then since for any closed set C in X, f- 1 (C) is
compact and hence weakly closed, it follows that f : (M, W) -+ (X, II . II)
is continuous and f(M) is compact so Theorem 2.1 is a special case of
Corollary 2.40.
Corollary 2.41 Let M be a convex, A we subset of X. Then, for each
x E X there exists ayE M with Ilx - yll = d(x, M).
Proof.
It is easy to show that an AWC subset M of X is closed. In fact, if a
sequence {x n } ~ M converges to x then
IIx n - xII -+ 0 = d(x, M).
Hence, any subset {x,,} of {x n } with x" -+ y weakly for some y E M

implies IIy - xII = 0, that is, x = Y E M . Consequently, the constant
mapping f : (M, W) -+ (X, II . II) defined by f(u) = x for all u E M is
continuous. The result now follows from Corollary 2.40.
We give a few definitions:
A multivalued map F : X -+ X (X is a metric space) is said to be
admissible if there are maps
Fi:Xi-+Xi+l, i=0,1,2, ... ,n, Xo=Xn+1=X

such that
(i) F = FnFn-l, ... ,Fo;
(ii) Fi is acyclic and upper semicontinuous for each i;
(iii) Xi are metric spaces for each i = 1,2, ... , n [226].
The following theorem will be used in the proof of Theorem 2.43 [226].
Theorem 2.42 Let C be a convex subset of a Banach space X and F :
C -+ C an admissible compact map. Then F has a fixed point.
If g : X -+ X is a single-valued function, then g is said to be proper if
g-1 (A) is compact for each compact set A eX.
The following result is due to Carbone [38].
Theorem 2.43 Let C be a nonempty convex subset of a normed linear
space X and P : X -+ 2 c the metric projection satisfying
98 CHAPTER 2
(i) P(x) = {y E C : IIx - yll :s; IIx - zil for all Z E C} is nonempty for
each x E X and
(ii) P sends compact subsets of X onto compact subsets of C.
Let 9 : C -+ C be a continuous, onto, proper and g-l (z) an acyclic subset
of C for every z E C.
Then for every continuous map f : C -+ X with f(C) relatively compact
there exists a Yo E C such that
IIgyo - fyoll = d(Jyo, C).

Note.
1. In case C is an approximately compact set, then conditions (i) and (ii)
are satisfied by P.
2. In case C is a compact convex set, then the condition that f(C) is
relatively compact is not required since the continuous image of a
compact set is compact.
The proof is on the same lines as in [41].
Proof.
Define a multivalued map F : C -+ C by
Fx = {y E C : gy E P(J(x))}.
Since 9 is an onto map for each x E C, Fx # 0. Moreover, F(x) is closed

and acyclic (see [41]). We show that F is upper semicontinuous.
Indeed, if B is a closed subset of C and z is a limit point of F- 1 (B),
then for each n, F(zn) n B # 0 we have {Yn} ~ C with Yn E F(zn) n B.
Then for each n,
IlgYn - fZnl1 = d(Jzn, C). (2.7)
Let A = f(C) and D = P(A). By (ii) D is a compact subset of C. Since 9

is a proper map proper map g-l(D) is a compact subset of C.
Now, for each n,
Consequently, there exists ayE C and a subsequence {YnJ of {Yn} such

that Ynj -+ y. By (2.7), we get that Ilg(y) - f(z)11 = d(Jz, C). This gives
that Y E F(z) n B, that is, z E F- 1 (B) and F is an upper semicontinuous
multifunction.
Now, the map F = g-l o Pof: C -+ C is an admissible map. Since f(C)
is relatively compact, therefore F(C) = g-l(p(J(C))) is also relatively
compact because the image of a compact set under upper semicontinuous

map with compact values is compact.
Then F satisfies conditions of Theorem 2.42 and has a fixed point, say
Yo E F(yo) . This implies that
IIgyo - fyoll = d(Jyo, C).

An almost affine map satisfies the condition that g-l(z) is an acyclic
set for each z E C. As a consequence we have the following [250].
Corollary 2.44 Let C be a nonempty convex subset of a normed linear
space X and P : X -+ 2c the metric projection satisfying (i) and (ii) of
Theorem 2.43. Let 9 : C -+ C be a continuous, onto, almost affine and
proper map. Then for each continuous map f : C -+ X with f(C) relatively
compact, there exists a Yo E C such that
IIgyo - fYol! = d(Jyo, C).
In case C is an approximately compact set, then conditions (i) and (ii)

are satisfied and we have the following [41].
Corollary 2.45 Let C be an approximatively compact convex set of a normed
linear space X, let 9 : C -+ C be continuous, onto, proper, and let g-l(Z) be
an acyclic subset of C for every z E C. Then for each continuous function
f : C -+ X with f(C) relatively compact there exists an Xo E C such that
IIgxo - fxoll = d(Jxo, C).
2.5. Ky Fan's Best Approximation Theorem for Multifunctions

The best approximation theorem due to Ky Fan has been proved for multifunctions
and several well known fixed point theorems are derived as corollaries.
Recently, Ky Fan type best approximation theorems and several fixed point
theorems for continuous multifunctions defined on noncompact convex subsets
of a topological vector space having sufficiently many linear functionals have
been given by a few. Results are also given where main feature is that the
domain and range of the multifunctions may have different topologies. Such
idea was used by Sehgal and Singh [251] [254], Roux and Singh [239], Park
[213], Ding and Tan [62] [63], and others. Most of the proofs given in this
section depend on fixed point theorems for multifunctions given by Ky Fan
[86] and Himmelberg [119].
Several interesting results on fixed point theorems for multivalued mappings
have been given by Reich [231, 232].
The following is given in [231] .
100 CHAPTER 2
Theorem 2.46 Let C be a compact convex subset of a locally convex Hausdorff

topological vector space E. If F : C -+ 2E is a continuous point-compact
point-convex map and p is a continuous seminorm on E, then there exists
ayE C such that
(2.8)
Recall that
dp(A, B) = inf{p(a - b) : a E A and bE B}.
Proof.
Define for each x E C, Qp(x) = {y E C : dp(Y, Fx) = dp(Fx, C)}. Since
F is continuous so Qp is upper semicontinuous. Since Qp(x) is nonempty
convex and closed, therefore, Qp has a fixed point by Fan's fixed point
theorem. That is, there is a point x in C such that dp(x,Fx) = dp(Fx,C).
Waters [303] gave the following for uniformly convex Banach space. We
use the following facts.
Note. Suppose that C is a closed subset of a uniformly convex Banach space
X, F : C -+ 2x is a compact valued multifunction and that a sequence {x n }
in C converges to x E C.
1. If F is upper semicontinuous, then there exists a subsequence {xnJ
such that d(Fx,C) ~ limid(Fxn.,C).
2. If F is lower semicontinuous, then there is a subsequence {x nj } such
that limjd(Fxnj'C) ~ d(Fx,C).
3. If F is continuous, then d(Fx, C) = limnd(Fxn,C),
Theorem 2.47 Let C be a closed and convex subset of a uniformly convex
Banach space X and F : C -+ K(X) a continuous multifunction. (K(X)
stands for the compact and convex subsets of X). If F( C) is compact, then
there exists an x E C such that d(x, F(x)) = d(F(x),C).
Furthermore, if d(x, F(x)) > 0 then x E BC [303].
Proof.
Define G : C -+ 2c by
G(x) = {P(y) : y E F(x) and IIP(y) - yll = d(F(x),C)},
P is the metric projection on C.

Then G is an upper semicontinuous multifunction with compact and
convex values and cl(G(C)) is compact. Since P is continuous and F(x) is
compact for each x E C, it follows by definition that G(x) is compact. Also,
since PF(C) is compact, and G(C) c PF(C) , clG(C) is compact. We show
that G(x) is convex for each x E C. Let). E [0,1]' and let YI, Y2 E F(x) so
that PYI and PY2 are in G(x). Then
d(Fx, C) < /I).YI + (1 - ).)Y2 - ),PYI - (1 - ),)PY2/1

< )./lYI - PYIII + (1 - ).)IIY2 - PY211
d(Fx,C).
Hence, (1 - ),)PY2 + ),PYI E G(x). Thus G(x) is convex.

It is shown that G is upper semicontinuous. It suffices to show that
G-I(A) is a closed set for each closed set A C C. Let {x n } C G- 1 (A) and
Xn -t x. Then by definition GX n n A =I 0 for each n. Let Yn E FX n so
that PYn E G(x n ) n A. Since F(C) is compact and Yn E F(C), we may
assume without loss of generality that Yn -t Y E F(C). Since F is upper
semicontinuous, therefore, Y E F(x).
Now
/ly - P(y)/I = lim /lYn - pYnll = limd(F(xn), C) = d(F(x), C).

n
These equalities imply that P(y) E G(x). Also, since P(Yn) E A and A
is closed, P(y) E A. This shows that G(x) n A =I 0,
and G is upper semicontinuous.
Let D = coG(C). Since cl G(C) is compact and X is complete, D is a
compact subset of C. Further G : D -t 2D is a point compact and convex
upper semicontinuous multifunction. So there exists an xED such that
x E G(x) (Ky Fan's Theorem). This implies that for some Y E F(x), P(y) =
x and that
IIP(y) - yll = d(F(x),C).
Hence,
d(F(x),C) ~ d(Fx, x) ~ lIy - x/l = /ly - P(y)/I = d(F(x),C).
Therefore, d(Fx, C) = d(Fx,x).

Suppose that d(Fx, C) = d(x, Fx) > 0 and x E int(C), then we may
choose Y E F(x) such that IIY - xII = d(Fx,x). Since C is convex, there
exists Z E (x, y) n C, where (x, y) is the open line segment between x and
y. Then
d(Fx, C) ~ /lz - y/I < /Ix - yii = d(Fx,x) = d(Fx,C),

a contradiction. Hence x E f}C.
The following results are due to Waters [63].
102 CHAPTER 2
1. Let C be a closed and convex subset of a uniformly convex Banach

space X and F : C -+ K(X) a continuous multifunction. If F(C) is
compact then either F has a fixed point or there exists an x E ac with
d(x, Fx) = d(C, Fx).
2. Suppose that in 1, in addition, we have F(x) n C =1= 0 for each x E C,
then F has a fixed point.
The following result due to Reich [227] is used to prove the theorem due
to Waters [303].
Theorem 2.48 Let C be a closed bounded convex subset of a Banach space
X. If F : C -+ 2c is an upper semicontinuous condensing point compact,
point convex set-valued mapping, then F has a fixed point.
The following result due to Waters [303] is in Hilbert space. In this case,
F is a continuous densifying multifunction.
Theorem 2.49 Let C be a nonempty closed and convex subset of a Hilbert
space H. If F : C -+ 2H is a continuous densifying point compact and
convex multifunction with bounded range. Then there exists an x E C such
that
d(x, F(x)) = d(C, F(x)).
Proof.
Define G : C -+ 2c by
G(x) = {P(y) : y E F(x) and IIP(y) - yll = d(C, F(x)}.
The function G is an upper semicontinuous multifunction with compact
and convex values follows on the lines of Theorem 2.47. It is shown that G
is densifying.
Let B be a nonempty bounded set in C with a(B) > O. Since F is
densifying aF(B) < a(B).
Let AI'.'.' An be subsets of H each with positive diameter less than
l > 0 such that F(B) C UZ~lAi. We have a(PAd ::; a(Ai),i = 1, ... ,n
since P is nonexpansive.
Also,
aG(B) ::; aPF(B) ::; aF(B) < a(B) since G(B) C PF(B).
Therefore, G is densifying. By Theorem 2.48 there exists an x E C such
that x E G (x). Hence, there exists ayE F (x) so that
d(x, F(x)) = lIy - xII = d(F(x), C).

The following is a multivalued analogue of a result of Lin [175]. This is
given for a convex subset of a locally convex separated topological vector
space [252].
Theorem 2.50 Let C be a subset of a locally convex separated topological

vector space
X, with int (C) i: 0 and cl (C) convex and quasi-complete. Let F :
C -+ 2 x be a continuous densifying multifunction with convex, compact
values and with bounded range. Then for each w E int (C) there exists an
x E cl (C) such that
dp(F(x) - x) = dp(F(x) - cl(C)) (2.9)
where p = p(w) E P.
The following results are needed in the proof of the theorem.
Lemma 2.51 Let f : X -+ Y be an upper semicontinuous multifunction
with compact values and let {XCI' : a E a} be a net in X such that XCI' -+ x.
If YCl' E f(xCl') for each a E r, then there exists ayE F(x) and a subnet
{Y.e} of the net {YCl' : a E r} with Y.e -+ y.
Let E denote a locally convex separated topological vector space and U
be a base of absolute convex neighbourhoods of the origin. A subset X of
E is totally bounded if and only if for each U E U, there exists a finite set
F in X such that X ~ F + U. For a subset A in E, let
M(A) = {U EU :A ~ B + U for some totally bounded subsets B of E}.
Note that for A ~ E, M(co(A)) = M(A), where co(A) denotes the convex
hull of A.
Let G ~ E . A multifunction F : G -+ E is condensing if for each
bounded but not totally bounded subset B of G, M(G) ~ M(f(B)) but
M(B) i: M(f(B)).
Let cc(E) denote the family of nonempty convex and compact subsets
of E. A closed subset S of E is quasi-complete if its closed bounded subsets
are complete.
The following is a special case of Reich [232] and is used in the subsequent
work.
Theorem 2.52 Let X be a convex, quasi-complete subset of E and F :
X -+ cc(E) an upper semicontinuous condensing multifunction. If F(X) is
bounded and F(x) n Xi: 0 for each x E X, then F has a fixed point.
For G ~ E with cl(G) convex and int (G) i: 0, let lP = {p = p(w) : p is
the Minkowski's functional of ( cl( G) - w E int( G) }.
The following lemma simplifies the proof of the theorem.
Lemma 2.53 Let G be a closed subset of E and F : G -+ cc(E) be a
continuous multifunction. If a net {XCI'} -+ x in G, then for any continuous
seminorm p on E and w in E, there exists a subnet {XCI'} with dp(F(xCl')-
w) -+ dp(F(x) - w).
104 CHAPTER 2
Proof.
Choose Yo: E F(xo:) and Y E F(x) such that dp(Yo:-w) = dp(F(xo:)-w)
and p(y - w) = dp(F(x) - w). By Lemma 2.51, there exists a z E F(x) and
a subnet {Yj3} of the net {Yo:} with Yj3 -t z. Let E > 0 and U = {u E E :
p(u - w) < p(y - w) + E}. Then, U is open and Y E F(x) n U. Consequently,
since F is lower semicontinuous, there is a neighbourhood V of x such that
F(v)nU /; 0 for each v E GnV. Since xj3 -t x, it follows that F(xj3)nU /;
o eventually. Thus, if zj3 E F(xj3) n U, then p(z{3 - w) < p(y - w) + E.
Further, zj3 E F(xj3) impliesthatp(Y{3-w) ~p(z{3-w) ~p(Y-W)+E and
hence p(z - w) ~ p(y - w) + E. This yields p(z - w) = p(y - w), that is,
dp(Fxj3 - w) -t p(z - w) = dp(Fx - w).
Proof of Theorem.
Let w E int(C) and p = p(w) E Jr. Define a mapping 1 : cl(C) -t [0,1]
by
l(x) = (max{l,dp(F(x) - wn)-l.
Note that for any x in cl(C) , 0 < l(x) ~ 1 and l(x)dp(Fx - w) ~ 1. Let
9 : cl(C) -t cc(E) be defined by
g(x) = {z E F(x) : p(z - w) = dp(F(x) - wn.
Clearly, g(x) is a nonempty convex compact subset of F(x). Define a

multifunction h : cl(G) -t cc(E) by
h(x) = l(x)g(x) + (1 -l(x))w.
Then h(x) is a nonempty convex and compact subset of E and since g(x) ~
F(x), it follows that h is condensing with bounded range. Furthermore, the
last expression implies that Z E h(x) n cl(G) for any Z E g(x). The set-
valued map h is, in fact, upper semicontinuous; that is, h- 1 (A) is closed
for any closed set A in E. Indeed, let a net {xo:} ~ h-1(A) be such that
Xo: -t x E cl(G). Since h(xo:) n A/; 0, there exists for each 0:', a Yo: E g(xo:)
satisfying
(2.10)
Now by Lemma 2.51, there exists a subnet {Yj3} and ayE F(x) with
Yj3 -t y. By Lemma 2.53, we may assume that p(Y{3-w) = dp(F(x{3) -w) -t
dp(Fx - w). This implies that dp(Y - w) = dp(F(x) - w), that is, y E g(x).
Further, since l(xo:) -t l(x), it follows by (2.10) that h(x) n A/; 0, that is,
x E h-1(A). Thus, h satisfies the conditions of Theorem 2.52. Consequently,
there is a u E cl(G) with u E h(u). This implies that
u E (l(u)g(u) + (1 -l(u))w). (2.11)

We consider two cases: (i) dp(F(u) - w) ::; 1 and (ii) dp(F(u) - w) > 1. If
dp(F(u) - w) ::; 1, then l(u) = 1, and hence, u E g(u) ~ F(u), and in this
case, dp(u - Fu) = dp(F(u) - cl(G)) = O.
If dp(F(u) - w) > 1, then l(u)dp(F(u) - w) = 1. Choose a z E g( u) with
u = l(u)z + (1 -l(u))w. Then z - u = (1 -l(u))(z - w) and
dp(F(u)-u)::; dp(z-u) = (l-l(u))dp(F(u)-w) = p(f(u)-w)-1. (2.12)
Thus, for any v E F(u) and x E cl(C),
dp(F(u) - u) ::; p(v - w) - 1 ::; p(v - x) + (p(x - w) - 1).

Since for x E cl(C), dp(x - w) ::; 1, it follows by the above inequality that
dp(F(u) - u) ::; p(v - x) for all v E F(u) and x E cl(C). This implies that
dp(F(u) - u) ::; dp(F(u) - cl(C)). Since u E cl(C), we have dp(F(u) - u) =
dp(F(u) - cl(C)). Thus, (2.9) holds in case (ii) also. Furthermore, in this
case, since p(u - w) = l(u)p(z - w) = l(u)dp(F(u) - w) = 1, it follows that
u E o(cl(C)).
A multivalued analogue of Ky Fan's theorem is given as follows [251].
Theorem 2.54 Let E be a locally convex Hausdorff topological vector space
and K a nonempty approximatively p-compact convex subset of E. If F :
K -+ E is a continuous multifunction with nonempty closed convex values
and F(K) is relatively compact, then there exists an x E K such that
dp(x, F(x)) = dp(F(x), K).
Further, if dp(x, Fx) > 0 then x E oK.
Proof.
Define a mapping G : K -t 2K by
G(x) = U{Q(y):y E Fx,dp(Fx,K) = dp(y,K)},

where Q is the metric projection onto K.
Note that since Fx is compact, G(x) =1= 0.
Further, since Fx is convex, it follows that Gx is also convex, In fact, if
u and v are in Gx, then there exist elements YI and Y2 in Fx such that u
in FYI and v in FY2 and p(YI-U) = dp(YI,K) = dp(Fx,K) = dp(Y2,K) =
p(Y2 - v).
Let t E [0,1], w = tu+(I-t)v and Y3 = tYI +(I-t)Y2. Then w E K, Y3 in
Fx and dp(Y3,K) ~ p(Y3-W) ::; tp(YI-u)+(I-t)p(Y2-V) = dp(Fx,K) ~
dp(Y3,K).
This implies that dp(Y3, K) = P(Y3 - w) = dp(Fx, K).
Consequently, it follows that for any t E [0, 1],
106 CHAPTER 2
that is, Gx is convex.

Also, since for each x E K
Gx = QFx n {y E Fx : dp(Fx, K) = dp(Y, K)},

and Q is an upper semicontinuous function, it follows that Gx is a closed,
in fact, compact subset of K. The function G is an upper semicontinuous
multifunction. Indeed, we show that G- 1 (A) is closed for any closed subset
A of K. Let {xo,} ~ G-1(A) be a net such that Xa -+ Xo E K. Since
G(xa) n A =/: 0, choose for each a, Za E GX a n A. It then follows from the
definition of G that for each a, there is a Ya E Fx a , with dp(Fxa, K) =
dp(Ya,K) and Za E Q(Ya). Since cl(FK) is compact and {Ya} ~ FK,
without loss of generality, we may assume that Ya -+ Yo E E. Further,
F being upper semicontinuous, it follows that Yo E Fxo. Also, since Q is
upper semicontinuous, Q(cl(FK)) is compact and since for each a, Za E
Q(Ya) ~ Q(Fxa) ~ Q(cl(F K)), we may again assume Za -+ Zo E Q(yo).
Now, dp(Ya, K) -+ dp(Yo, K) and since under the hypothesis of Theorem
2.54, the mapping 9 : K -+ R (reals) defined by
g(x) = dp(Fx, K)
is continuous, dp(Fxa, K) -+ dp(Fxo, K). This implies that dp(Yo, K)

dp(Fxo, K) and that Zo E G(xo) n A; that is, Xo E G-l(A). Thus, G is
upper semicontinuous. It now follows by a theorem of Himmelberg [119]
that there is an x E K with x E G(x). This implies that for some Y E Fx
with dp(Fx, K) = dp(Y, K), x E Q(y). Now, since dp(x, Fx) ::; p(x - y) =
dp(Y, K) = dp(Fx, K) ::; dp(x, Fx), we have dp(x, Fx) = dp(Fx, K).
If dp(x, Fx) > 0 then Fx n K = <p. Choose a point Y E Fx such that
dp(x, Fx) = p(x - y). If x is an interior point of K, then the convexity of
K implies the existence of a Z E oK such that p(z - y) < dp(x, Fx). This
implies that dp(Fx, K) ::; p(z- y) < dp(x, Fx) giving a contradiction. Thus
x E oK.
The following simple example is due to Waters [303] and shows that
even in the special case of uniformly convex Banach space X, continuity of
F cannot be replaced by upper semicontinuity alone.
Example. Let X E ]R2 with the Euclidean norm and let K = [0,1] x {O}.
Clearly K is convex and compact.
Define F : K -+ 2x by
F(
a,
O)-{
-
(0,1), ifa=/:O
L = the line segment [(0,1), (1,0)], if a = O.
F is a convex and compact valued multifunction. Then for any A ~ X,
0, if An L =0
F-1(A) ={ K, if (0,1) E A
(0,0), if (0,1)~A,AnL#0.
Thus, F is an upper semicontinuous but not a lower semicontinuous multifunction

and FK is compact.
However, for any (a,O),
d((a, 0), F(a, 0)) > 1 d(F(a, 0), K) if a # °

V; # d(F(O,O),K) = °
if a = 0.
Thus, the conclusion of Theorem 2.54 is not satisfied.
Recently, Beer and Pai [12] extended Theorem 2.54 for sets that are not
necessarily approximatively p-compact.
A convex space C is a nonempty convex set in a vector space X with
any topology that induces the Euclidean topology on the convex hulls of
its finite subsets [163]. Such convex hulls are called polytopes. Here X and
Yare topological spaces.
A set K C X is called a-compact if K is countable union of compact
sets. A nonempty topological space is acyclic if all of its reduced Cech
homology groups over rationals vanish [222].
For a given class lL of multifunctions from X to 2Y denote
L(X, Y) = {T: X -+ 2Y IT E L}j
Lc = {T = T mTm-l, ... , TIITi E L}.

Using the above notation, we have the following definitions.
(1) We say that F is a Kakutani map, and write F E K(X, Y), if Y is a
convex space and F is upper semicontinuous with nonempty compact
convex values.
(2) F is an acyclic map, written F E V(X, Y) if F is upper semicontinuous
with compact acyclic values.
(3) FE K+(X, Y) (resp. V+(X, Y)) if, for any a-compact subset K of X
there is arE K(K, Y)(V(K, Y)) such that rx c Fx for each x E K.
(4) FE K;(X, Y) (resp. V/(X, Y)) if, for any a-compact subset K of X
there is arE Kc(K, Y)(Vc(K, Y)) such that rx c Fx for each x E K.
It is known that K; contains Kc and K. Moreover, it is clear that ~+
includes Vc and K;.
108 CHAPTER 2
Lemma 2.55 Let X be a nonempty convex subset of a locally convex Hausdorff

topological vector space E and F E v::+ (X, X) . If F is compact, then F has
a fixed point [222j.
Theorem 2.56 Let C be a nonempty approximativeiy p-compact convex
subset 01 a locally convex Hausdorff topological vector space E, and let F E
V c+ (C, E) be a compact multifunction. Then for each continuous seminorm
p on E there exists an (xo, Yo) E F such that
p(xo - Yo) ~ p(x - Yo) for all x E Ic(xo). (2.13)

Proof.
Consider the metric projection Qp : E -+ 2c . Clearly, Qp (x) is nonem pty
compact and convex for every x E E, and Qp is an upper semicontinuous
multifunction . Hence, Qp E K(E,C) c V/(E,C). Since it is clear that
V/ is closed under composition, we have QpF E V::+(C,C) and QpF is
compact. Therefore, by Lemma 2.55, QpF has a fixed point. That is, there
is a Yo E Fxo such that
Xo E Qpyo = {x E C : p(yO - x) = dp(Yo,C)}.

For a continuous multifunction F : C -+ 2E Theorem 2.54 holds, where
one cannot dispense with the condition that F is lower semicontinuous.
However, in Theorem 2.56, it is not needed that F be lower semicontinuous,
only upper semicontinuity serves the purpose. The following example illustrates
the fact .
Example. Take E = R,2 and C = [0,1] x {O}. Suppose F E V(C,E) is
given by
F(a,O) = { (0,1),
[(0,1), (1,0)] U [(-1,0), (0, 1)],
if a =I°
if a = 0.
where [A, B] stands for the closed line segment joining points A and B in the
plane. Then F is not lower semicontinuous but Xo = (0,0) and Yo = (~, ~)
satisfy the conclusion of Theorem 2.56.
Browder proved the following extension of Schauder's fixed point theorem
[25]. It may be remarked that the sharpness of Browder's theorem stems
from p being a continuous convex map on K x E instead of being continuous
seminorm on E.
Theorem 2.57 Let K be a compact convex subset of a locally convex Hausdorff
topological vector space E and let I : K -+ E be a continuous map. Suppose
that p : K x E -+ [0,00) is a continuous convex map that satisfies the
condition: for each x =I lx, there exists ayE IK(X) with p(x , Ix - y) <
p(x, Ix - x) . Then I has a fixed point.
Here a result on the best approximation for a continuous multifunction

is proved that contains Browder's theorem and also provides extensions to
some other known results [254].
Let K be a convex subset of a locally convex Hausdorff topological
vector space E,p : K X E ---t [0,(0) a convex map, and F : K ---t E a
multifunction such that for each x E K, Fx is a nonempty compact convex
subset of E. Note that if p is a seminorm on E, then p(x, y) = p(y) is a
convex map. Recall that if f : C ---t JR, where C is a convex set, then f is a
convex map provided that for all x, y E C
f(ax + (3y) :S af(x) + (3f(y) , a,{3 ~ and a + {3 = 1.
A mapping 9 : K ---t K is (p - F) almost affine if and only if for each
x, u, v in K,O :S t :S 1
1. p(x,Fx-g(tu+(I-t)v)):s max{p(x, Fx-gu),p(x, Fx-gv)}, (where
for arbitrary subsets A and B of E, p(x, A - B) = inf{p(x, a - b) :
a E A,b E B}.)
Note that if 9 satisfies the condition: for any z E Fx,
2. p(x, z - g(tu + (1 - t)v)) :S p(x, z - (tgu+ (1 - t)gv)), then 9 is (p - F)
almost affine.
In fact, if Zt, Z2 E Fx, then since Fx is convex,
p(x, Fx - g(tu + (1 - t)v)) :S p(x, tZl + (1 - t)Z2 - (tgu + (1 - t)gv))
:S tp(x, Zl - gu) + (1 - t)p(x, Zz - gv).
Since ZI, Zz are arbitrary elements of Fx, the above inequality yields
p(x, Fx - g(tu + (1 - t)v) :S tp(x, Fx - gu) + (1 - t)p(x, Fx - gv)
:S max{p(x, Fx - gu),p(x, Fx - gv)}.
Thus, 9 is a (p - F) almost affine map. In particular, it follows that
if 9 is the identity map of K then 9 is (p - F) almost affine for each
multifunction F. It may also be remarked that if p is a semi norm on
E and 9 : K ---t K is almost affine in the sense of Prolla [227], that
is, p(z - g(tu + (1 - t)v)) :S tp(z - gu) + (1 - t)p(z - gv) for each
z E E, u, v E K,O :S t :S 1, then 9 is a (p - f) almost affine for any
single valued map f: K ---t E.
The following result is an extension of Browder's Theorem [26].
Theorem 2.58 Let K be a compact convex subset of E, F : K ---t cc(E)
a continuous multifunction and p : K X E ---t [0, (0) a continuous convex
map. Then for any continuous, onto, (p - F) almost affine map 9 : K ---t K
there exists a u E K that satisfies
p(u, Fu - gu) = p(u, Fu - K) = p(u, Fu - cl(IKgU)). (2.14)
110 CHAPTER 2
Consider the following simple consequence.

Corollary 2.59 Under the hypotheses of Theorem 2.58, if for each x E K
with g(x) ¢ Fx, there exists ayE cl(IKgx) that satisfies p(x, Fx - y) <
p(x, Fx - gx), then gu E Fu for the u as in Theorem 2.58.
Note that Corollary 2.59 contains Browder's Theorem. In the special
case when E is a normed space, Theorem 2.58 yields an extension of a
recent result of Prolla [227].
If we take p a continuous semi norm and 9 = I, an identity function,
then we get a result similar to Reich [232]. We have taken a continuous
multivalued function whereas Reich [232] considers upper semicontinuous
multifunctions.
Corollary 2.60 Let K be a compact convex subset of a normed vector space
E and f : K --t E a continuous map. If 9 : K --t K is a continuous onto
map that satisfies
IIfz - g(tx + (1 - t)y)1I ~ max{llfz - gxl\, IIfz - gyll}
for each z, x, y E K, 0 ~ t ~ 1, then there exists au E K with
IIfu - gull = min{IIfu - xII : x E K} = min{IIfu - xII : x E cl(IKgU)}.
For a continuous seminorm p on E and 9 and f as before, 9 is (p - J)

almost affine if and only if 9 is (p - f) almost affine. In that case we have:
Corollary 2.61 Let K be a compact convex subset of E and F : K --t
cc( E) a continuous multifunction. Let 9 : K --t K be a continuous, onto
and (p - F) almost affine for each continuous seminorm p on E. Then,
either
(i) there exists a u E K with gu E Fu, or
(ii) there exists a continuous seminorm p on E and a u E K with
gu E oK and 0 < dp(Fu - gu) = min{dp(Fu - x) : x E cl(IKgU)}.
In particular, if Fx n cl(IKgX) =1= 0 for each x E K, then (i) holds.

Proof.
The proof of this corollary is rather standard. In fact, if Jr denotes
the family of continuous seminorms on E, then by Theorem 2.58, for each
p E lP, thereexistsaup E Ksuch thatdp(Fup-gup) = dp(Fup-cl(IKgup)).
If for some p, dp(Fup - gup) > 0 then gup E oK because, otherwise, gup E
int(K) and this implies IK(gup) = E and hence dp(Fup - gup) = 0, a
contradiction. Thus, in this case (ii) holds. Suppose then, dp(Fup - gup) = 0
for each p E Jr. Set Ap = {u E K : dp(Fu - gu) = OJ. Since F is upper
semicontinuous and compact-valued, it follows that Ap is a nonempty closed
subset of K. Furthermore, the family Ap has the finite intersection property.

Consequently, there is a u E K with dp(Fu -' gu) = 0 for each p E Jr. Since
Fu is compact and E is Hausdorff, it follows that gu E Fu. Thus, (i) holds.
The lemma given below simplify the proof of Theorem 2.58.
Lemma 2.62 Let K be a nonempty subset of a topological vector space E
and F : K --t 2E a lower semicontinuous multifunction. Let p : K x E --t
[0,00) be a continuous map. Let x E K and let {xa : a E /::,} be a net
in K such that Xa --t x. Then, for each Z E Fx, y E E and € > 0, there
exists a j3 E /::, and a net {za : Za E Fx a , a 2': j3} such that p(xa, Za - y) ::;
p(x, Z - y) + € for all a 2': j3.
Proof.
Since p is continuous, it follows that for (x, Z - y) E K x E and € > 0
there exists a neighbourhood U of the origin such that for any v E (U +
x) n K, and wE U + (z - V),
p(v, w) ::; p(x, Z - y) +L (2.15)
Since, F is lower semicontinuous and Z E Fx n (U + z), there exists a

neighbourhood V of the origin with V ~ U and Ft n (U + z) i= 0 for each
t E (V +x)nK. Choose a j3 E .6 such that Xa E (V +x)nK for a 2': j3. Then,
fX a n (U + z) i= 0 for a 2': j3. Choose for each a 2': j3 a Za E fXa n (U + z).
Then,
Za - Y = (za - z) + (z - y) E U + (z - y)
and by (2.15), for a 2': j3, p(XC>I Za - y) ::; p(x, Z - y) + L
The following Lemma is an important result due to Browder [26].
Lemma 2.63 Let K be a compact convex subset of a topological vector
space E and F : K --t 2K a multifunction such that for each x E K, Fx
is nonempty and convex. If for each y E K, F-1y = {x E K : y E Fx} is
open, then F has a fixed point, that is, for some u E K, u E Fu. (Proof is
given in Chapter 3.)
Proof of Theorem 2.58.
To prove the first equality in (2.14), it suffices to prove the existence
of a u in K with
p(u, Fu - gu) ::; p(u,Fu - K). (2.16)
We prove this by contradiction. Suppose for each x E K,
p(x, Fx - K) < p(x, Fx - gx). (2.17)
Since 9 is an onto map, the supposition implies that for each x E K there
is ayE K such that p(x, Fx - gy) < p(x, Fx - gx).
112 CHAPTER 2
Define a mapping 0 : K -+ 2K by
0(x) = {y E K : p(x, Fx - gy) < p(x, Fx - gx)}.
Then 0(x) is nonempty and since 9 is a (p - F) almost affine map, 0(x) is
convex for each x E K. We show that for each y E K,0- 1 (y) is an open
subset of K. To prove this, let {xa : 0' E 6} be a net in the complementary
set K\0- 1 (y) such that for some x E K, Xa -+ x. This implies that for each
O'E 6,
(2.18)
Choose for each 0', a Wa E FXa such that p(xa, Wa - gXa) = p(xa, FXa -
gXa). Since F(K) is compact, it follows that {w a } has a subnet converging
to some W E Fx. We may assume that Wa -+ w. Hence p(xa, Wa - gXa) -+
p(x,w - gx). Let Z E Fx be arbitrary and i > O. By Lemma 2.62, there is
a net {za : Za E Fx a , 0' ~ ,8} such that p(xa, Za - gy) ~ p(x, Z - gy) + i.
Consequently by (2.18)
p(xa, Wa - gXa) = p(xa, FXa - gXa) ~ p(xa, FXa - gy) ~ p(x, Z - gy)+ E .
The above inequalities imply that,
p(X, Fx - gx) ~ p(x, W - gx) ~ p(x, Z - gy)+ E .

Since Z E Fx and E> 0 are both arbitrary, it follows from the above
that p(x,Fx - gx) ~ p(x,Fx - gy), that is x E K\0- 1 (y) and hence
0- 1 (y) is an open subset of K . Thus, 0 satisfies the conditions of Lemma
2.63. Consequently, for some v E K, v E 0(v), that is, p(v, Fv - gv) <
p(v,Fv - gv). This is impossible, invalidating our supposition in (2.17).
Consequently, there is a u E K with p(u,Fu - gu) ~ p(u,Fu - K). This
proves the first equality in (2.14). To prove the second half of the equality
in (2.14), let Z E IK(gU)\K. Then, there is ayE K and r > 1 with
y = ~z + (1 - ~ )gu. Since Fu is convex, it follows by the first equality in
(2.14) that
1 1
p(u, Fu - gu) ~ p(u, Fu - y) ~ -p(u, Fu - z) + (1 - - )p(u, Fu - gu).
r r
That is, p(u, Fu-gu) ~ p(u, Fu-z) for each Z E IK(9U)\K and consequently
for each Z E IK(gU),
p(u,Fu-gu) ~p(u,Fu-z). (2.19)
Now, suppose Z E cl{IK(gU)). Choose a net {za} in IK(gU) such that Za -+

z. Hence, by (2.19), for arbitrary y E Fu,
p(u, Fu - gu) ~ p(u, Fu - za) ~ p(u, Y - za).
The last inequality implies that p( u, Fu - gu) ::; p( u, y - z) for each y E Fu

and Z E cl(IK(gu)). Thus, p(u, Fu - gu) ::; p(u, Fu - cl(IK(9U)). Since,
gu E cl(IK(gU)) , it follows that in fact, p(u, Fu-gu) = p(u, Fu-cl(IK(gu)).
2.6. Kakutani Factorizable Maps and Applications

In this section, Ky Fan's best approximation theorem is generalized for
multifunctions where Kakutani factorizable maps are used. In this approach,
the main interesting feature is that the multifunction is not necessarily
convex valued. Several interesting corollaries are given extending and unifying
fixed point theorems. This section is taken from [298], [299] where most of
the results given below are included.
Definition.
A multifunction F : K -4 E, where K is a subset of a locally convex
topological vector space E, is said to have property (S) if and only if:
1. F = FI 0 F o, and
2. whenever there exists ayE Fo(x) for some x E K such that
In the above definition, the function F need not be convex valued even
if both FI and Fo are convex valued. Further, if F is any multifunction,
10 F has the property (S) where I denotes the identity mapping on E.
Lemma 2.64 Let E be a locally convex Hausdorff topological vector space
and K an approximatively p-compact convex subset of E. Let F : K -4 E
be a continuous compact multifunction with nonempty closed convex values.
If the multifunction G : K -4 E is defined by
G(x) = {y E F(x) : dp(F(x),K) = dp(y,K)},

then (aJ G(x) is a nonempty compact convex subset of E, and (bJ G is an
upper semicontinuous multifunction.
Proof.
(a) Since F(x) is compact, G(x) is nonempty. From the definition of G, it

is obvious that G(x) is closed and hence compact. Also, G(x) is convex.
To show this, let YI and Y2 E G(x). Then dp(Yi, K) = dp(F(x), K) for
i = 1,2. Since K is approximatively p-compact, there exist 81 and 82
in K such that
114 CHAPTER 2
Consider )..Yl + (1- )..)Y2 for 0 ~ ).. ~ 1. Now since )..SI + (1- )")S2 E K,
dp()..Yl + (1 - )..)Y2, K) < P(()..Yl + (1 - )..)Y2) - ()..SI + (1 - A)S2))

)..P(YI - st} + (1 - )..)P(Y2 - S2)
~
Adp(Yt, K) + (1 - A)dp(Y2' K).
dp(F(x), K).
Thus, G(x) is convex.

(b) Let A be any closed subset of F(K) and {xO'} be any net in G-l (A)
such that XO' --+ Xo in K. Since for each Q, G(xO') n A#- 0, choose yO' E
G(xO') such that dp(F(xO'), K) = dp(YO', K.) Since {YO'} ~ F(K) and
F(K) is relatively compact, without loss of generality, we can assume
that YO' --+ Yo in E. By the upper semicontinuity of F, Yo E F(xo).
Since yO' --+ Yo, dp(YO', K) --+ dp(Yo, K); that is,
Since XO' --+ Xo and F is continuous, it follows that dp(F(xO'), K) --+

dp(F(xo), K), and hence,
that is, Yo E G(xo). Thus Xo E G-l(A) and hence G is upper semicontinuous.

The following theorem extends the result given in [251].
Theorem 2.65 Let E be a locally convex Hausdorff topological vector space,
p E lP and K a nonempty approximatively p-compact convex subset of E.
Let F : K --+ E be a multifunction satisfying the property (5) where Fl
and Fo are closed convex valued continuous multifunctions and Fo(K) zs
relatively compact. Then there exists an x E K such that
dp(x, F(x)) = dp(F(x), K).
Proof.
Define f : K --+ K as follows:
f = f1 0 fo
where
fo(x) {y E Fo(x) : dp(Fo(x) , K) = dp(Y, K)}

fl (y) U{ Q(z) : z E Ft (y) such that dp(z, K) = dp(Fl (y), K)}.
By Lemma 2.64, fo is a nonempty compact convex valued upper

Since Fo(K) is relatively compact and FI is continuous, for each y E
Fo(K), FI (y) is compact, and hence there exists a Z E FI (y) such that
dp(z, K) = dp(FI (y), K). Since K is approximatively p-compact, Q(z) is
nonempty. Thus, fl(y) is nonempty. Also, fl(y) is convex. For WllW2 E
f I (y), there exist Zl and Z2 in FI (y) such that
Consider W = ..\WI + (1 - ..\)W2' for 0 ~ ..\ ~ 1. Let Z = ..\Zl + (1 - ..\)Z2'

Since Ft (y) is convex, Z E FI (y). Now
dp(z, K) ~ p(z - w) < ..\p(ZI - WI) + (1 - ..\)P(Z2 - W2)

< dp(FI (y), K) ~ dp(z, K).
This implies that
dp(z, K) = p(z - w)
and consequently, ..\WI + (1 - ..\)W2 E fl(Y) . Thus fl(y) is convex.
Let {w a } be any net in f I (y) such that Wa -+ Wo o Then there exists
a net {za} such that Wa E Q(za) where {za} C Ft{y) and dp(za, K) =
dp(FI (y), K) . Since FI (y) is compact, we can assume that Za -+ Zo in FI (y).
By the upper semicontinuity of Q, Wo E Q(zo). Thus, ft{y) is closed and
hence is compact.
The function fl is upper semicontinuous, that is, fl1(A) is closed for
any closed subset A of K . Let {Ya} be any net in fll(A) such that Ya -+ Yo
in fo(K). Since for each a, fl (Ya) nA =1= 0, we may choose Wa E fl (Ya) nA.
Also, for each a, there exists Za E FI (Ya) with
and Wa E Q(za). Since FI(Fo(K)) is contained in a compact set and

{za} ~ FI (Fo (K)), we can assume that Za -+ Zo in E. Since FI is upper
semicontinuous, Zo E FI (Yo). Also, since Q is upper semicontinuous
Q(Ft{clFo(K))) is compact and since for each a,
we can assume that Wa -+ Wo E Q(zo). Now we have

116 CHAPTER 2
and by Lemma 2.64,
This implies that dp(zo,K) = dp(Fl(YO),K) and Wo E fl(yo) n A. That

is, Yo E f1l(A). Thus, fl is upper semicontinuous, and f is a Kakutani
factorizable multifunction. Also, since Fo(K) is relatively compact and H
is a compact valued upper semicontinuous multifunction, it follows that
f(K) is relatively compact. Therefore, by the Lassonde fixed point theorem
[162]' f has a fixed point. That is, there exists an Xo E K such that Xo E
flO fo(xo). Thus, Xo E fl(yo) for some Yo E fo(xo), that is, Xo E Q(zo) for
some Zo E Fl (Yo) such that
Since Yo E fo(xo), dp(Fo (xo), K) = dp(Yo, K) which implies dp(Fl 0

Fo(xo), K) = dp(FdYo) , K) by property (S) and since Xo E Q(zo),p(xo -
zo) = dp(zo, K). Now
dp(Fl(YO),K)
dp(F(xo), xo).
This implies that dp(F(xo), xo) = dp(F(xo), K).

The following simple example illustrates the theorem [299].
Example. Let K = [0,1] x [0, 1] ~ R2.
Define F = Fl 0 Fo : K --t R2 as follows:
FO((Xl' X2)) {(x, 6 - x) : 0::; x::; 6}

Fl ((x, y)) Q(x, y))
where A = {(Yb Y2) : Yb Y2 ;::: 0 and Yr + y~ ::; 4}. Here p denotes the usual
norm in R2, and Q(x, y) denotes the set of best approximations to (x, y)
from A.
It is easy to see that Fl and Fo are continuous multifunctions with
closed convex values and that Fo(K) is compact. Also, F has the property
(S) because for any (Xl, X2) E K, and the only point (x, y) E Fo((xI, X2))
which satisfies
is (3, 3) and clearly

We see that the point (1, 1) E K satisfies
d((l, l),F((l, 1))) = d(F((l, l)),K) = 2 - J2.

Note that in the above example, the functions FI and Fo are convex
valued but F is not.
When Ft == I, the identity mapping, the theorem of [251] is derived.
As a consequence of the above theorem, the following multivalued version
of a fixed point theorem of Fan is obtained.
Corollary 2.66 Let E be a locally convex Hausdorff topological vector space
and K a nonempty compact convex subset of E. Let F : K -+ E satisfy the
property (8) where Ft and Fo are nonempty closed convex valued continuous
multifunctions. Further, if for each x E K, and y E F(x), there exists a
number>' (real or complex according as E is over-real or complex) with
1>'1 < 1 such that >.x + (1 - >.)y E K, then F has a fixed point.
Proof.
Let p be a continuous seminorm on E. Then by Theorem 2.65, there
exists an Xo E K such that dp(xo, F(xo)) = dp(F(xo), K).
Suppose dp(xo, F(xo)) > O. Since F(xo) is compact, there exists a Yo E
F(xo) such that p(xo - Yo) = dp(xo, F(xo)). By the hypothesis, there exists
a number>' with 1>'1 < 1 such that Zo = >,xo + (1 - >')Yo E K. We have
p(xo - Yo) = dp(F(xo), K) :::; dp(F(xo), zo) < p(zo - Yo)

= p(>'(xo - Yo)) < p(xo - yo),
a contradiction. Therefore, dp(xo, F(xo)) = O.

Thus, for each continuous seminorm p, the set
Zp = {x E K: dp(x,F(x)) = O}
is nonempty. Also, it is closed. Consider a finite subset {P}'P2,'" ,Pn} of

IP and set q = E~ Pi. It is easy to show that q is a continuous seminorm
and x E ZPi for all i = 1, ... , n whenever x E Zq. Note that Zq is also
nonempty. Thus, the family {Zp} has the finite intersection property. Hence
there exists an Xo E K such that
dp(xo, F(xo)) = 0 for each p.
This Xo is a fixed point of F.

If F is a self-mapping, the following fixed point theorem is derived.
118 CHAPTER 2

and K a nonempty compact convex subset of E. Let F : K -+ K be a
multifunction satisfying the property (5) where Ft and Fo are continuous
multifunctions with nonempty closed convex values. Then F has a fixed
point.
and K a nonempty approximatively p-compact convex subset of E. Let F :
K -+ E be a multifunction satisfying the property (5) where Fo and FI
are nonempty closed convex valued continuous multifunctions and Fo(K)
is relatively compact. Let g : K -+ K be a continuous, almost p-affine and
onto mapping satisfying
for any compact set D ~ K,g-I(D) is compact.
Then there exists an Xo E K such that
Proof.
Define f : K -+ K as follows:
{y E Fo(x) : dp(Fo(x), K) = dp(Y, K)}

{z E F1(y) : dp(Ft{y), K) = dp(z, K)}
{w E K : g(w) E Q(z)}
Iff o, fl and f2 are nonempty compact convex valued upper semicontinuous
multifunctions, then f is a Kakutani factorizable multifunction. Also, since
fo(K) is relatively compact and fl and fo are compact valued upper
semicontinuous multifunctions, it follows that r(K) is relatively compact.
Therefore, by Lassonde fixed point theorem [162]' r has a fixed point.
That is, there exists an Xo E K such that Xo E f 2 0 fl 0 fo(xo)j that
is, Xo E f2 0 fl(yo) for some Yo E Fo(xo) such that
dp(Fo(xo), K) = dp(Yo, K),

that is, Xo E f 2(zo) for some Zo E F1(yo) such that
dp(F1 (yo),K) = dp(zo,K),

that is, g(xo) E Q(zo) which implies
p(g(xo) - zo) = dp(zo, K).

Since dp(Fo(xo), K) = dp(yo, K), by the property (S), we have

dp(Ft Fo(xo), K) = dp(Ft (yo), K). We now get
dp(g(xo), FIFo(xo)) ~ p(g(xo) - zo) < dp(zo, K)

< dp(FI (Yo), K) ~ dp(FIFo(xo), K)
which implies that dp(g(xo), F(xo)) = dp(F(xo), K).

By Lemma 2.64, ro and r l are nonempty compact convex valued upper
semicontinuous multifunctions. Now it remains to show that r2(Z) is nonempty.
Also, it is easy to see that it is closed and hence compact. By the almost
p-affinity of g, it follows that r2(Z) is convex. For, if WI and W2 E r2(Z),
we have
P(g(aWI + (1 - a)w2) - z) < ap(g(wI) - z) + (1 - a)p(g(w2) - z)

dp(z, K).
Thus, r2(Z) is convex. It is shown that r 2 is upper semicontinuous.
Let A be any closed subset of K and {za} be any net in r21(A) such
that Za --t ZOo Since r2(za) nA i= 0 for each a, we may choose Wa E r2 (za)'
Then, g(wa ) E Q(za)j that is,
Since Za --t Zo, we have dp(za, K) --t dp(zo , K). Since Q is upper
semicontinuous, it can be seen that Q(FI (cl(Fo(K))) is compact and hence
by the condition on g,g-I(Q(FI(clFo(K)))) is compact. Because
we may assume that Wa --t Wo. By the continuity of 9 we have gWa --t gwo.
Now we have
p(g(Wo) - zo) < p(g(wo) - g(w a )) + p(g(w a ) - za) + p(za - zo)

= p(g(wo) - g(wa )) + dp(za,K) + p(za - zo)
Taking the limit, we see thatp(g(wo)-zo) = dp(zo,K). Thus,g(wo) E Q(zo)

which implies Wo E r 2(zo)j that is, Zo E r21(A) and hence r 2 is an upper
and K a nonempty approximatively p-compact convex subset of E. Let F :
120 CHAPTER 2
K --+ E be a continuous multifunction with closed convex values satisfying

(8) and Fo(K) relatively compact. Let g : K --+ K be a continuous, almost
p-affine and onto mapping satisfying
for any compact set D ~ K,g-I(D) is compact.
Then there exists an Xo E K such that
If K is compact, then the condition on g that g-I(D) is compact

whenever D is compact in K is satisfied and one gets
and K a nonempty compact convex subset of E . Let F : K --+ E be a
multifunction satisfying the property (5) where Fo and FI are continuous
multifunctions with nonempty closed convex values. Let g : K --+ K be a
continuous, almost p-affine and onto mapping. Then there exists an Xo E K
such that
dp(g(xo), F(xo)) = dp(F(xo), K) .
Principle and Applications of KKM-maps
3.1. Introduction
Knaster, Kuratowski, and Mazurkiewicz proved a very important result
(KKM theorem) in 1929, presently it is known as the KKM-map principle.
This result is equivalent to the well known topological fixed point theorem
due to Brouwer. The KKM theorem gave a simplified proof of Brouwer's
theorem. Ky Fan [89] extended the KKM theorem to topological vector
spaces and gave several interesting applications in the fixed point theory,
minimax theory, and game theory. There have appeared several extensions,
unifications, and equivalent formulations of Ky Fan's theorem. Because of
its widespread applications and importance, it is now known as the KKM-
map theory. A very interesting paper due to Granas [101] is worth reading
on this topic as it includes a lot of applications. Recently, it has been shown
that the KKM theory, the fixed point theory, the variational inequality and
the geometric form of KKM-map principle all are equivalent (Results in this
direction due to Gwinner [104]; Tarafdar [293]; Mehta and Tarafdar [187];
Lassonde [163]; Park [212], [214]; Tan [285], [286]; Tan and Yuan [288]; and
Yuan [309] are of interest).
Lassonde [163] introduced the idea of c-spaces and proved results on
KKM theory. Recently, H-space introduced by Horvath has been an important
setting for H-KKM theory. Results in this direction due to Bardaro and
Ceppitelli [10, 11], Horvath [125, 126], Ding [59], Tan and Yuan [288],
and Tarafdar [289] are worth mentioning. A very brief introduction of the
HKKM theory will be given in the end . Park [212, 215] has taken a unifying
view and has given several important results in c-spaces and H-spaces.
Recently, further extensions are given with a variety of applications
in various nonlinear problems. It is also found that results from different
diverse fields, e.g., the KKM-map principle, the variational inequality, the
fixed point theorem, and the geometric lemma are equivalent.
3.2. The KKM-Map Principle

Let E be a topological vector space. The set of all nonempty subsets of E
will be denoted by 2E.
121
122 CHAPTER 3
Definition 3.1 Let X be a nonempty subset of E. A map F : X -+ 2E

is called a KKM-map if co{xt,··· ,xn } ~ Ui=lF(Xi) for each finite subset
{x!"", xn} 01 X.
Observe that if F is a KKM-map, then x E F(x) for each x E X.
Examples of KKM-maps are now given (see [101]).
1. Variational Problems: Let C be a convex subset of X and let </>
C -+ R be a convex functional. For each x E C let G(x) = {y E C :
</>y ::; </>x}. Then G : C -+ 2 c is a KKM-map.
n
Let y = I:AiXi where 0 ::; Ai < 1, I:Ai = 1, {Xl,""X n } ~ C
i=l
and y ~ Ui=lGxi. Then seek a contradiction. Now y ~ Ui=lGxi means
</>y > </>Xi for i = 1,2"", n. Then </>y = </>(2'::: AiXi) ::; I : Ai</>Xi <
</>y, since </> is convex, a contradiction. Thus y = L Ai Xi E Ui=lGxi.
2. Best Approximations: Let X be a normed linear space and C a convex
subset of X.
Let I : C -+ X be a map. For each x E C let
G(x) = {y E C: Illy - yll ::; IIfy - xII} . Then G : C -+ 2 c is a
KKM-map.
3. Variational Inequalities: Let H be a Hilbert space, C a convex subset
of H, and I : C -+ H a map. For each x E C, let G(x) = {y E C :
(fy, y - x) ::; o}. Then G : C -+ 2H is a KKM-map.
n
Let Yo = I : AiXi. If Yo ~ Ui=lGxi, then (fyo,yo - Xi) > 0; that is,
i=l
(fyo, Yo) > (fyo, Xi), for i = 1,2"" n.
n n
Now (fyo, Yo) (fyO, I : AiXi) = I : Ai (fyo, Xi) < (jyo, Yo), a
=
i=l i=l
contradiction. Thus G is a KKM-map.
The following well known result is called the KKM (Knaster-Kuratowski-
Mazurkiewicz) map principle [153].
Theorem 3.2 (KKM-map principle) Let X be the set 01 vertices of a simplex
in E = R n and let F : X -+ 2E be a KKM-map with F(x) compact for
each x E X. Then nxEX Fx =1= 0.
This theorem has applications in several fields including fixed point
theory, minimax problems, dimension theory and mathematical economics.
In 1961, Ky Fan proved that the KKM theorem is also valid where X
is an arbitrary subset of a Hausdorff topological vector space E.
The following well known result was established by Ky Fan in [89].
Theorem 3.3 Let X be a subset of a Hausdorff topological vector space E

and let T : X -+ 2E be a closed-valued KKM-map. IfT(xo) is compact for
at least one Xo E X, then nXExT(x) i= 0.
Proof.
It suffices to show that ni=l T(Xi) i= 0 for any finite subset {Xl,"', x n }
of X. Given a finite subset {Xl,"',X n } ~ X consider the (n -1) simplex
S = ele2'" en in Euclidean n-space with vertices el = (1,0,0,0,·· .),"', en =
n n
(0,0"",1). Define a continuous map F : S -+ E by P(2: Aiei) = 2: AiXi
n
i=l i=l
for Ai ~ 0, 2: Ai = 1. Consider the n closed subsets Gi = P-I(T(Xi)), 1 :s;
i=l
i :s;
n of S. Since T is a KKM-map, for any indices 1 :s; i l < ik :s; n the
(k - 1) simplex eilei2" ·ei k is contained in Gil U Gi 2 U··· U Gi k • Then
the KKM principle (Theorem 3.2) implies that ni=l Gi i= 0 and therefore
ni=l T{Xi) i= 0. This completes the proof.
As a simple consequence of Theorem 3.3, the following result is due to
Ky Fan [89].
Corollary 3.4 Let X be a compact convex set in a Hausdorff topological
vector space E. Let A be a closed subset of X X X satisfying (i) (x, x) E A
for every x E X I (ii) for any fixed y E X the set {x EX: (x, y) ¢ A} is
convex (or empty).
Then there exists a point Yo E X such that X X {Yo} c C.
Proof.
Let F(x) = {y EX: (x, y) E A} for each x E X. Then F(x) is closed
since A is closed. Since X is compact so F{x) is compact. Also, (i) and (ii)
imply that F is a KKM-map. So by Theorem 3.3 nxEx P(x) i= 0. That is,
there is a Yo E X such that Yo E nxEX Fx; that is, X X {Yo} c A.
The Tychonoff's fixed point theorem follows from Corollary 3.4.
Theorem 3.5 Let X be a compact convex subset of a locally convex topological
vector space E and f : X -+ X a continuous mapping. Then f has a fixed
point.
Proof.
Let Pi E 1P be the set of continuous seminorms on E. For each i E I,
consider the closed set
Bi = {y EX: Pi(y - fy) = O}.

A point y E X is a fixed point of f if and only if y E niEIBi. Since
X is compact, it suffices to show that ny Bi i= 0 for every finite subset
124 CHAPTER 3
{I, 2, 3, ... ,n} of I. Given {I, 2, ... , n} apply Corollary 3.4 to the set
n n
A = {(x, y) EX x X : LPi(X - fy) 2:: LPi(y - fy)}·
1 1
It is easy to see that A is closed. Clearly (x, x) E A and for fixed y E X

the set {x EX: (x, y) rf. A} is convex so there is a Yo E X such that
X X {Yo} c A. From (fyO, Yo) E A we get Pi(Yo - fyo) = 0 (1 ::; i ::; n) or
Yo E niBi I- 0, so Yo = fyo.
3.3. Extensions of the KKM-Map Principle and Applications

The following is an extension of Theorem 3.3 [101].
Theorem 3.6 Let C be a subset of X and G : C --+ 2x a KKM-map

such that Gx is finitely closed (a subset A ~ X is finitely closed if its
intersection with each finite dimensional linear subspace L ~ X is closed
in the Euclidean topology of L). Then nxEcGx I- 0.
A further extension, due to Granas [101] is given below where two
functions are considered.
Theorem 3.7 Let X be a vector space, C eX, andG: C --+ 2x a KKM-

map. Assume that there is a set-valued map F : C --+ 2x such that
(i) G(x) ~ F(x) for each x EX,
(ii) nxEcGx I- 0 =} nXEC Fx I- 0.
If, for some topology, each Fx is compact, then nxEcGx I- 0.
Ky Fan gave the following. Its proof is given by using Theorem 3.3.
Theorem 3.8 Let C be a compact convex subset of a normed linear space

X and let f : C --+ X be a continuous map. Then there is a Yo E C such
that Ilyo - fYol1 = d(fyo, C).
Proof.
For each x E C, let G(x) = {y E C: Ily - fyll ::; IIfy - xII}. Then G
is a KKM-map. Also, G (x) is closed for each x E C since f is continuous,
and G(x) is compact since C is a compact set.
Thus, by Theorem 3.3 nxEcGx I- 0; that is, Ilyo - fYol1 ::; Ilfyo - xii
for all x E C, or lIyo - fYol1 = d(fyo, C).
This theorem has applications in various fields. For example, the following
is a fixed point theorem derived from Theorem 3.8 [86].
Theorem 3.9 Suppose that C is a compact convex subset of a normed

linear space X and f : C --+ X is continuous. If for each x E C with
fx =f x the line segment [x,fx] contains at least two points of C, then f
has a fixed point.
Proof.
By Theorem 3.8, there is a Yo E C such that
iiyo - fYoll = d(fyo, C).
Let Yo =f fyo and let
z = >"yo + (1 - >")fyo, 0 < >.. < 1.
Then
liz - fYoll lI>"yo + (1 - >..)fyo - fYoll

>"lIyo - fYoll < lIyo - fYoll = d(fyo, C)
a contradiction, so Yo = fyo.
The following well-known result is due to Browder [27]. He proved it
by using the partition of unity and the Brouwer fixed point theorem. This
theorem has applications in many areas of mathematics. Here the KKM-
map principle is used to prove the theorem [101].
Theorem 3.10 Let C be a nonempty compact convex subset of a Hausdorff
topological vector space X, and let T : C --+ 2 c be a set-valued map such
that
(i) Tx is convex and nonempty for each x E C, and
(ii) T-1y is open for each y E C.
Then there is a Yo E C such that Yo E Tyo .
Proof.
Define G : C --+ 2 c by y t-+ C - T-1y. Then G(y) is nonempty closed
in C and, therefore, is compact. Note that C = U{T-1y: y E C}. Given
any Xo E C choose a Yo E Txo. Then Xo E T-1yo. Thus nyEcGy = n(C-
T-1y) = (UT-1y)c = ¢ and G can not be a KKM-map. Therefore, w =
n
L >"iYi ~ Ui=lGYi and hence w E C - Ui=lGYi = ni=lT-1Yi. Thus w E

i=l
T-1Yi for each i = 1,2,···, n, and therefore Yi E Tw for each i. Since Tw
n
is convex we have w = L >"iYi E Tw.
i=l
126 CHAPTER 3
The following result is known as the minimax inequality. It is proved by

using the KKM-map principle [101].
Theorem 3.11 Let C be a compact convex subset of a topological vector
space X. Let f : C x C ~ R be a real valued function such that
(i) for each x E C, y I-t f(x, y) is lower semicontinuous on C,
(ii) for each y E C, x I-t f (x, y) is quasi-concave on C (A function g : C ~
R, where C is convex, is quasi-concave if the set {x E C: gx 2: a} is
convex for each a E Rand g is quasi-convex if the set {x E C : g (x) ~
a} is convex for each real a).
Then min sup f(x, y) < sup f(x, x) .
yEC xEC xEC
Proof.
Since y sup f(x, y) is lower semicontinuous, its minimum min sup f(x, y)
I-t
xEC yEC xEC
on compact C exists. Let J.L = sup f(x, x) < 00. Define G : C ~ 2 x by
xEC
G(x) = {y E C: f(x, y) ~ J.L}. Clearly, G is a KKM-map and Gx
is closed in C by (i) and is compact in Case is compact. Theorem 3.3
implies that nxEcGx =1= 0. Hence, there is a Yo E C such that f(x, Yo) ~ J.L
for all x E C. This completes the proof.
The following result, known as the coincidence theorem, is due to Ky
Fan [87]. This follows by using the KKM-map principle [23].
Theorem 3.12 Let C C X and DeY be nonempty compact convex sets
in the topological vector spaces X and Y . Let F, G : C ~ 2D be two set-
valued mappings such that
(i) Px is open and Gx is a nonempty convex set for each x E C,
(ii) G-1y is open and p-ly is a nonempty convex set for
each y E D.
Then there is an Xo E C such that PXo n Gxo =1= 0.
Proof.
Let A = C x D and define H: A ~ 2XxY by (x,y) t-t A- (G-1y X Fx).
Then each H(x, y) is a nonempty set closed in A and, hence, is compact. For
any (xo, Yo) E A, choose an (x, y) E F-1yo X Gxo, then (xo, Yo) E G-1y x
Fx. Thus, A = U{G-ly X Px : (x,y) E A}. Consequently, n{H(x,y) :
(x, y) E A} = 0 and H is not a KKM-map. Therefore, there are elements
at, a2,' ", an E A such that co{ at, a2,'" ,an} is not contained in Ui=l H(ai)
n
so that w = LAiai f/. Ui=lH(ai). Because A is convex, w E A, so w =
i=l
A - Ui=lH(ai) = ni=1(G-1Yi x PXi).
n n n
Write w = (L AiXi, L AiYi). Then we get L AiXi E G-1Yi for each
~l ~l ~l
n
1, = 1,2,"', n, and L AiYi E FXi for i = 1,2"", n. This gives that
i=l
n n n
each Yi E G(L AiXi) and therefore L AiYi E G(L AiXi) and similarly
i=l i=l i=l
n n n
each Xi E F-1(LAiYi), therefore, LAiXi E F-1(LAiYi) and, hence,
i=l i=l i=l
n n n n
L AiYi E F(L AiXi). Thus, F(L AiXi) n G(L AiXi) =/; 0.
i=l i=l i=l i=l
Now we give the following known as the Minimax Theorem due to Sion
[276]. Theorem 3.12 is used to give a simple proof [101].
Theorem 3.13 Let X and Y be two nonempty compact convex sets in the
linear topological spaces E and F, respectively. Let f : X x Y -+ R satisfy
(i) for each fixed x EX, f(x, y) is a lower semicontinuous and
quasi-convex function of y,
(ii) for each fixed Y E Y, f (x, y) is an upper semicontinuous and quasi-
concave function of x.
Then maxx miny f(x, y) = miny maxx f(x, y).
Proof.
Since f(x, y) is an upper semicontinuous function of x for fixed y, so
maxx f(x, y) exists for each y and is a lower semicontinuous function of
y, so miny maxx f(x, y) exists. Similarly, maXx miny f(x, y) exists. Since
f(x, y) :$ maxx f(x, y), miny f(x, y) :$ miny maxx f(x, y) and, hence, maxx
miny f(x, y):$ miny maxx f(x, y).
Here it is shown that the inequality does not hold. Assume that inequality
holds. Then there would be some r such that max min f(x, y) < r <
x y
min maxf(x, y). Define F, G : X -t 2Y by F(x) = {y : f(x, y) > r} and
y x
Gx = {y : f(x,y) < r}. Each F(x) is open by condition (i) and each Gx
is convex by condition (ii) and is nonempty because maxminf(x,y) < r.
x y
Since F-1y = {x: f(x, y) > r} so each F-1y is nonempty and convex
and each G-1y = {x : f(x, y) < r} is open. By Theorem 3.12 there exists
(xo, YO) with Yo E Fxo n Gxo giving r < f(xo, yo) < r, a contradiction.
Thus, the inequality cannot hold.
128 CHAPTER 3
3.4. Two function Theorems and Applications
The following interesting application of Theorem 3.3 is due to Tan [286].

He considered two functions. Interesting results considering two functions
have also been given by Simons [264], [265].
Theorem 3.14 Let X be a nonempty convex set in a Hausdorff topological
vector space E . Let and 'IjJ be two real-valued functions on X X X having
the following properties:
(aJ (x, y) :s; 'IjJ(x, y) for all x, y) E X X X, and 'IjJ(x, x) :s; 0 for all x E X;
(bJ for each fixed x E X, (x, y) is a lower semicontinuous function of y
on X;
(cJ for each fixed y E X, the set {x EX: 'IjJ(x, y) > O} is convex;
(dJ there exists a nonempty compact convex subset K of X such that for
each y E X\K there exists a point x E K with (x, y) > o.
Then there exists a Yo E K such that <1>( x, Yo) :s; 0 for all x EX.
Proof.
For each x E X, let
G(x) = {y E K : (x, y) :s; O}.
By (b), G(x) is closed in K for each x EX. The family {G(x) : x E X}
has the finite intersection property. Indeed, let Xl, ... ,X m E X be given.
Let
c= conv(KU{x}, ... ,xm }).
Then C is a compact convex subset of X. For each x E X, set
~(x) = {y E C : (x , y) :s; O}, 'l1(x) = {y E C : 'IjJ(x, y) :s; O}.
Then
(i) For each x E C, ~(x) is nonempty since x E ~(x) by (a), and closed in
C by (b); thus, ~(x) is compact.
(ii) 'l1 : C ---+ 2E is a KKM-map. Indeed, suppose that this were false.
Then for some choice of (U}, .•. , un} ~ C and aj ~ 0, for 1 :s;
j :s; n, with 2::7=1 aj = 1, we should have 2::7=1 ajUj (j. Ui=l'l1(Ui),
that is, 'IjJ(Ui, 2::7=1 ajUj) > 0 for 1 :s; i :s; n. By (c), it follows that
'IjJ(2::7=1 ajuj,2::7=1 ajuj) > 0 contradicting (a).
(iii) For each x E C, 'l1(x) C ~(x) by (a). Therefore, <l> : C -t 2E is also a
KKM-map.
Applying Theorem 3.3 to~, nXEC~(X) =I- 0; in other words, there exists
a point y E C such that (x , y) :s; 0 for all x E C. Therefore y E K by (d)
and, in particular,
Y E G(xt} n ... n G(x m ).
This shows that {G(x) : x E X} has the finite intersection property.

By the compactness of K, nXEXG(X) =1= 0. Take Yo E nxExG(x); then
1>(x, yo) :S 0 for all x E X.
The following is also an application of Theorem 3.14 given by Tan [286].
vector space. Let 1>1 and 1>2 be two real-valued functions on X x X having
the following properties.
(a) 1>1 (x, y) :S 1>2 (x, y) for all x, y) E X x X.
(b) For each fixed x E X, 1>1 (x, y) is a lower semicontinuous function of y
onX.
(c) For each fixed y E X, 1>2(X, y) is a quasi-concave function of x on X.
(d) There exists a nonempty compact convex subset K of X such that for
all y E X\K there exists a point x E X with 1>1 (x, y) > sUPzEX 1>2(Z, z)
if SUPZEX 1>2(Z, z) < 00.
Then minYEK SUPxEX 1>1 (x, y) :S SUPxEX 1>2(X, x) holds.
Observe that by (b), sUPxEX 1>1 (x, y) is a lower semicontinuous function
of y on X, and therefore its minimum, minYEKsuPxEx 1>1(X,y), on the
com pact set K exists.
Proof.
Let t = sUPxEX 1>2 (x, x) and t < +00. Applying Theorem 3.14 to
1>(x,y) = 1>1(X,y) - t, 'IjJ(x,y) = 1>2(X,y) - t
the result follows.

Here further extensions and applications of Theorem 3.3 are given. The
following result is derived from Theorem 3.3 and then several corollaries
are given [293].
Theorem 3.16 Let X be a nonempty convex subset of a Hausdorff topological
vector space E. Let F : X -+ 2E be a multifunction with F (x) =1= 1> and
satisfy the following:
(a) x E F(x) for each x E X;
(b) F(xo) is compact for some Xo EX;
(c) for each x E X, the set A(x) = {y EX: x ¢ F(y)} is convex;
(d) for each x E X, the intersection of F(x) with any finite dimensional
subspace of E is closed;
(e) for each x EX, F(xo) n F(x) is closed.
Then nXExF(x) =1= 0.
The following fixed point theorems follow as corollaries [293].
Theorem 3.17 Let K be a nonempty convex subset of E. Let T: K -+ 2K
be a multi-valued mapping such that
130 CHAPTER 3
(aJ' for each x E K, T(x) is a nonempty convex subset of K;

(bJ' for some Xo E K, the complement ofT-l(xo) in K, denoted by [T-1(xoW
is compact;
(cJ' for each x E K, the intersection of [T- 1(x)]C with any finite dimensional
(dJ' for each x E K; [T-1(x)]C n [T-l(XOW is closed.
Then there is a point Xo E K such that Xo E T(xo).
Proof.
Assume that T has no fixed point; that is, there is no point x E K such
that x E T(x). This implies that there is no x E K such that x E T-1(x).
Thus, we have (a) x E [T-l(x)]c for each x E K; and (b) [T-l(xW is
non empty for each x E K.
Set F(x) = [T-1(xW for each x E K.
Let A(x) = {y E K : x ¢ F(y)} = {y E K : x ¢ [T-1(yW} = {y E
K : x E T-1(y)} = T(x) which is convex by (a)'. Thus, we have condition
(c) of Theorem 3.16. Conditions (b), (d), and (e) of Theorem 3.16 follow
from assumptions (b)', (c)', and (d)', respectively. Hence, there is a point
u E K such that u E nXEKF(x); that is, u E [T-1(xW for each x E K; that
is, u ¢ T-1(x) for any x E K. However, u E K = UXEKT-1(x) which is a
contradiction. Hence the theorem.
The following is a dual to theorem 3.17 [293].
Theorem 3.18 Let K be a nonempty convex subset of E. Let T: K -+ 2K
(1) for each x E K, T(x) is a nonempty subset of K;
(2) for some Xo E K, [T(xo)]C is compact in K;
(3) for each x E K, T-l(x) is convex (may be empty);
(4) for each x E K, the intersection oJ[T(xW with any finite dimensional
(5) for each x E K, [T(xW n [T(xoW is closed;
(6) UxEKT(x) = K.
Proof.
Let us assume that there is no point x E K such that x E T(x). This
implies (a) x E [T(x)]C for each x E K and (b) [T(xW is nonempty for each
x EK.
Let F(x) = [T(x)]C for each x E K.
Then A(x) = {y E K : x ¢ F(y)} = {y E K : x E T(y)} = T-1(x)
which is convex by (3). Thus, we have the condition (c) of Theorem 3.16.
Conditions (2), (4), and (5) imply, respectively, conditions (b), (d), and (c)
of Theorem 3.16. Hence, there is a point u E K such that u E nxEKF(x) =
nxEK[T(xW . This implies that u ¢ (UXEKT(x)) which is impossible by (6).

Hence, the theorem.
The following is derived from Theorem 3.17.
Corollary 3.19 Let K be a nonempty convex subset of E and T: K -4 2K
(i) for each x E K, T(x) is a nonempty convex subset of K;
(ii) for each x E K,T-l(X) is open in K;
(iii) for some Xo E K, [T-l(xOW is compact in K.
The following result is derived from Theorem 3.18.
Corollary 3.20 Let K be a nonempty convex subset of E and T : K -4 2K
(i)' for each x E K, T(x) is a nonempty open subset of K;
(ii) , for each x E K,T-l(X) is convex (may be empty);
(iii)' for some Xo E K, [T(xoW is compact;
(iv) , UXEKT(x) = K.
Tarafdar [293] used Theorem 3.16 to prove the following known as the
Fan's minimax principle [87].
Theorem 3.21 Let K be a nonempty convex subset of E. Let f(x, y) be a
real valued function defined on K X K such that
(i) f(x,x) :::; 0 for x E K;
(ii) for every x E K, the set A(x) = {y E K : f(x, y) > O} is convex;
(iii) there is a compact subset L of E and Xo E LnK such that f(x, xo) > 0
for all x E K, x ¢ L;
(iv) for every y E K, we have
(v) f(x, y) is a lower semicontinuous function of x on the intersection of
K with any finite dimensional subspace of E;
(vi) f(x, y) is also a lower semicontinuous function of x on L.
Then there exists a point Yo E L such that f(yo, y) :::; 0 for all y E K.
Proof.
For each y E K, we set F(y) = {x : f(x, y) :::; O}. It is easy to see that
conditions (a), (c), and (d) of Theorem 3.16 follow from assumptions
(i), (ii), and (iv), respectively. F(xo), being a closed subset of L, is compact
by (vi). Thus, condition (b) of Theorem 3.16 holds. (e) of Theorem 3.16
follows also from (vi). Hence, there exists a point Yo E nXEKF(x)j that is,
f(yo, x) :::; 0 for all x E K.

132 CHAPTER 3
3.5. Application to Variational Inequalities

Definition 3.22 Let H be a Hilbert space and C be any subset of H. The
map f : C -+ H is called hemicontinuous if flL n C is continuous for each
one dimensional flat L ~ H.
The following well-known result is due to Hartman and Stampacchia
[112] . Dugundji and Granas [72] proved the theorem using the KKM-map
principle. The proof given here is the one in [101].
Theorem 3.23 Let H be a Hilbert space, C a closed bounded, convex subset

of H, and f : C -+ H monotone and hemicontinuous. Then there exists a
Yo E C such that (Jyo,yo - x) ~ 0 for all x E C .
Proof.
For each x E C define G(x) = {y E C: (Jy, y - x) ~ o}. Then
G : C -+ 2H is a KKM-map. Consider the map F : C -+ 2H given by
F(x) = {y E C: (Jx, y - x) ~ o}. Now, it is easy to show the following.
(i) Gx c Fx for each x E C. Indeed, let y E Gx, so that (Jy, y - x) ~ O.
Now, f monotone implies (Jy - fx, y - x) 2: O,so (Jx, y - x) ~ 0 and
y E Fx.
(ii) It is sufficient to show that nXECFx ~ nxEcGX.
Assume Yo E nxECFx. Choose any x E C and let z>. = AX + (1- A)yO =
Yo - A(YO - x), because C is convex so z>. E C for each 0 ~ A ~ 1. Since
Yo E F(z>.) for each A E [0, 1] we get (Jz>., Yo - z>.) ~ 0 for all A E [0,1].
This implies that A(Jz). , Yo - x) ~ 0 for all A E [0,1] and, in particular,that
(J z>., Yo - x) ~ 0 for 0 < A ~ 1.
Let A -+ O. The continuity of f on the ray joining Yo and x gives
fz>. -+ fyo and therefore (Jyo,yo - x) ~ O. Thus Yo E Gx for each x E C
and nXECFx = nxEcGx.
Now equip H with the weak topology. Then each F(x), being the
intersection with C of the closed half space {y E H: (Ix, y) ~ (Jx, x)} is
closed, convex and bounded and therefore weakly compact. Thus nxEcGx #
0.
The following is a well known result established independently by Browder
[31], Gohde [92] and Kirk [150].
Theorem 3.24 Let C be a closed, bounded, convex subset of a Hilbert space
Hand 9 : C -+ C a nonexpansive map. Then 9 has a fixed point.
Proof.
Putting f(x) = x - gx for x E C, we see that f : C -+ H is a continuous
monotone map so there exists a Yo E C such that (IyO,yO - x) ~ 0 for all
x E C. Taking x = gyo we get Yo = gyo. This completes the proof.
Kapoor [141] proved a variant of Ky Fan's theorem as follows:

Theorem 3.25 Let X be a normed linear space, C a nonempty weakly
compact convex subset of X and f : C --+ X a strongly continuous mapping.
Then there exists ayE C such that Ily - fyll = d(Jy, C).
Proof.
For each x E C, define F(x) = {y E C: IIy - fyll ~ IIx - fyll}. For
each x E C, F(x) i- 0.
F(x) is weakly closed. For example, let Yn E F(x) such that Yn ~ Y
weakly. Then since f is strongly continuous fYn --+ fy, Yn - fYn ~ Y - fy
weakly, and x - fYn --+ X - fy.
Since x t-+ IIxll is weakly lower semicontinuous, we get that
llYn - fYnll ~ IIx - fYnll· Now,
IIy - fYil < liminf llYn - fYnil

< liminflix-fYnil
IIx - fYII·
Thus Y E F(x).
Let {Xl, X2,···, x n } be a finite subset ofC. Then we claim that
CO{Xll X2,···, x n } ~ Ui:l F(xj). Ifnot, then suppose that
z E cO{XI, X2,·· ., x n } and z ¢ Ui:l F(xj).
n n
There exist aI, a2,···, an, such that aj ~ 0, E aj = 1 and z = E ajXj.
j=l j=l
If z ¢ Ui:lF(Xi) for i = 1,2,···, n, it means that liz - fzll > IIXi - fzll, for
i = 1,2,··· ,no Hence
n
liz - fzll II Eaixi - fzll
j=l
n
II E aj(xi - fz)II
i=l
< liz - fzll,
a contradiction.
Next, F(x) is weakly compact, since C is weakly compact and F(x)
is weakly closed for each x E C. Thus all conditions of Theorem 3.3 are
satisfied with respect to the weak topology of X. Hence, there exists ayE C
with Y E n{F(x) : X E C}. Thus IIy - fYIl = min{IIx - fYII: x E C}. This
completes the proof.
134 CHAPTER 3
An interesting application in approximation theory given by Kapoor

[141] is stated below.
Theorem 3.26 Each weakly compact convex set C in a normed linear

space X is an existence set. That is, for each x E X there exists at least
one y E C such that IIx - yll = min{lIx - zll : z E C} = d(x, C).
To prove Theorem 3.26, take a constant map fy =x for each y in C
and apply Theorem 3.25.
Definition 3.27 A mapping f : C --+ X is called sequentially strongly

continuous if and only if for each sequence {x n } in C, Xn ~ x E C weakly
implies that f Xn --+ f x in X.
A variant of Ky Fan's Theorem in a real locally convex Hausdorff

topological vector space X for a sequentially strongly continuous mapping
is proved in [253].
Theorem 3.28 Let K be a nonempty convex and weakly compact subset of
a real locally convex Hausdorff topological vector space E and f : K --+ E a
sequentially strongly continuous mapping. Then for each pElF, there exists
a u = up E K such that
p(u - lu) = min{p(x - lu) : x E K}.
As a consequence of Theorem 3.28, the following is derived.

Corollary 3.29 Let K be a convex and weakly compact subset of E and
I : K --+ E be a sequentially strongly continuous mapping. Then either (aJ
there exists a u E oK in E and apE IF with 0 < p(u- fu) = min{p(x- fu) :
x E K} or (bJ I has a fixed point.
Proof.
For each p E Jr, there exists a u = up with p(u - fu) = min{p(x - fu) :
x E K}. Suppose for some pElF, p(u - lu) > o.
This implies that lu ¢ K. We show that u E oK. Suppose u E intK
(int = interior). Since K is also closed in E, it follows that there exists a
+
real a,O < a < 1 such that z = au (1 - a)/u E oK. Thus,
o < p(u - lu) ::; p(z - lu) = ap(u - lu) < p(u - lu)
contradiction so u E oK. This proves (a). If p(u p - lu p ) = 0 for each pElF.

Let
Ap = {u E K : p(u - fu) = O},p E IF.
Then Ap :I 0 and Ap is weakly closed. Furthermore, since for any finite
subset {Pi: i = 1,2, ... , n} ~ IF, 2:7=1 Pi E Jr, it follows that the family
{Ap : pElF} has a finite intersection property. Consequently, n{ Ap : p E

IF} =1= 0. Thus, if u E n{Ap : pElF}, then since the weak topology is
Hausdorff, it follows that fu = u.
Corollary 3.30 Let K be a convex and weakly compact subset of E and
f : K -t E a sequentially strongly continuous mapping such that f({)K) <;;;;
K. Then f has a fixed point.
3.6. Further Extensions of the KKM-Map Principle

In 1984, Ky Fan [83] proved the following interesting result extending and
unifying earlier works.
Lemma 3.31 Let Y be a convex set in a separated topological vector space
E and let X be a nonempty subset of Y. For each x E X let A (x) be a
relatively open subset of Y such that UxEx A( x) = Y. If X is contained in
a compact convex subset C ofY, then there exists a nonempty finite subset
{Xl, X2,··· ,x n } of X such that the convex hull of {Xl, X2, ... , Xn} contains
a point of the corresponding intersection ni=l AXi.
Proof.
For each X E X, let F(x) = Y\A(x) and set G(x) = Cn F(x). Suppose
that the conclusion is false. Then the convex hull of every finite subset
{XI! X2, ... ,xn } of X is contained in Y Ini=l A(Xi) = U~l F(Xi). Consequently,
the convex hull of every finite subset {Xl, X2, ... , xn} of X is contained in
C n Ui=l F(Xi) = U~IG(Xi). For each X E X, F(x) is closed in Y. As C is
a compact subset of Y, G(x) = en F(x) is compact. Then by Theorem
3.3, nxexG(x) =1= 0 and therefore nxEx F(x) =1= 0, this gives UxEX A(x) =1= 0,
that is, UxEx A(x) =f Y, a contradiction.
The following interesting result given by Fan [83] is applicable in several
fields.
Theorem 3.32 Let Y be a convex subset of a separated topological vector
space E and let 0 =1= X <;;;; Y. For each X E X let A (x) be a relatively open
subset of Y such that UxEX A( x) = Y. If there exists a nonempty subset Xo
of X such that Y - UxexoA(x)is compact or empty and Xo is contained in
a compact convex subset C of Y then there exists a nonempty finite subset
{ Xl, X2, ... , x n } of X such that co{ XI, X2, ... , xn} contains a point of the
corresponding intersection n~l A(Xi).
Proof.
In case UXExoA(x) = Y, then conclusion follows from Lemma 3.31.
Assume that the complement of UXExoA(x) in Y is nonempty. For x EX,
let F(x) = Y\A(x). Let D = nXExoF(x) = Y\ UxEXo A(x). Then D is
nonempty and compact.
136 CHAPTER 3
Suppose that the conclusion of the theorem is false; that is, suppose that
the convex hull of every finite subset {Xl, X2, .. . , xn} of X is contained in
Y\ni=l A(Xi) = Ui=IF(Xi). From this, we show that nxExF(x) =1= 0, which
means UxEx A( x) =1= Y, a contradiction.
Consider an arbitrary finite subset {Xl, X2,.'" x n } of X. Let Xl =
XoU {Xb X2,"" xn} and let K = co(CU {Xl, ... , xn}) Since C is compact
convex, K is compact. Also, since CUX is contained in the convex set Y, we
have KeY. For y E Xb let G(y) = K n F(y). As F(y) is closed in Y and
K is a compact subset ofY, G(y) is compact. The convex hull of every finite
subset {Vb Y2,"" Ym} of Xl is contained in K n (UY!=1 F(Yj)) = UJ!=1 G(Yj).
Then by Theorem 3.3 nyEX1G(y) =1= 0. As
D n (ni=IF(xd) :J K n (nxExoF(x)) n (ni=IF(Xi)) = nyEX1G(y),
it follows that n~I[DnF(Xi)] =1= 0 for every finite subset {XI,X2, ... ,X n }
of X. Since D is compact, so is also D n F(x). Hence, nxEx[D n F(x)] =1= 0
and therefore nxEx F(x) =1= 0, or UxEx A(x) =1= Y, a contradiction. Thus, the
proof.
A consequence of Theorem 3.32 is the following due to Ky Fan [83].
vector space. Let A C X x X be such that
(i) for each X E X, {y EX: (x, y) E A} is open in X,
(ii) for each y E X, {x EX: (x, y) E A} is nonempty and convex,
(iii) there is a nonempty compact convex set K C X such that
K n {x EX: (x, y) E A} =1= 0

for every y E X\K.
Then there exists a point x E X such that (x, x) EA.
The following generalization of the KKM-map principle was established

by Ky Fan [83]. This important result is used by several researchers in recent
years. Several interesting results are derived as corollaries.
Theorem 3.34 Let Y be a convex set in a topological vector space E and
o=1= X c Y. For each x E X let F (x) be a relatively closed subset of Y and
let F : X -+ 2Y be a KKM-map. If there is a nonempty subset Xo of X
°
such that the intersection nxExo F (x) is compact and X is contained in a
compact convex subset ofY then nxExF(x) =1= 0.
Proof.
Let K stand for a compact convex subset ofY such that Xo C K. Define
G : Xo -+ 2K by G(x) = F(x) n K for each x E Xo. Then G(x) =1= 0 for
each x E Xo, and G is a KKM-map since so is F, as K is convex.
Assume that nxexoG(x) = 0. Since K is compact and K - G(x) is

relatively open in K, we have K = Ui=dK - G(xd: Xi E X o , i =
1,2,···,n} for some finite subset {Xl,X2," ' ,X n } of Xo. Thus K = K-
n~lGxi =1= K, since G is a KKM-map on Xo. This contradiction shows
that nxexoGx is a nonempty subset of K. Hence nxexoGx is compact and
nxexo Fx =1= 0.
If Xo E X - Xo then Ko = co(K, xo) is compact and convex since
K is compact convex and Xo U Xo C Ko. Hence we can apply the above
argument to F, Xo u Xo, and Ko and get nxexoFx n F(xo) =1= 0 implying
that F(xo) n K =1= 0.
Now, define G : X -t 2K by G(x) = F(x) n K for each x E X. Then G
is a KKM-map and G(x) =1= 0 for each x E X. If nxexG(x) = 0 then, as
above, we get K =1= K, a contradiction. Thus nxexGx =1= 0. This completes
the proof.
The result established by Allen [1] stated below follows from Theorem
3.34.
Theorem 3.35 Let X be a nonempty convex set in a topological vector

space E. Let f : X X X -t R be such that
(i) For each fixed x E X, f(x, y) is a lower semicontinuous function of y
onX.
(ii) For each fixed y E X, f(x, y) is a quasi-concave function of x on X
(iii) f(x,x) ;:; 0 for all x E X
(iv) X has a nonempty compact convex subset Xo such that the set {y E
X: f(x, y) ;:; 0 for all x E Xo} is compact.
Then there exists a point Yo E X such that f (x, Yo) ;:; 0 for all
x EX.
Note that by condition (i), if X is compact, then condition (iv) is fulfilled

by taking as Xo to be any nonempty closed convex subset of X.
Proof.
For x E X let F(x) = {y EX: f(x,y) ;:; o} . By (i), F(x) is closed in
X. Conditions (ii) and (iii) imply that F is a KKM-map. By (iv) X has
a nonempty compact convex subset Xo , such that nxexoFx is compact.
Hence, by Theorem 3.34 there is a point Yo E nxex Fx so f(x, Yo) ;:; 0 for
allxEX.
The following result is also due to Ky Fan [83].
Theorem 3.36 Let X be a convex set in a normed linear space E and let
4> : X -t E be a continuous map. Let Xo be a nonempty compact convex
138 CHAPTER 3
subset of X, and K a nonempty compact subset of X. If for every y E

X- K, there is a point x E Xo such that IIx - <p(y) II < Ily - <p(y)lI, then
there is a point Yo E K satisfying Ilyo - <p(yo) II = min Ilx - <p(yo) II.
xEX
Note: If <p(Yo) E X, then <P has a fixed point.

Proof.
Let f : X x X ~ R be defined by
f(x, y) = Ily - <p(y)1I - IIx - <p(y)lI·
Then conditions of Theorem 3.35 are satisfied and there exists Yo E X such
that f(x, Yo) ::; 0 for all x E X. Hence lIyo - <p(Yo)ll ::; IIx - <p(Yo) II for all
x E Xi that is, lIyo - <p(Yo) II = d(<p(yo)'X).
This theorem is used to get several fixed point theorems.
The following result [255], where the weak topology is considered, extends
a theorem due to Ky Fan [83].
Theorem 3.37 Let X be a convex subset of a locally convex topological
vector space (E, r), and let IF represent the family of seminorms generating
r. Let f : (X, "wk") ~ (E, r) be a continuous mapping where "wk" denotes
the relative weak topology on X, often denoted by a(E, E*). Let S be a
nonempty convex and weakly compact subset of X and K a weakly compact
subset of X. Let pElF and suppose f satisfy the condition:
for each y E X -K there exists an xES such that p(x- fy) < p(y- fy).
Then there exists au E K satisfying p(u - fu) = minp(x - fu).
xEX
Corollary 3.38 Let X be a nonempty convex and weakly compact subset
of E and let f: (X, "wk") ~ (E, r) be a continuous mapping.
Then for each pElF there exists a u E X satisfying p(u - fu) =
minp(x - fu).
xEX
Proof.
Let X = S = K. Then X - K = 0 and the condition is satisfied trivially.
Hence the result follows by Theorem 3.37.
In the above corollary if E is also a Hausdorff space, then either f has a
fixed point or there is a seminorm PElF and au E X with 0 < p(u- fU) =
minp(x - fu).
xEX
The following well known result due to Ky Fan [83] is a consequence of
Theorem 3.37.
Corollary 3.39 Let X be a nonempty compact convex subset of E and
f : X ~ E a continuous function. Then for each pElF there exists a
u E X satisfying p(u - fu) = min{p(x - fu) : x EX}.
Proof.
It suffices to show that f : (X, w) -+ (E, r) is continuous. Let C be
a r-closed subset of E. Then by hypothesis f- 1 (C) is r-closed in X and
since w-topology is Hausdorff, hence, f- 1 (C) is r-compact. This implies
that f-1(C) is weakly compact and hence is weakly closed.
An application of Theorem 3.34 is given due to Lin [174].
vector space E. Let A C X x X be a subset such that
(a) for each x E X, the set {y E XI(x,y) E A} is closed in X;
(b) for each y E X, the set {x E XI(x,y) f/. A} is convex or empty;
(c) (x,x) E A for each x E X;
(d) X has a nonempty compact convex subset Xo such that the set B =
{y E XI(x, y) E A for all x E Xo} is compact.
Then there exists a point Yo E B such that X x {Yo} c A.
Proof.
For each x E X, let F(x) = {y E XI(x, y) E A}. By assumption (a),
F(x) is closed in X. By assumptions (b), (c), cO{XI, ... , x n } C Ui=l F(Xi)
for any finite subset {Xl! ... , xn} of X. Indeed, let z = E~l aiXi, E?=l ai =
1,ai 2: O,i = 1, ... ,n. If z f/. Ui=lF(Xi), then (Xi'Z) f/. A for i = 1, ... ,n.
By assumption (b) applied to this z, the set {y E XI(x, z) f/. A} is convex.
Therefore, (z, z) f/. A, which contradicts (c). By assumption (d), the intersection
nXExoF(x) is contained in B and is compact. By Theorem 3.34, there exists
a point Yo E nxEX F(x), which means X x {Yo} c A.
Remark. Condition (d) of Theorem 3.40 can be replaced by the following
condition:
(d1) Let Xo be a nonempty compact convex subset of X, and K a nonempty
compact subset of X. If for every y E X\K, there is a point x E Xo
such that (x, y) f/. A.
We remark that, under the assumption (a) of the theorem, (d1) is a special
case of (d). Indeed, by (d1), the set
{y E XI((x,y) E A) for all x E Xo} C K.
By (a), the set {y E XI((x, y) E A) for all x E Xo} is closed, and is

compact.
From the above remark, we see that, under condition (d1), our conclusion
will be: there exists a point Yo E K such that X x {yo} c A.
A generalization of a variational inequality of Browder is obtained by
using Theorem 3.40.
140 CHAPTER 3
Theorem 3.41 Let X be a nonempty convex subset of a locally convex

Hausdorff topological vector space E, T a continuous mapping of X into
E*.
(d) If X has a nonempty compact convex subset Xo such that the set B =
{y E XI (Ty, y - x) 2: 0 for all x E Xo} is compact, then there exists a point
Yo E B such that (Tyo, Yo - x) 2: 0 for all x EX.
Proof.
Let
A = ((x,y) E X x XI(Ty,y - x) 2: O}.
Since T is continuous, the set {y E XI(x,y) E A} is dosed in X for x E X.
It is clear that (x,x) E A for each x E X, and the set {x E XI(x,y) ¢
A} = {x E XI(Ty,y - x) < O} is convex or empty for each y E X . By
Theorem 3.40, there exists a point Yo E B such that X x {yo} c A, that is
(Tyo, Yo - x) 2: 0 for all x E X.
Remark. Condition (d) of Theorem 3.41 can be replaced by the following
condition:
compact subset of X. If for every y E X\K there is a point x E Xo
such that (Ty,y - x) < o.
The following theorem of Fan [83] is derived directly from Theorem 3.40.
Theorem 3.42 Let X be a nonempty convex set in a normed vector space
E, and let f : X ~ E be a continuous map.
(d) If X has a nonempty compact convex subset Xo such that the set B =
{y E Xllix - f(y) II 2: lIy - f(y)1I for all x E Xo} is compact,
then there exists a point Yo E B such that
lIyo - f(yo) II = min IIx

xEX
- J(yo) II·
(In particular, if f (yo) EX, then Yo is a fixed point of f) .

Proof.
Let
A = {(x,y) E X x Xlllx - f(y) II 2: lIy - f(y)II}·
Since f is continuous, the set {y E XI(x, y) E A} is dosed in X for each
x E X. It is clear that (x,x) E A for each x E X, and the set {x E
XI(x, y) ¢ A} = {x E Xlllx - f(y) II < lIy - f(y)lI} is convex or empty. By
Theorem 3.40, there exists a point Yo E B such that X x {Yo} C Aj that is,
lIyo - f(yo) II = min IIx - f(Yo)lI·

xEX
The condition (d) of Theorem 3.42 can be replaced by the following

condition:
compact subset of X, such that for every y E X\K, there is a point
x E Xo such that
IIx - f(y) II < lIy - f(y)lI·
Under the condition (d3), it is concluded that there is a Yo E K such that
lIyo - fyoll = minx IIx - fyolI·
Theorem 3.34 is used to prove the following [174].
vector space E . Let f and 9 be two real-valued functions on X X X having
the following properties:
(a) 9 (x, y) ~ f (x, y) for all (x, y) E X X X and f (x, x) :=; 0 for all x EX;
(b) for each fixed x E X, g(x, y) is a lower semicontinuous function of y
on X;
(c) for each fixed y EX, the set {x E X!f(x, y) > O} is convex or empty;
(d) X has a nonempty compact convex subset Xo such that the set B =
{y E X!g(x, y) :=; 0 for all x E Xo} is compact.
Then there exists a point Yo E B such that g(x, Yo) ~ 0 for all x EX.
Proof.
For each x E X, let
G(x) {y E X!g(x,y) :=; O},

F(x) {y E X!f(x, y) ~ O}.
By (b), G(x) is closed in X. From (a), (c), we have
for any finite subset {XI. ... ,x n } of X. Indeed, if z = E?=l aiXi, E?=l ai =
1, ai 2: 0, and z ¢ Ui=l F(Xi), then (f(Xi), z) > 0, i = 1, . .. , n. By (c),
f(z, z) > 0, which contradicts the assumption (a). By (a) F(x) C G(x).
Then CO{Xl, ... ,x n } C Ui=lG(Xi). Since nXEXoG(X) is a closed subset of
the compact set B, nXExoG(x) is compact. By Theorem 3.34, there exists
a point Yo E nXEXG(X), which means g(x,yo) ~ 0 for all x E X.
The following result, due to Lin [174], gives the minimax inequality.
vector space. Let 9 and f be two real-valued functions on X X X having the
following properties:
(a) 9 (x, y) ~ f (x, y) for all (x, y) E X X x.
142 CHAPTER 3
(b) for each fixed x E X,g(x, y) is a lower semicontinuous function of y

on X,
(c) for each fixed y E X,J(x, y) is a quasi-concave function of x on X,
(d) if X has a nonempty compact convex subset Xo such that the set B =
{y E Xlg(x, y) :::; t for all x E Xo} is compact, if
t = sup f(x, x) < +00.

xEX
Then the minimax inequality
minsupg(x,y)::; supf(x,x)
yEB xEX xEX
holds.
Proof.
Without loss of generality, we assume that t = sUPxEX f(x, x) < +00.
Applying Theorem 3.43 to
II (x, y) = f(x, y) - t, gl (x, y) = g(x, y) - t,
the result follows.

Further, applications of Theorem 3.40 due to Lin [171] are worth including.
vector space E, Y a normed linear space. Let f, 9 : X -t Y be two continuous
maps, where 9 satisfies the condition that
(a) g-1 ([y, z]) is convex for any y, z E g(X). Moreover, we have the following
condition
(b) there exists a nonempty compact convex subset Xo of X such that
B = {u E XllIg(x) - f(u)1I 2: Ilg(u) - f(u)1I for all x E Xo}
is compact.
Then there exists a point Xo E B such that
IIg(xo) - f(xo) II = min IIg(x) - f(xo)ll·

xEX
Proof.
Let
A = ((x,u) EX X XllIg(x) - f(u)lI2: Ilg(u) - f(u)II}.

Then the set {u E XI(x,u) E A} is closed in X and (x,x) E A. For each

u E X, the set
{x E XI(x, u) rf- A} = {x E XllIg(x) - f(u)11 < IIg(u) - f(u)ll}
is convex or empty. From the condition (b),
B = {u E XI(x,u) E A for all x E Xo}
is compact. From Theorem 3.40, there exists a point Xo E B such that

X X {xo} c A. Therefore,
IIg(xo) - f(xo)1I = xEX

min IIg(x) - f(xo)lI·

vector space E, Y a normed linear space. Let f : X X X -+ Y be a continuous
map, affine in y; that is, for all x, Yl, Y2 EX, 0:'1 ~ 0, 0:'2 ~ 0,0:'1 + 0:'2 = 1,
Assume the following conditions hold:

(a) X has a nonempty compact convex subset Xo such that the set
B = {x E Xlllf(x, y)1I :2: IIf(x, x)11 for all y E Xo}
is compact,
(b) For any x E X,f(x,y) = 0 has at least one solution y in X.
Then there exists a point Xo E B such that f(xo, xo) = o.
Proof.
Let
A = {(x, y) E X X Xlllf(x, y)1I :2: IIf(x, x)II}.
Then for each Y E X, the set {x E XI(x,y) E A} is closed in X and
(x, x) E A for all x E X. For each x E X, the set {y E XI(x, y) <t. A} =
{y E Xlllf(x, y)1I < IIf(x, x)lI} is convex or empty. In fact, Let Yll Y2 belong
to the set, that is,
IIf(x, Yi)1I < IIf(x, x)lI, i = 1,2.
For 0 S; >. S; 1, we have
IIf(x, >'Yl + (1 - >')Y2)1I = lI>.f(x, yt) + (1 - >.)f(x, Y2)1I
S; >'lIf(x, ydll + (1 - >.) IIf(x, Y2) II

144 CHAPTER 3
< ,xllf(x, x)1I + (1 - ,x)lIf(x, x)11 = IIf(x, x)lI,

and ,xYI + (1 - ,x)Y2 belongs to the set {y E XI(x, y) rt. A}. Since
B {x E Xlllf(x,y)lI2: IIf(x,x)1I for all Y E Xo}
{x E XI(x,y) E A for all y E Xo}
is compact. From Theorem 3.40, there exists a point Xo E B such that

{xo} x X C A, that is,
IIf(xo, y)1I 2: IIf(xo, xo)1I for all y E X.
From condition (b), to this Xo, f(xo, y) = 0 has at least one solution, say
Yo, in X. Therefore, IIf(xo, yo) II = 0 and f(xo,xo) = o.
3.7. Open-Valued KKM-Map and Related Results

Kim [145] gave the following interesting results using the KKM-map principle.
For the proofs he used the Kakutani fixed point theorem.
Theorem 3.47 Let X = {XI, X2, "' , x n } be the set of vertices of a simplex
sn-l in RD and let F : X -+ 2 Rn be an open KKM-map. Then ni=l FXi #-
0.
He remarked that the open valued KKM-map is independent of the
closed valued KKM-map.
The following result generalizes Theorem 3.47.
Theorem 3.48 Let X be an arbitrary set in a Hausdorff topological vector
space E. Let F : X -+ 2E be an open valued KKM-map. Then ni=l Fx #- 0.
Proof.
Assume that for some finite subset {Xl, X2,"', x n } of X, we have n~lFxi =
0, and let C = co{ XI, X2, ... ,x n } be a compact convex subset of E. Consider
G : C -+ 2 c defined by G(x) = CO{Xi: x ¢ FXi} for each x E C. Then,
Theorem 3.47 gives a contradiction.
The following is an interesting result due to Kim [145].
Theorem 3.49 Let C be a nonempty closed, convex subset of a Hausdorff
topological vector space E and let F : C -+ 2c be a map such that
(i) Fx is closed for each X E C.
(ii) F-Iy = {x E C: y E Fx} is convex for each y E C.
(iii) C can be covered by some finite number of closed sets Fxl, FX2,"', Fx n •
Then there exists awE C such that wE Fw .
Proof.
Define a map G : C -+ 2 c by Gx = C - Px. Each G(x) is open
in C since Px is closed. Since C ~ Ui=lPXi, we get ni=lGxi = C -
Ui=l PXi = 0. Therefore, G is not a KKM-map, so there exists a finite
n n
subset {Yl, Y2,"', Yn} of C such that w = L:: AiYi ¢ GYi where L:: Ai = 1
i=l i=l
and Ai ~ O. Thus w E ni=lPYi, and Yi E p-1w for every i = 1,2"" n.
n
Since P-1(w) is convex, w = L::AiYi E P-1w. That is, wE P(w).
i=l
The following is based on the previous result.
Corollary 3.50 Let C be a nonempty, closed, convex subset of a Hausdorff
topological vector space E and let T : C -+ 2 c be an upper semicontinuous
convex valued map. Assume that there exists some finite subset K of C such
that Tx n K =10 for every x E C. Then T has a fixed point.
Proof.
Define G : C -+ 2 c by G(x) = T-1x = {y E C: x E T(y)}. Since T
is upper semicontinuous each G(x) is closed and G- 1(y) = (T-l )-ly = Ty
is convex. By assumption C can be covered by a finite number of closed
subsets {G(x) : x E K}. By Theorem 3.49 there exists a z E C such that
z E G(z); that is, z E T(z).
The following interesting result, due to Kim, is worth mentioning [145].
Corollary 3.51 Let C be a compact convex subset of a topological vector
space E and let f : C x C -+ R be a real valued function such that
(i) for each x E C, f(x, y) is a continuous function of y,
(ii) for each y E c, f(x, y) is a quasi-concave function of x.
Assume further that for any a E R, there exist points x, y in C such
that f(x, y) > a. Then the restriction of f to the diagonal of C x C is
unbounded.
Proof.
It suffices to show that there exists an x E C such that f(x, x) ~ a for
any a E R. Define P : C ~ 2 c by P(x) = {y E C: f(x,y) ~ a} for
each x E C. Then each P(x) is closed in C. Also, the set G(x) = {y E C :
f(x, y) > a} is open in C for each x E C. p-l(y) := {x E C: f(x, y) ~ a}
is convex for each y E C by (ii). Furthermore, {G (x) : x E C} is an
open cover of C. In fact, suppose that there exists ayE C such that
y ¢ G(x) for all x E C. Then f(x, y) :s; a for all x E C, a contradiction.
Since C is compact, C can be covered by a finite number of closed sets
P(xt}, P(X2),"', P(x n ). By Theorem 3.49 there exists an x E P(x). That
146 CHAPTER 3
is, f(x, x) 2: Q . Since Q is arbitrary the restriction of f to the diagonal of

ex C is unbounded. This completes the proof.
3.8. Further Applications

Lin [174] has given the following result which is useful in mathematical
economICS.
Theorem 3.52 Let X be a nonempty, convex, subset of a Hausdorff topological

vector space E. Let T : X -+ 2 x satisfy
(i) x rt co(Tx) for each x EX,
(ii) T-1y = {x EX: y E Tx} is open in X for each y E X
(iii) X has a nonempty compact convex subset Xo such that the
set B = {x EX : y rt Tx for all y E Xo} is compact.
Then there exists an Xo E X such that Txo = 0.
Proof.
Let F(y) = X - T-ly for each y E X. Then P(y) is closed for each
y E X by (ii) . We show that F is a KKM-map. Let z E CO{Yl' Y2, ... , Yn}.
If z rt UY=l FYi then z rt FYi for i = 1,2,···, n . That is, z rt T-1Yi,
i = 1,2, · · ., nand Yi E Tz, i = 1,2, · ··, n. This implies that z E coT(z), a
contradiction to (i) . Now
B {xEX: yrtTxforallyEXo}
{x EX : x rt T-1y for all y E Xo}
{x EX: x E Fy for all y E Xo}
nyExo{Fy}
Therefore by Theorem 3.34 nyEx Fy -# 0; that is, Xo E nyEx Fy ~ B.

This implies that Xo E T-l(y) for all y E X . That is y rt T(xo) for all
y E X, so T(xo) = 0.
The above result remains true if the following condition is given in place
of (iii).
(iii!. Let Xo be a nonempty compact convex subset of X, and K a nonempty
compact subset of X . For every x E X - K there exists ayE Xo such that
y E T(x).
Under (iii)' the set {x EX: y rt T(x) for all y E Xo} = nyEXo(X -
T-l (y)) is a closed subset of a compact set K and hence is compact so (iii)
is satisfied. If K is compact convex and K = X then (iii)' is satisfied.
The following forms are used in economic theory.
(AI) Let K be a nonempty compact convex subset of X. For each x E X-K

there exists ayE K such that y E T(x).
(B I ) There exists Yo E X such that X - {x EX: Yo E T(x)} is compact.
Al implies (iii) and BI implies (iii). If Ko = K then (iii) reduces to AI. Let
Xo = {V}. Then BI = {x EX: y ~ T(x) for all y E Xo} = {x EX: Yo ~
T(x)} = X - {x EX: Yo E T(x)}. So BI is a special case of (iii).
The following result due to Yannelis and Prabhakar [307] is derived as
a corollary.
Corollary 3.53 Let X be a nonempty compact convex subset of a Hausdorff
topological vector space. Let T : X ~ 2x satisfy the following
(i) x ~ co(Tx) for each x EX,
(ii) T-I(y) is open in X for each y E X.
Then there exists an Xo E X such that T(xo) = 0.
Corollary 3.54 Let X be a nonempty convex subset of a Hausdorff topological

vector space E. Let T : X ~ 2x satisfy
(i) x ~ T(x) for each x EX,
(ii) T (x) is convex or empty, for each x EX,
(iii) T-I(y) is open in X for each y E X,
(iv) X has a nonempty compact convex subset Xo such that the set B =
{x EX: y ~ T(x) for all y E Xo} is compact.
Then there exists an Xo E X such that T(xo) =
0.
vector space E. If A C X x X and satisfies
(i) For each y E X the set {x EX: (x, y) E A} is closed in X,
(ii) For each x E X the set {y EX: (x, y) E A} is convex or empty,
(iii) (x, x) E A for each x E A,
{x EX: (x,y) E A for all y E Xo} is compact,
then there exists an Xo E X such that {xo} X X CA .
Proof.
For each x E X let T(x) = {y EX: (x,y) ~ A}. From (iii), x ~ T(x)
for each x EX. By (i), the set {x EX: (x,y) E A} = {x EX: y ~ T(x)}
is closed in X for each y E X. So T-I(y) is open in X and (ii) implies
that T(x) is convex or empty. The set B = {x EX: (x, y) E A for all
y E Xo} = {x EX: y ~ T(x) for all y E Xo} is compact from (iv).
Therefore by Corollary 3.54, there exists an Xo E X such that T(xo) = 0.
That is, {y EX: (XO,y) E A} = X and {xo} x Xc A.
The following is an extension of Theorem 3.10.
148 CHAPTER 3

vector space E and T : X -T 2x satisfy
(i) T(x) =10 for each x E X
(ii) T(x) is convex for each x EX
(iii) T- 1 (y) is open in X for each y EX.
{x EX: y rt. T(x) for all y E Xo} is compact.
Then there exists an Xo E X such that Xo E T(xo).
Proof.
Assume that x rt. T(x) for each x E X and then seek a contradiction.
There exists an x E X such that T(x) = 0 by Corollary 3.54 using (ii),
(iii) and (iv), contradicting (i). Therefore there exists an Xo E X such that
Xo E T(xo).

vector space E. If A c X x X, and B C X x X such that
(i) A C B
(ii) For each y E X the set {x EX: (x, y) rf. B} is closed in X
(iii) For each x E X the set {y EX: (x, y) rt. A} is convex or empty.
(iv) (x,x) E A for each x E X.
(v) X has a nonempty compact convex subset Xo such that the set C =
{x EX: (x, y) E B for all y E X o} is compact.
Then there exists an Xo E X such that {xo} X X C B.
Proof.
For each y E X let F(y) = {x EX: (x,y) E B}. Then F(y) is closed
in X by (ii). Then y E F(y) and F(y) =I 0 follows from (i) and (iv). F is
a KKM-map follows from (ii) and (iv). Now C = {x EX: (x, y) E B
for all y E Xo} = nYExoF(y) is compact. Therefore, there exists an Xo E
nYExF(y). That is, {xo} X Xc B.

vector space E. Let S : X -T 2 x and T : X -T 2 x satisfy
(i) S(x) C T(x) for each x E X,
(ii) x rt. T(x) for each x E X,
(iii) T(x) is convex or empty for each x EX,
(iv) S-l(y) = {x E XI y E S(x)} is open in X for each y E X,
(v) X has a nonempty compact convex subset Xo such that the set C =
{x E XI y rt. S(x) for all y E Xo} is compact.
Then there exists an Xo E X such that S(xo) = 0.
Proof.
Let A = (X X X) - {(x,y)1 y E T(x)} and B = (X x X) - {(x,y)1 y E
S(x)}. Then A C B follows from (i), and (x, x) E A for each x E X follows
from (ii). The set {y E XI (x,y) ~ A} = {y E XI y E T(x)} = T(x) is
convex or empty for each x E X by (iii). The set {x E XI y ~ S(x)} =
{x E XI (x, y) E B} is closed in X for each y E X by (iv). Moreover,
C = {x E XI y ~ S(x) for all y E Xo} = {x E XI (x, y) E B for all y E Xo}
is compact from (v). Therefore, by Theorem 3.57, there exists an Xo E X
such that {xo} x X C B. Hence (xo,Y) E B for all y E X and y ~ S(xo)
for all y E X. That is, S(xo) = 0.

vector space E. Let S : X -+ 2x and T : X -+ 2 x satisfy the following
conditions.
S(x) C T(x) for each x EX,
(i)
S(x) i= 0 for each x E X,
(ii)
(iii)
S-l(y) is open in X for each y E X,
(iv)
T(x) is convex for each x E X,
(v)X has a nonempty compact convex subset Xo such that the set C =
{x E XI y ~ S(x) for all y E Xo} is compact.
Then T has a fixed point in X.
Proof.
If T has no fixed point, then x ~ T( x) for each x EX. Theorem 3.58
implies that there exists an Xo E X such that S(xo) = 0, contradicting (ii).

vector space. Let A C X x X and B C X x X satisfy
(i) A C B,
(ii) For each y E X the section {x E XI (x,y) E A} is open in X,
(iii) For each x E X the section {y E XI (x, y) E A} is nonempty, and the
section {y EX: (x, y) E B} is convex.,
(iv) X has a nonempty compact convex subset Xo such that the set C =
{x E XI (x,y) ~ A for all y E Xo} is compact.
Then there exists Xo E X such that (xo, xo) E B.
Proof.
Let U = (X x X) - B and V = (X x X) - A. Then U C V follows from
(i). For each y E X the set {x E XI (x, y) E V} = {x E XI (x, y) ~ A}
is closed in X from (ii). For each x E X, the set {y E XI (x, y) ~ U} =
{y E XI (x, y) E B} is convex from (iii). The set C = {x E XI (x, y) ~
A for all y E Xo} = {x E XI (x, y) E V for all y E Xo} is compact by
(iv).
150 CHAPTER 3
If we assume that (x, x) ¢ B for all x E Xj that is, (x, x) E U for

x E X, then we get a contradiction. Theorem 3.57 implies that there exists
an Xo E X such that {xo} x X C Vj that is, (XO,y) ¢ A for all y E X.
Hence {y E XI (xo,y) E A} = 0, a contradiction to (iii). Thus there exists
an Xo E X such that (xo, xo) E B.
Mehta [186] proved the following result and then gave an application in
the theory of economics. This is another extension of Theorem 3.10.
Theorem 3.61 Let X be a convex subset of a Hausdorff topological vector

space E and T : X -+ 2 x a multifunction such that
(i) T(x) is nonempty and convex for each x E X,
(ii) T-1y = {x EX: y E Tx} contains an open subset Ay of X for each
yEX,
(iii) U{A y : y E X} = X,
(iv) There exists a nonempty subset Xo of X such that nXExo{A~} tS
compact and Xo is contained in a compact convex subset of E.
Then T has a fixed point.
Proof.
Assume that T has no fixed point. That is, assume that x ¢ T-Ix for any
x E X or that x ¢ Ax for all x. For x E X define Fx = A; . Since Ax is open
in X for each x EX, so Fx is relatively closed subset of X for each x EX.
The set nXExoFx is compact by (iv) for some Xo contained in a compact
convex subset. Let {Xl, X2,···, x n } be a finite subset of X. We claim that
F is a KKM-map. We need to show that CO(XI' X2,··· ,x n ) ~ Ui=l FXi.
n
Let z E co(xt, X2,·· ., x n ). Then z = L AiXi, where 0 < Ai < 1, and,
i=l
n
L Ai = 1. Assume that z ¢ U~l FXi. Then z ¢ A;; for i = 1,2,···, n. Thus
i=l
for each i, z E Ax;. But Ax; ~ T-1(Xi) for all i by (ii). This implies that
Xi E T(z) for all i. Since T(z) is convex by (i) so z E T(z), a contradiction to
the statement that T has no fixed point. Thus CO(Xl, X2,···, x n ) ~ Ui=l FXi.
By Theorem 3.34 we conclude that nxEx Fx =/; 0. Let Xo E nFx. Then
Xo E Fx = A; for all x E X contradicting (iii). This proves that T has a
fixed point.
Definition 3.62 A point Xo E X is said to be a maximal element of T :

X -+ 2 x ifT(xo) = 0.
The following is due to Yannelis and Prabhakar [307].

Theorem 3.63 Let X be a convex subset of a Hausdorff topological vector

space E, and let T : X -+ 2 x be a multifunction such that
(i) for each x EX, Tx is convex,
(ii) for each x E X, x ~ Tx,
(iii) for each y E X, T-ly contains an open subset Ay of X,
(iv) U{Ay : y E X} = X, and
(v) there is a nonempty subset Xo of X such that nxEXo (Ax)C is compact
and Xo is contained in a compact convex subset of E.
Then T has a maximal element.
Proof.
The proof follows immediately from Theorem 3.61.
The following interesting result is due to Buoi [37].
Theorem 3.64 Let D be a nonempty convex subset of a Hausdorff topological
vector space and let C be a subset of D. Let f : D X C -+ R be a real
function such that for each x in D, f(x,.) is lower semicontinuous on C
and for each y in C, f (., y) is quasi-concave in x on D. In addition, if there
exists a restriction 9 of D onto C and a nonempty compact convex subset
D' of D such that
(i) f(x,gx) < 0 for all XED,
(ii) for each y in D' - C there is an x in D such that f(x,gy) > 0,
(iii) for each z in D - D' there is an x in D' such that f(x,gz) > 0,
then there exists a u in C such that f (x, u) < 0 for all x in D.
Proof.
For each x in DIet hx = {y ED: f(x, gy) < o}. Since f(x,.) is
lower semicontinuous on C, hx is relatively closed in D. Also h is a KKM-
map. Indeed, suppose that there is a finite subset {Xl,X2,"',X n } of D
such that co{ xl, X2,"', x n } g; Ui=l hXi; that is, f(x, gy) > 0 for all i =
n
1,2"" ,n, where y = Lrixi. Since f(.,gy) is quasi-concave on D, we get
i=l
that f(y,gy) > 0, a contradiction.
We conclude that there is a point u in D such that u E n{hx : XED}.
By (ii), u is in C and thus f(x, u) < 0 for all x in D.
This theorem extends the result ofKy Fan [85] for variational inequalities.
3.9. Equivalent Formulation of the KKM-Map Principle

The following interesting theorems are due to Mehta and Tarafdar [187].
Theorem 3.65 Let K be a compact convex subset of a linear topological
space E and let T : K -+ 2K be a mapping such that
152 CHAPTER 3
(i) Tx is convex for each x in K,

(ii) x <t Tx,
(iii) if Tx i- 0 then there exists a y in K such that x E (T-1y)o.
Then there exists a u in K such that Tu = 0.
Theorem 3.66 Let K be a compact convex subset of a topological vector
space E and let T : K ~ 2K be such that
(i) x <t coTx for each x in K,
(ii) if Tx i- 0 there exists a y in K such that x E (coT-1yt.
Then there exists a u in K such that Tu = 0.
The following is due to Tarafdar [294].
space E and let T : K ~ 2K such that
(i) for each x in K, Tx is a nonempty, convex, subset of K,
(ii) for each y in K, T-1y {x E K: y E Tx} contains an open subset
Oy of K,
(iii) U{Ay : y E K} = K.
Then there exists a point u in K such that u E Tu.
The following well known result is due to Granas et al. [103].
space E and let A : K ~ 2K be a map such that
(i) A-ly is convex for each y in K, and
(ii) there exists a selection B : K ~ 2K of A (Bx ~ Ax for every x in K)
such that
(a) B-ly i- 0 for every y in K, and
(b) Bx is open for every x in K .
Then there exists a u in K such that u E Au.
Border [19] gave the following.
space E and T : K ~ 2K a map such that
(i) for each x in K, x <t co(Tx),
(ii) if Tx i- 0, there exists a y in K such that x E T-1u ° (where Co is the
topological interior of C).
Then there exists an x in K such that T x = 0.
Theorem 3.70 Theorems 3.65- 3.69 are equivalent [187].
It is shown that Theorem 3.67 is equivalent to Theorem 3.68 (details

[187]) .
(A) Theorem 3.68 implies Theorem 3.67.

Suppose that the conditions of Theorem 3.67 hold. Define A : K -t 2K
by Ax = T-1x for x E K.
It is clear that A-I(x) = Tx.
Condition (i) of Theorem 3.67 implies that Tx is convex for all x. Since
Tx = A-IX for all x E K so condition (i) of Theorem 3.68 is satisfied.
Let B(x) = Ox' Then B is a selection of A since B(x) = Ox ~ T-IA =
Ax for all x. By (ii), B(x) is open for all x, hence condition (2) (b) of
Theorem 3.68 is satisfied.
Now, it is shown that B-1y =P 0. Let y E K. By (iii), y E B(x) for
some x E K. So x E B-l(y) and B-I(y) =P 0.
Hence, all the conditions of Theorem 3.68 are satisfied and A has a
fixed point, so this is a fixed point of A-I = T; that is, T has a fixed
point.
(B) Theorem 3.67 implies Theorem 3.68.
Suppose that the conditions of Theorem 3.68 hold. Define T : X -t 2x
by Tx = A-I(x) for all x E X . Since A-I(X) is convex for all x by
condition (i) of Theorem 3.68, so Tx is convex and condition (i) of
Theorem 3.67 is satisfied. Now, T-1(x) = Ax = B(x) since B is a
selection of A. Define Ox = B (x) ~ T- 1 (x). Since B (x) is open for all
x by condition (ii) (b) of Theorem 3.68, so condition (ii) of Theorem
3.67 is satisfied.
Let y EX. Then B-1(y) =P 0 by (ii) (a) of Theorem 3.68. Let x E
B-1(y). Then y E B(x) and condition (iii) of Theorem 3.67 is satisfied.
Thus, all the conditions of Theorem 3.67 are satisfied and T has a fixed
point Xo; that is, A = T- 1 has a fixed point Xo.
Thus, Theorem 3.67 is equivalent to Theorem 3.68.
Tarafdar [291] gave the following interesting equivalent results. In the
following, E is a Hausdorff (real) topological vector space, X a nonempty
convex subset of E, AC (complement of A) = X\A.
Theorem 3.71 Let P : X -+ 2x be a set valued mapping such that
(i) for each x E X, P(x) is a nonempty convex subset of X;
(ii) for each y E X, P-1(y) = {x EX: y E P(x)} contains a relatively
open subset Oy of X (Oy may be empty for some y);
=
(iii) UXEXOx X;
(iv) there exists a nonempty subset Xo of X such that Xo is contained in a
compact convex subset X I of X and the set D = nxExo O~ is compact
(D could be empty), O~ being the complement of Ox in X. Then there
exists a point Xo E X such that Xo E P(xo).
Theorem 3.72 Let 0 =P y ~ X. For each y E Y, let f(y) be a relatively
closed subset of X such that the convex hull of each finite subset {Yll Y2,··· l Yn}
154 CHAPTER 3
of Y is contained in the corresponding union U~l F (Yi). Then for each

nonempty subset Yo of Y such that Yo is contained in a compact convex
subset YI of X, nYEYoF(y) # 0. If, in addition, the set nYEYoF(y) is
compact, then nyEy F(y) # 0.
Theorem 3.73 Let A ~ X X X be a subset such that
(i) (x, x) E A for each x E X;
~-~--;----:-~
(ii) for each x E X, the set {y EX: (x,y) E A} is a subset of X;
(iii) for each y EX, the set {x EX: (x, y) tJ. A} is convex or empty; and
(iv) X has a nonempty subset Xo contained in a compact convex subset
Xl of X such that the set B = nxExo{Y EX: (x, y) E A} is compact.
Then the set nxEx {y EX: (x, y) E A} is a nonempty subset of B.
Theorem 3.74 Let f and 9 be two real valued functions defined on X X X
such that
(i) f(x, y) ~ g(x, y) for all x, y EX;
(ii) g(x, x) ~ 0 for all x E X;
(iii) for each y E X, the subset {x EX: f(x,y) ~ O} is a subset of X;
(iv) for each x EX, the set {y EX: g(x, y) > O} is convex or empty; and
(v) X has a nonempty set Xo contained in a compact convex subset Xl of
X such that the set
C = nyExo{x EX: f(x,y) ~ O}

is compact.
Then the set nyEx{x EX: f(x,y) ~ O} is a nonempty compact subset
ofC.
Theorem 3.75 Let 9 : X X X -t R be a function satisfying
(i) g(x, x) ~ 0 for each x E X;
..,.-"'--~~;--~--:-::-:;-
(ii) for each y E X, the set {x EX: g(x,y) ~ O} is a subset of X;
(iii) for each x EX, the set {y EX: g( x, y) > O} is convex or empty; and
(iv) X has a nonempty subset Xo contained in a compact convex subset X I
of X such that the set
L = nyEXo{x EX: g(x,y) ~ O}
is compact.
Then the set nyEx{x EX: g(x, y) ~ O} is a nonempty compact subset of
L.
Tarafdar [291] has shown that all ofthe above five theorems are equivalent.
Recently, Tan and Yuan [287] proved results showing their equivalence.
They proved several interesting results extending earlier works. Here E
need not be Hausdorff.
Theorem 3.76 Let X be a nonempty convex subset of a topological vector

space and <p, 'IjJ : X x X -7 R U {-oo, oo} be such that
(i) <p(x, y) :::; 'IjJ(x, y) for each (z, y) E X x X;
(ii) for each fixed x E X, Y -7 'IjJ(x, y) is a lower semicontinuous function
of y on each nonempty compact subset C of X;
(iii) for each A E F(X) and for each y E co(A), minxEA 'IjJ(x, y) :::; 0;
(iv) there exist a nonempty closed and compact subset K of X and Xo EX
such that 'IjJ(xo, y) > 0 for all y E X\K.
Then there exists y E K such that <p( x, y) :::; 0 for all x EX .
Theorem 3.77 (Geometric Form) Let X be a nonempty convex subset of
a topological vector space and B, D C X x X be such that
(i) BCD;
(ii) for each fixed x E X and for each nonempty compact subset C of X,
the set {y E C: (x,y) E B} is open in C;
(iii) for each A E F(X) and for each y E co(A) , there exists x E A such
that (x, y) rf. D;
(iv) there exists a nonempty closed and compact subset K of X and Xo E X
such that (xo,Y) ED for all y E X\K.
Then there exists V E K such that {x EX : (x,V) E B} = 0.
Theorem 3.78 (Geometric form) Let X be a nonempty convex subset of
a topological vector space and M, N C X x X be such that
(i) N C M;
(ii) for each fixed x E X and for each nonempty compact subset C of X,
the set {y E C : (x, y) E M} is closed in C;
(iii) for each A E F(X) and for each y E co(A), there exists x E A such
that (x, y) E N;
such that (xo, y) rf. N for all y E X\K.
Then there exists V E X such that X x {V} c M.
Theorem 3.79 (Maximal Element) Let X be a nonempty convex subset of
a topological vector space and P, Q : X -7 2x be such that
(i) for each x EX, P(x) C Q(x);
(ii) for each X E X, p- 1 (x) is compactly open in X;
(iii) for each A E F(X) and for each y E co(A), there exists x E A such
that x rf. Q(y);
such that X\K C Q-l(XO).
Then there exists V E K such that P(Y) = 0.
156 CHAPTER 3
Tan and Yuan [288] have shown that all are equivalent.
They have given further interesting results which we include here.
space and </>, 'IjJ : X X X --t R U { -00, +oo} be such that
(i) </>(x, y) ~ 'IjJ(x, y) for each (x, y) E X x X and 'IjJ(x, x) ~ 0 for each
x EX;
(ii) for each fixed x E X, Y 1-+ </>(x, y) is a lower semicontinuous function
of y on each nonempty compact subset C of X;
(iii) for each fixed y E X, the set {x EX: 'IjJ(x, y) > O} is convex;
(iv) there exists a nonempty closed and compact subset K of X and a point
Xo E X such that 'IjJ(xo, y) > 0 for all y E X\K.
Then there exists yE K such that </>( x, Y) ~ 0 for all x EX.
space and P, Q : X --t 2x be such that
(i)for each x EX, P(x) C Q(x);
(ii)for each x E X, p- 1 (x) is compactly open in X;
(iii)for each y E X, Q(y) is convex;
(iv) there exists a nonempty closed and compact subset K of X and a point
Xo E X such that X\K, C Q-l(XO);
(v) for each y E K, P(y) -# 0.
Then there exists a point x E X such that x E Q (x).
3.10. Theory of the H-KKM-Map Principle

KKM theorem has been generalized in various ways and has proved to be
a very versatile tool in many areas of mathematics. In this section, a few
recent results in H-spaces are given. These results do extend and unify
earlier work. The H-space was introduced by Horvath [125, 126] and later
on many researchers gave interesting results in this space.
We give a few definitions:
These are mainly from [10, 11]. A pair (X, {TA}), where X is a topological
space and {TA} is a given family of nonempty contractible subsets of X,
indexed by the finite subsets of X, such that A C B implies TA C TB , is
called an H-space. Let (X, {TA}) be an H-space. A subset C of X is called
H-convex if for every finite subset A of C it follows that TA is contained
in C. A subset C of X is weakly H-convex if for every finite subset A of
C TA n C is nonempty and contractible. Recall that a set C is said to be
contractible at y E C if there is a continuous map f : C x [0,1] ---+ C such
that f(x,O) = x for all x E C and f(x, 1) = y for y E C. A convex set is
contractible.
A subset C of X is called H-compact if for every finite subset A of X

there exists a compact weakly H-convex set K of X such that K U A c C.
A Hausdorff topological vector space is an H-space. For every finite
subset A = {Xl,X2, ... ,X n } C X, we set TA = CO{Xl,X2, ... ,X n }. Any
convex subset of X is H-convex and every nonempty compact convex subset
is H-space.
Let (X, {TA}) be an H-space. A function F: X -+ 2x is called H-KKM
if TA C UXEAFx for each finite subset A of X.
Theorem 3.82 Let (X, {r A}) be an H-space and F: X -+ X an H-KKM
multifunction such that:
(a) for each x E X, F(x) is compactly closed; that is, B n F(x) is closed
in B, for every compact B eX.
(b) there is a compact set LeX and an H -compact K eX, such that for
each weakly H -convex set D with KeD eX, we have nxED (F (x) n
D) c L.
Then nxEXF(X) =/;0.
Theorem 3.83 Let (X, {r A}) be an H -space, G, F : X -+ X two
multifunctions such that:
(a) for every x E X,G(x) is compactly closed and F(x) c G(x).;
(b) x E F(x), for every x E Xi
(c) for every x E X, F*(x) is H -convex;
(d) the multifunction G verifies property (b) of Theorem 3.82.
Then nxExG(x) =/;0 flO}.
Using the following interesting result of Horvath [125, 126] and the
partition of unity argument, Tarafdar [289] proved a few results extending
earlier works. Here, we give them without proofs.
Theorem 3.84 Let (X, {FA}) be an H -space and F : X -+ 2 x be a set-
valued mapping such that
(i) for each x EX, F(x) is nonempty and H-convex;
(ii) for each y E X, F-l(y) = {z EX: y E F(x)} contains a compactly
open subset Oy of X (Oy could be empty for some y);
(iii) UXEXOx = Xi and
(iv) there exists a compact subset L of X and an H -compact subset K of
X such that for every weakly H -convex subset D with KeD eX,
we have
nxED(O; n D) c L,
where O~ denotes the complement of Ox in X.
Then there is a point Xo E X such that Xo E F(xo).
158 CHAPTER 3
Tarafdar has shown that Theorem 3.82 is equivalent to Theorem 3.84.

In other papers, Tarafdar [290] proved some further results. Ding and Tan
[64] gave further extensions of the KKM theorem as stated below.
Theorem 3.85 Let X be a nonempty subset of an H-space (Y,{FA}), Z
be a topological space and G : X ~ 2z be such that
(aJ for each x E X,G(x) is compactly closed in Z.
(bJ for some continuous map s : Y ~ Z, the map F : X ~ 2Y defined by
F(x) = s-l(G(x)) is H-KKM.
(cJ there exists an H-compact subset L of Y and a nonempty compact
subset K of Z such that for each BE F(X) and/or each Z E S(LB)\K,
there is an x E LB n X satisfying Z E G(x) n S(LB).
Then K n nxExG(x) =/:0.
Theorem 3.86 Let X be a nonempty subset of an H-space (Y, {FA}), and
G : X ~ 2Y be such that
(a J for each x EX, G (x) is compactly closed in Y.
(bJ G is an H-KKM map.
(cJ there exists an H -compact subset L of Y and a nonempty compact
subset K ofY such that for each B E F(X) and for each y E LB\K,
there is an x E LB n X satisfying y (j. G(x) n S(LB).
Then K n nxExG(x) =/:0.
Ding [60] gave further interesting results in H-spaces. He gave some
applications of H-KKM theorem to geometric properties of H-spaces, coincidence
theorems, and minimax inequalities in H-spaces
Partitions of Unity and Applications
4.1. Introduction
In nonlinear analysis, several interesting results have been proved by using
a technique known as the partition of unity. This approach is based upon
elementary topological tools - the existence of a finite covering of a compact
space, and a partition of unity subordinated to this covering and then the
Brouwer fixed point theorem for single-valued mappings.
Let X be a compact Hausdorff space and let {AI,···, An} be a finite
family of open subsets of X such that X = Ui;:l Ai. Then there exist
continuous functions 131,132, ... ,f3n on X satisfying the following.
(i) 0 ::; f3i (x) ::; 1 for all i, 1 ::; i ::; n, x EX.
n
(ii) Lf3i(X) = 1 for all x EX.
i=l
(iii) f3i(X) = 0 if x rt A.
We call the family {f31,···, f3n} a partition of unity corresponding to
{At,···, An}.
A family of functions {fo: : X -+ R.+} is a locally finite partition of unity
if L fo: = 1 and each point has a neighbourhood on which all but finitely
0:
many fo: vanish.
A set A is called paracompact if it has the property that whenever
{Ao:} is an open cover of A then there is a locally finite partition of unity
subordinate to it. Every subset of R.n is paracompact. Every metric space
is paracompact.
In many problems in nonlinear functional analysis, applied mathematics,
and economics, the selection theorem is a very useful tool for proving the
existence of a solution. The concept of a selection was studied by Michael
[189] [190]. The application of a selection theorem in the proof of fixed point
theorems is well known.
Definition 4.1 Let X and Y be Hausdorff topological vector spaces and
F : X -+ 2Y a multifunction. Then f : X -+ Y is called a selection of F if
f(x) E F(x) for each x EX.
The following is a well-known selection theorem due to Michael [189].
159
160 CHAPTER 4
Theorem 4.2 Let X and Y be Banach spaces and T : X -+ 2Y lower

semicontinuous and T(x) nonempty closed convex for every x EX. Then
T admits a continuous selection.
The following is a well-known result due to Browder [27].
Theorem 4.3 Let X be a compact Hausdorff space and Y a topological
vector space, and T : X -+ 2Y a nonempty convex-valued function. Suppose
that for each y E Y, T-1y = {x EX: y E Tx} is open. Then T has a
selection.
Proof.
The family {T-1y : y E Y} is an open cover for X. Since X is compact,
there is a finite set {yt, Y2, ... , Yn} such that {T-1Yi : i = 1,2, ... , n} covers
X. Let {!h, . .. ,,8n} be the partition of unity subordinate to this covering.
Define p( x) = 'E,8i (x )Yi. Then p : X -+ Y is a continuous function. If
,8i(X) =I 0, then x E T-1Yi and so Yi E Tx. Since Tx is convex and p(x)
is a convex combination of points Yi E Tx, p(x) E T(x). That is, p is a
continuous selection.
The following is a well-known result [189].
Theorem 4.4 Let X be a paracompact space and Y a Banach space. Let
F : X -+ 2Y be a lower semicontinuous nonempty closed and convex-valued
multifunction. Then F has a selection.
4.2. Browder's Theorem and its Applications

Browder [27] gave the following interesting theorem, which has applications
in various fields including fixed point theory, variational inequality, and
minimax theorem.
For proving this theorem, the basic tools were the partition of unity and
the Brouwer fixed point theorem.
Theorem 4.5 Let C be a nonempty compact convex subset of a topological
vector space E, where E is separated but not necessarily locally convex. Let
F : C -+ 2c be a multifunction with (i) F (x) nonempty and convex for each
x E C, and (ii) for each y E C, F-l (y) = {x E C : y E F(x)} is nonempty
and open in C. Then there exists a z E C such that z E F(z) .
Proof.
The family {F-l(y) : y E C} is an open cover of C. Since C is
compact, there exists a finite set {Yl, ... ,Yn} such that C ~ UrF-1Yi.
Let {,8t, ,82, ... , ,8n} be a continuous partition of unity subordinated to this
covering. Define a continuous function p : C -+ C by setting
n
p(x) = L,8i(X)Yi.
i=l
Since each Yi lies in C and p(x) is a convex combination of the points Yi,p(X)
lies in C. For each i such that !3i(X) =1= 0, x E P-l(Yi)i that is, Yi E F(x).
Since F(x) is convex and p(x) is a convex combination of points Yi, hence,
p(x) E F(x) for all x E C.
Let D be the finite dimensional simplex spanned by the finite set {Yl, ... , Yn}.
Then p : D -+ D is a continuous function. By the Brouwer fixed point
theorem there is an xED such that x = px E P(x).
As a consequence of this, the following well known result in variational
inequality due to Browder [27] is obtained. The proof is as given in [27].
Theorem 4.6 Let C be a compact convex subset of the locally convex topological
vector space E and let f : C -+ E* be a continuous function . Then there
exists a Uo E C such that
(Juo, Uo - v) ~ 0 for all v E C. (4.0)
The point Uo is said to be a solution of (4.0).

Proof.
It is proved by contradiction. Assume that the assertion is false. Then
for each Uo E C there exists a v E C such that (Juo, Uo - v) < O.
For each Uo E C, let
Fuo = {u E C: (Juo,uo - u) < o} .

Then PUo is nonempty for each Uo E C and is convex. Since f : C -+ E*
is a continuous mapping on the compact set C, so g(u) = (Ju, v - u) is a
continuous function of v on C for each fixed u E C. Hence
p-l(U) = {uo E C : (Juo, Uo - u) < o}
is a nonempty open subset of C for each u E C.

By Theorem 4.5, there exists a Uo E C such that Uo E Fuo. However,
for this Uo,
o > (Juo, Uo - uo) = 0
a contradiction. Thus, the proof.
The following result due to Sion [276], known as the minimax theorem,
is a consequence of Theorem 4.5. The proof is based on as in [282].
Theorem 4.7 Let X and Y be compact convex sets of a topological vector
space E and let f : X x Y -+ IR be a function satisfying
(i) for each Y E Y and each real number a the set {x EX: f(x,y) ~ a}
is closed and convex,
(ii) for each x E X and each real number a the set {y E Y : f(x, y) ~ a}
is closed and convex.
162 CHAPTER 4
Then
max min f(x, y) = min maxf(x,y).
yEY xEX xEX yEY
Proof.
Let c be such that
maxminf(x,y)
y x
< c < minmaxf(x,y).
x y
Define a set val ued map F : X x Y --r 2x x Y by
F(x,y) = By x Ax
where By = {x EX: f(x,y) > c} and Ax = {y E Y : f(x,y) < c}. By

Theorem 4.5, we get (xo, Yo) E X x Y such that (xo, Yo) E F(xo, Yo) giving
c < f(xo, Yo) < c a contradiction, so
maxminf(x,y) = minmaxf(x,y).
y x x y
The following fixed point theorem due to Browder [26], which extends
and unifies several results, is obtained by using Theorem 4.5.
Theorem 4.8 Let E be a locally convex topological vector space, K a compact
convex subset of E, f : K --r E a continuous map. Let p : K x E --r R such
that for each real number r and for each x E K the set {y : y E E, p(x, y) <
r} is convex.
Suppose that for each x E K for which f (x) i= x, there exists ayE K
such that
p(x,y - f(x)) < p(x,x - f(x)).
Proof.
Suppose that f has no fixed points in K. For each x E K let T(x) =
{y E K : p(x, y - f(x)) < p(x, x - f(x))}. Then for each x E K, T(x) is
nonempty and convex. Since p is continuous so for each y E K, T- 1 (y) is
open. Hence, by Theorem 4.5, we get a contradiction. Hence the theorem.
The above Theorem 4.8 is used to prove the following fixed point theorem
[26].
Theorem 4.9 Let E be a locally convex topological vector space, K a compact
convex subset of E, f : K --r E a continuous map. Suppose that p : K X E --r
IR is a continuous convex function. Suppose further that for each x E K such
that x i= f (x), there exists a point y ElK (x) such that
p(x,y - f(x)) < p(x,x - f(x)).

Proof.
If Y E K, then the proof follows from Theorem 4.8.
In case Y is outside K, then there is a u E K such that u = (1 - ).)x +
).y,O < ). < 1. Since p(x,·) is convex, so
p(x, u - f(x)) = p(x, (1 - ).)x + ).y - f(x)) < (1 - ).)p(x, x - f(x))

+).p(x, y - f(x)) < p(x, x - f(x )).
Hence, the conditions of Theorem 4.8 are satisfied and f has a fixed point.
Browder [27] proved the following where C need not be compact. This
is a selection theorem.
Theorem 4.10 Let C be a closed subset of the Hausdorff topological vector

space E. Let T : C -+ 2F be a nonempty convex valued map, where F is
a Hausdorff topological vector space. Suppose that for each y E F, T-1y
is open in C. Suppose further that there exists a compact subset Co of C
and a Yo E F such that for each x E C\Co, Yo E Tx. Then there exists a
continuous function f of C into a subset of F which is the convex span of
a finite number of points such that for each x E C, f (x) E T (x) .
Proof.
Since Co is compact, it is covered by a finite family of open sets
{T-1y}, ... , T-1Yn}. Hence
Let {fh, {h, ... , ,Bn} be partition of unity subordinate to this finite open
cover of C.
Define
n
f(x) = L,Bi(X)Yi.
i=l
Then f is a continuous function from C into the convex span of the finite
set {Y}' .. . ,Yn}.
For x E C, if ,Bi(X) =1= 0, then x E T-1Yij that is, Yi E Tx. Then f(x) is
a convex combination of points of Tx. Since Tx is convex, so f(x) E T(x).
The following extension of Theorem 4.5 is a corollary of Theorem 4.10.
Theorem 4.11 Let C be a closed convex subset of a Hausdorff topological

vector space E, T : C -+ 2c nonempty convex valued map such that for
each Y E C, T- 1Y is open in C. Suppose further that there exists a compact
subset Co ofC and a Yo E C such that Yo E T(x) for all x E C\Co. Then
T has a fixed point.
164 CHAPTER 4
Proof.
By Theorem 4.10, there exists a continuous function f of C into the
convex span of a finite subset of C such that f(x) E T(x) for all x E C. By
the Brouwer fixed point theorem, f has a fixed point Xo and so Xo = fxo E
Txo·
Theorem 4.5 has an interesting application given below. The following
result is known as the Ky Fan's minimax lemma [85].
Theorem 4.12 Let C be a compact convex subset of a Hausdorff topological
vector space E and f : C X C -+ R such that
(i) f(x,x) ~ 0 for all x E C
(ii) for each x E C, {y : f(x, y) > O} is convex
(iii) for each y E C the function f (' , y) is lower semicontinuous on C.
Then there exists an Xo E C such that
f(xo, y) ~ 0 for all y E C.
Proof.
For each x E C, let
Tx = {y E C: f(x, y) > O}.
Then Tx is convex for each x E C by (ii).
T-1y is open in C for each y E C by (iii).
If Tx =I 0 for each x E C, then T would have a fixed point Xo by
Theorem 4.5, for which f(xo, xo) > 0, a contradiction to (i). So for some
Xl,Txl = 0, that is, f(Xl,Y) ~ 0 for all y E C.
The following result due to Browder [25] stated without proof yields
a well known theorem of Brezis, Nirenberg and Stampacchia [22] as a
corollary.
Theorem 4.13 Let C be a convex subset of a Hausdorff topological vector
space E, and T : C -+ C a nonempty convex-valued map with the following
properties:
(a) there exists a compact subset Co of C and a Yo E Co such that Yo lies
in Tx for all x E C\Co.
(b) for each finite dimensional subspace F of E, the map TF : C n F -+
C n F given by
TF(X) = T(x) n F,
has the property that Ti1y is open in CF for each y E CF (CF =
CnF) .
(c) if x f3 is a convergent filter in C with limit x and if for all f3 and a line
segment D ending at x, T (x f3) is disjoint from D, then T (x) is disjoint
from D.
The following is due to Brezis, Nirenberg and Stampacchia [22].

Corollary 4.14 Let C be a convex subset of a Hausdorff topological vector
space E, f : C x C -t lR. such that
(i) f(x, x) ~ 0 for all x E C,
(ii) for y E C the set {x : x E C, f(x, y) > o} is convex,
(iii) for each fixed y E C, f(x,y) is a lower semicontinuous function of x
on C n F for each finite dimensional subspace F of E,
(iv) if x and y are distinct points of C and if { u{3} is a filter on C converging
to x, then f(u{3, (1 - t)x + ty) ~ 0 for every t E [0,1] implies that
f(x,y) ~ 0,
(v) there exists a compact subset Co of C and Yo E Co such that f (x, yo) >
o for all x E C\Co.
Then there exists an Xo E Co such that
f(xo, y) ~ 0 for all y E C.
Proof.
For each x E C set
T(x) = {y: y E C,f(x,y) > O}.
Then T(x) is convex for all x E C by (ii). For each finite dimensional
subspace F of E, T-ly n F is open in C n F by (iii). Conditions (c) and
(a) of Theorem 4.13 are implied by (iv) and (v), respectively. Since T has
no fixed point by (i), so Tx must be empty for some x E Co. Hence, there
is an Xo E Co such that f(xo, y) ~ 0 for all y E C.
The following is useful in economics.
Let C be a subset of a linear topological space E. With each binary
relation P on C, one can associate a multifunction F : C -t 2° as follows:
y E F(x) {::} (x, y) E P. Conversely, if F : C -t 2° is a multifunction, then
a binary relation P is defined on C by the condition that (x, y) E P <=> y E
F(x).
Definition 4.15 A point Xo E C is said to be a maximal element of the
multifunction F : C -t 2° if F(xo) = 0 with reference to binary relation P.
The following result is due to Yannelis and Prabhakar [308].
Theorem 4.16 Let X be a compact convex subset of a Hausdorff topological
vector space E and F : X -t 2x a multifunction such that,
(i) for all x E X, x ¢ coF(x),
(ii) for each y E X, F-1(y) = {x EX: y E F(x)} is open in X.
Then there exists an x E X such that Fx = 0; that is, x is a maximal
element in X.
166 CHAPTER 4
Proof.
Suppose that for all x E X,F(x) =1= 0. Define G: X -+ 2x by G(x) =
co F(x) for all x E X. Then G(x) is convex and nonempty. Also, G-1y =
{x EX: y E G(x)} is open in X for each y E X [308].
So by Theorem 4.5, there is an x E X such that x E G(x) = co F(x),
contradiction to the assumption that x rt. co F(x) for all x E X.
In a Euclidean space JRn, the following holds [308].
Theorem 4.17 Let X be a nonempty compact convex subset ofJRn and T :
X -+ 2x a lower semicontinuous map such that for all x E X, x rt. eoT(x).
Then there is an x E X such that Tx = 0.
Proof.
Suppose that for all x E X, Tx =1= 0. Then G : X -+ 2x defined
by G(x) = coT(x) for all x E X is nonempty convex valued and lower
semicontinuous. By Theorem 4.2, there is an x E X such that x E Gx =
coT(x), a contradiction.
Another consequence of Theorem 4.5 is the following result proved in
[136].
Theorem 4.18 Let X be a nonempty compact convex subset of a locally
convex topological vector space E. Let A be a subset of X X X such that
(i) for any y E X the set {x EX: (x, y) E A} is closed,
(ii) (x,x) E A for every x E X,
(iii) for any x E X the set {y EX: (x, y) rt. A} is convex.
Then, there exists a point Xo E X such that Xo x X CA.
Proof.
Suppose that for each x EX, there exists ayE X such that (x, y) rt. A.
Set Tx = {y EX: (x, y) rt. A} for each x E X. Then Tx is nonempty
and convex for each x E X and T-1y is open for each y EX. Hence, by
Theorem 4.5, there is an Xo E X such that Xo E Txo; that is, (xo, xo) rt. A
contradiction to (ii).
An interesting consequence of Theorem 4.18 is the following well known
result of Browder [27).
convex topological vector space E 1. Let E2 be a separated topological vector
space and let g be a continuous map of X X X -+ E 2 . Let C be a closed
subset of E 2 • Suppose that for each x E X the set {y EX: g(x, y) E C} is
nonempty and convex. Then there exists au E X such that g(u, u) E C.
Proof.
Let
A = ((x,y) E X x X: g(x,y) E C}.
Then by Theorem 4.18, there is a u E X such that g( u, u) E C [283].
4.3. Ky Fan's Theorem, Its Extensions and Applications

The following results due to Ky Fan [83], are proved by Takahashi [281]
using a partition of unity and the Brouwer fixed point theorem.
Theorem 4.20 Let B be a convex set in a real topological vector space
X, and let A be a nonempty subset of B. For each x E A let Gx be a
relatively open subset of B such that UXEAGx = B. If A is contained in a
compact convex subset C of B, then there exists a nonempty finite subset
{Xl, ... , x n } of A such that the convex hull of {Xl, ... , xn} contains a point
of the corresponding intersection n~l GXi.
Proof.
Since C ~ UxEAGx and C is compact, there are {Xl," ., x n } in A such
that C ~ Ui=lGxi.
Let {,8l' ,82, ... ,,8n} be a partition of unity corresponding to this covering.
n
Define p(y) = L,8i(y)Xi for every y E C. Let Co = CO{Xl,"" x n }. Then,
i=l
as in the proof of Theorem 4.5, p has a fixed point, say, pz = z E Co. So
n
z E CO{Xl,X2,""X n } and Z E nGxi. Thus, the proof.
iEl
Theorem 4.21 Let Y be a convex set in a real topological vector space E
and X a nonempty subset ofY. Suppose, for each x EX, Fx is a relatively
open subset of Y such that Y = UxEX Fx. If there exists a nonempty subset
Xo of X such that Y - UxExoFx is compact or empty and Xo is contained
in a compact convex subset C of Y, then there exists a nonempty finite
subset {Xl, ... , x n } of X such that the convex hull of {Xl, . .. , x n } contains
a point of ni=l FXi.
Proof.
If UXExoFx = Y, then conclusion follows from Theorem 4.20. Let
Y\UxExoFx be compact. Then, since UxEx Fx ::) Y\UxExoFx, we obtain
{Xl, . .. ,X n } C X\Xo such that UI~lFxi ::) Y\UxExoFx. Consider Xl =
Xo U {Xl, ... ,x n } and C l = co(CU {Xl. ... ,xn }). Then, since Xl C C l C
Y, UXEX 1 Fx = Y, and C l is compact, the result follows by using Theorem
4.20.
The following result is due to Takahashi [281].
Theorem 4.22 Let Y be a convex set in a real topological vector space E
and X a nonempty convex subset of Y. Let F : X -t 2 Y be a multifunction
such that F-ly is convex for each y E Y. Let G : X -t 2 Y be a multifunction
such that
168 CHAPTER 4
(i) Gx c Fx for each x EX,

(ii) G-1y i= 0 for each y E Y,
(iii) Gx is open for each x EX.
Furthermore, if there exists a nonempty subset Xo of X such that Y -
UxExo Gx is compact or empty and Xo is contained in a compact convex
subset C of Y, then F has a fixed point.
Proof.
If UXExoGx = Y, then there exists {x!,···, xn} C Xo such that C C
U%:lGxi. Let {lit, /h,···, ,Bn} be a partition of unity corresponding to this
n
covering and define py = L,Bi(y)Xi for every y E C . If Co = CO{XI,···, x n },
i=l
then p : Co -+ Co and p has a fixed point z, so we get z E Fpz = Fz as in
Theorem 4.5.
Let Y - UXExoGx be compact. Then there exists {Xl'···' Xn} C X -
Xo such that Ui=lGxi :> Y - UXExoGx. Let Xo U {Xl,···, Xn} = D and
B = co(CU {XI,···,X n }). Then B is a compact convex subset of Y and
UxEDGx = Y. Then, as in the first part, z E X such that z E Fz.
The following is proved by Takahashi [282].
Theorem 4.23 Let X be a compact convex subset of a real separated topological

vector space E and let 9 : X X X -+ R be such that
(i) g(x, y) is upper semicontinuous as a function of X for each y E X,
(ii) g(x, y) is a convex function of y for each x E X, and
(iii) g(x, x) 2: c for some c and all x EX.
Then there exists an Xo E X such that g(xo, y) 2: c for all y EX.
Proof.
Suppose that for each X E X there exists ayE X such that g(x, y) < c.
Set Ay = {x EX: g(x,y) < c} for each y E X. Then UyEXAy = X. Since
X is compact U%:lAYi = X. Let {,Bl,,B2,··· ,,Bn} be a partition of unity
corresponding to this covering.
n
Define p : X -+ X by p( x) = L,Bi (x) Yi. Following the proof of Theorem
i=l
n
4.5, there is an Xo E X such that pXo = Xo = L,Bi(XO)Yi. But, since 9
i=l
n
is convex in y, for this Xo we have c ~ g(xo, xo) = g(xo, L ,Bi(XO)Yi) <
i=l
n
Lf3i(XO)9(xo, Yi) < c, a contradiction. Hence there is an Xo E X such that
i=l
g(xo,Y) 2: c for all y E X.
The above theorem yields the following result as a corollary. The proof
is given in [282].

vector space E and let f be a continuous mapping of X into E. Then, either
f has a fixed point in X, or there exists a point Xo E X and a continuous
seminorm p on E such that
o < p(xo - fxo) = minp(x - fxo).

xEX
Proof.
Assume that f has no fixed point in X. Then for each x EX, there
exists a continuous seminorm Px on E such that Px(x - fx) > o. Since
X = UxEX {y EX: Px (y - f y) > O}
and X is compact, we obtain a finite set {Xl,X2, ... ,Xn } C X such that
X = UY=l {y EX: PXi(y - fy) > O} . Let {lh,f32, ... ,f3n} be a partition
of unity subordinate to this covering. Define a real valued function 9 on
X xX by
n n
i=l i=l
Then 9 satisfies conditions of Theorem 4.23, hence there exists an Xo E X
such that g(xo, y) 2: 0 for all y E X, that is,
n n
L f3i(XO)PXi (y - fxo) 2: L f3i(XO)PXi (xo - fxo) > 0
i=l i=l
for all y E X. Let p = ~~l f3i(XO)PXi. Then

xEX
As a consequence of Theorem 4.24, the following known as the Tychonoff

fixed point theorem is obtained [282].
Corollary 4.25 Let X be a compact convex subset of a locally convex
topological vector space E and let f : X -+ X be a continuous mapping
of X. Then f has fixed point in X.
170 CHAPTER 4
Proof.
If f has no fixed point, then Theorem 4.24 there exists an element
Xo E X and a continuous seminorm p on E such that

xEX
Since fxo E X, we have minxEx p(x - fxo) = 0, a contradiction. Therefore

f has a fixed point in X.
For normed linear spaces, the following is given in [282].
Theorem 4.26 Let X be a compact convex subset of a normed linear space
B and let T be a continuous mapping of X into B. Then there exists an
element Xo E X such that
IIxo - Txoll = min IIx - Txoll.

xEX
Proof.
Define a real valued function f on X X X by
f(x, y) = lIy - Txll- IIx - Txll·
Then, using Theorem 4.23, Theorem 4.26 follows.

The following result, the Schauder fixed point theorem, is a consequence
of Theorem 4.26 [282].
Corollary 4.27 Let X be a compact convex subset of a normed linear space
B and let T : X -+ X be a continuous mapping of X. Then T has a fixed
point in X.
Proof.
By Theorem 4.26, there is an element Xo E X such that IIxo - Txoll =
minxEx IIx - Txoll. Since Txo E X, IIxo - Txoll = O. Therefore, T has a
fixed point in X.
The following is a restatement of Theorem 4.5 given in [282].
Theorem 4.28 Let X be a nonempty compact convex subset of a topological
vector space E. Let T be a mapping of X into 2 x , where for each x in X,
Tx is a nonempty convex subset of X [resp. open in Xl. Suppose further
that for each y in X, T-l(y) = {x EX: y E Tx} is open in X [resp.
a nonempty convex subset of X j. Then there exists an Xo in X such that
Xo E Txo.
4.4. Existence Theorems and Consequences

The following result, stated without proof, is due to Takahashi [282].

vector space E and let T be an upper semicontinuous mapping of X into 2E
such that, for each x EX, Tx is a nonempty closed convex set. Then either
there exists Yo E X such that Yo E Tyo, or there exists a point Xo E X and
a continuous linear functional 9 E E* such that
g(xo - Txo) < 0::; infYExg(xo - y).

The following fixed point theorem of Fan [90] is a direct consequence of
Theorem 4.29 [282].
Corollary 4.30 Let X be a nonempty compact convex subset of a locally
convex topological vector space E and let T be an upper semicontinuous
mapping of X into 2 x such that for each x EX, Tx is a nonempty closed
convex set. Then there exists an element Xo E X such that Xo E Txo.
Using Corollary 4.30, the following interesting existence results are derived
[283] .
vector space E, let Y be a separated topological vector space, and let 9 be
a continuous mapping of X X X into Y . Let C be a closed subset of Y .
Suppose that for each x EX, the set
{y EX: g(x, y) E C}
is nonempty and convex. Then there exists an element Xo E X such that

g(xo, xo) E C .
Proof.
For each x E X, define Tx = {y EX: g(x,y) E C} . Then, T: X ~ 2x
is nonempty closed convex, and an upper semicontinuous mapping of X
into 2x.
By Corollary 4.30, there exists an Xo E X such that Xo E Txo, that is,
g(xo, xo) E C.
Using Theorem 4.31, the following corollary is given in [282].
Corollary 4.32 Let X be a compact convex subset of a locally convex
topological vector space E, let Y be a separated topological vector space
and 9 : X X X ~ Y a continuous function . Suppose that for each x E X
the function g(x , y) of y is affine and for each x E X there exists y E X
with g(x , y) = O. Then there exists an Xo E X such that g(xo, xo) = O.
A simple proof of the following theorem [27] is due to Takahashi [282]
given below.
172 CHAPTER 4

vector space E, T a continuous (single-valued) mapping of X into E*. Then
there exists Xo in X such that (Txo, Xo - y) ~ 0 for all y in X.
Proof.
Define a real valued function f on XxX by setting f(x, y) = (Tx, x-y).
Then, for each y E X, the function f(x, y) of x is continuous and for each
x EX, the function f (x, y) of y is affine. Furthermore, f (x, x) = 0 for all
x in X. Therefore, by Theorem 4.23, there exists Xo E X such that
f(xo, y) = (Txo, Xo - y) ~ 0
for all y in X.
In the following, a closed convex set is considered. The following notations
are used [283].
Let H and X be nonempty subsets of a topological vector space E.
Denote the boundary of X relative to H, BHX = X n H - X and the
interior of X relative to H, IHX = X n (BHX)C where A is the closure of
ACE and AC is the complement of A [283].
The following results are due to Takahashi [283].
Theorem 4.34 Let H be a closed convex subset of a real locally convex
topological vector space E and T a continuous mapping of H into E*. If
there exists a compact convex subset X of H such that IHX i= 0 and for
each z E BHX, there is Uo E IHX with (Tz, z - un) ~ 0, then there exists
an x* E H such that (Tx*, x - x*) ~ 0 for all x E H.
Proof.
By Theorem 4.33, there exists an x* E X such that (Tx*, x - x*) ~ 0
for all x E X. If x* E IHX, for each y E H, choose A(O < A < 1) so that
x = >.y + (1 - >.)x* lies in X. Hence
o ~ (Tx*, x - x*) = A(Tx*, y - x*),
and 0 ~ (Tx*, y - x*).
If x* E BHX, by the hypothesis, there exists a u E IHX such that
(Tx*, x* - u) ~ O.
Since (Tx*, x - x*) ~ 0 for all x EX, it follows that (Tx*, x - u) ~ 0 for
all x E X. Since u E IHX, for each y E H there exists >'(0 < >. < 1) such
that x = >'y+ (1- >.)u E X. Hence, 0 ~ (Tx*,y - u) for all y E H. Since
Uo E X implies 0 ~ (Tx*, u - x*), hence, 0 ~ (Tx*, y - x*) for all y E H.
If H is a cone in E (a locally convex topological vector space); that is, a
nonempty closed set H in E such that ax+{3y belongs to H for all a,{3 ~ 0
and x, y E H. The polar or dual H* of a cone H is the cone defined by
H* = {y E E* : (y, x) ~ 0 for all x E H}.
Let f : H --+ E*. Then the complementarity problem is to find an

Xo E H such that fxo E H* and (Jxo, xo) = o.
The following is an application in complementarity problems [283].
Theorem 4.35 Let H be a cone in E and f a continuous mapping of H
into E*. If there exists a compact convex subset X of H such that I H X i= 0
and for each z E BHX, there is a Uo E IH(X) with
(Jz,z - uo) ~ 0,
then there exists an x* E H such that fx* E H* and (Jx*, x*) = o.

Proof.
By Theorem 4.34, there exists x* E H such that (Jx*, y - x*) ~ 0 for
all y E H. Since (Jx*,ay - x*) ~ 0 for all a > 0 and y E H so (Jx*,y) ~ 0
for all y E H, hence fx* E H*. It follows from (Jx*, 0 - x*) ~ 0 that
(Jx*, x*) = o.
In the following continuous linear functionals are used [283].
Theorem 4.36 Let X be a nonempty compact convex subset of a real
topological vector space E and f a continuous mapping of X into E. Then,
either there exists a Yo E X such that Yo and fyo can not be separated by a
continuous linear functional, or there exist Xo E X and 9 E E* such that
g(xo - fxo) < 0 ::; inf g(xo - y).

yEX
The following well known result due to Browder [27] is a direct consequence
of Theorem 4.36 [283].
convex topological vector space E and f a continuous mapping of X into
E. If for each x E X, there exist an Xl E X and ,X ~ 0 such that fx - x =
'x(XI - x), then f has a fixed point.
Proof.
Suppose f has no fixed point. Then by Theorem 4.36, there exist an
Xo E X and 9 E E* such that
g(xo - fxo) < 0::; inf g(xo - V).

yEX
For this Xo, choose Xl E X and ,X ~ 0 such that fxo - Xo = 'x(XI - xo).
Since f has no fixed point, ,X > O. Hence,
1
g(xo - fxo) < 0 ::; ~g(xo - fxo),
a contradiction. Therefore f has a fixed point.

174 CHAPTER 4
Theorem 4.38 Let H be a closed convex subset of a locally convex topological

vector space E and f a continuous mapping of H into H. If there exists
a compact convex subset X of H such that for each x E BHX, there exist
Xl E X and A ~ 0 with fx - x = A(XI - x), then f has a fixed point in H.
Proof.
Consider the restriction of f to X. If f has no fixed point in X, then
by Theorem 4.36, there exist an Xo E X and 9 E E* such that
g(xo - fxo) < 0 ~ inf g(xo - y).

yEX
Let Xo E IHX. Since fxo E H, we can choose A(O < A < 1) so that
Y = Afxo + (1 - A)XO EX. Hence,
g(xo - fxo) < 0 ~ Ag(XO - fxo),
a contradiction. Similarly, we get a contradiction for Xo E BHX. Therefore,
4.5. Coincidence Theorems and Applications

Browder gave the following result known as the coincidence theorem [27].
Theorem 4.39 Let K be a convex subset of a Hausdorff topological vector
space E, and let K 1 be a compact convex subset of a locally convex topological
vector space F . Let T : K --t 2Kl be upper semicontinuous and for each U E
K, suppose T(u) is nonempty, closed, and convex in K l . Let S : K -t 2Kl
be such that for each U E K, S(u) is an open subset of KI, and S-l(v) is a
nonempty, convex subset of K for each v E K l . Then there exists awE K
such that Tw n Sw:j:. 0.
Proof.
The family {Su : u E K} forms an open covering of K l . Since Kl is
compact there exists a finite subcovering of the form {SUI, SU2,"', SUn}
for a finite family {Ul' U2,"', un} of K. Let {/3l,/32,'" ,/3n} be a partition
of unity corresponding to this covering. Define the mapping p : Kl -t K
by
n
pv = I:/3i(V)Ui. If for v E Kl,/3i(V) :j:. 0, then v E S(Ui) and Ui E
i=l
zj
S-1 (v). Since S-1 (v) is convex it follows that v), in S-l (v). Hence for
every v E K l , V is in S(p(v)). Define R: Kl -t 2 1 by R(v) = Tp(v). Then
R is upper semicontinuous, point closed, point convex, and nonempty. So
by Ky Fan's Theorem there exists a z E Kl such that z E Rz; that is,
z E fpz and also z E Spz. Put w = pz to get Tw n Sw :j:. 0.
The following is given in [257].
Theorem 4.40 Let E and F be topological vector spaces and K a closed,

convex subset of E. Let T : K -t 2F be lower semicontinuous and suppose
that T K is precompact in F. Let S : K -t 2F be such that S x is open for
each x E K, with S-l(y) :/= 0 for each y E TK and S-ITx is convex for
each x E K. Then Tu n Su:/= 0 for some u E K.
Proof.
Since TK ~ U{Sx : x E K} and it is compact, there exists a finite
subset {XI,X2,"',X n } of K such that TK ~ U~ISXi. This implies that
K ~ Ui=l T- 1SXi. Let M be the closed convex hull of {XI, X2,"', x n }. Then
M is a compact convex subset of K, and since T is lower semicontinuous
{T-1SXi: i = 1,2, .. ·,n} is an open cover for M. Let {,Bl,,B2, .. ·,,Bn} be
a partition of unity corresponding to this covering. Define p : M -+ M by
n
p(x) = L,Bi(X)Xi. Then p is continuous and since M may be considered as
i=l
a compact convex subset of a finite dimensional space, the Brouwer fixed
point theorem implies that there is ayE M with py = y. Now if ,Bi(Y) :/= 0
for some i = 1,2"" ,n, then y E T-1SXi, or, Xi = S-ITy. Since S-ITy is
convex and py is a linear combination of the Xi, so y = py E S-lTy. This
implies that Sy n Ty :/= 0.
The following corollaries are worth mentioning [257].
Corollary 4.41 Let E, F and K be as in Theorem 4.40 and let KI be a
compact subset of F. Let T : K -+ 2Kl be lower semicontinuous and let
S : K -+ 2Kl be such that Sx is open for each X E K with S-ly :/= 0 for
each y E Kl and S-lTx is convex for each x E K. Then Su n Tu:/= 0 for
some u E K.
Corollary 4.42 Let E and F be topological vector spaces and K a compact
convex subset of E. Let T : K -+ 2F be continuous and compact-valued.
Suppose that S : K -+ 2F such that Sx is open for each X E K, S-ly:/= 0
for each y E TK, and S-lTx is convex for each x E K. Then there is a
u E K such that Su n Tu:/= 0.
Proof.
Here T is continuous so it is upper semicontinuous and Tx is compact
so T K is compact and the result follows from Theorem 4.39.
Lassonde ([163]) proved the following.
space E, Y a nonempty convex subset of a topological vector space F. Let
T : X -+ 2Y and S : X -+ 2Y be multifunctions such that the following
hold.
176 CHAPTER 4
(i) For each x EX, Tx is nonempty, convex and for each y E Y, T- 1y is

open in X.
(ii) For each x E X, S(x) is open in Y and for each y E Y, S-l (y) is
nonempty and convex.
Then, if either X or Y is compact, there exists an x E X such that Tx n
Sx =P 0.
Proof.
Suppose, for example, Y is compact. For each y E Y, S-l(y) is nonempty,
and the family {S x : x E X} forms an open cover of Y . Hence, there exists a
=
finite set {X1,X2,'" ,xn } ~ X such that Y Ui=lSXi. Let {,Bt,,B2," ' ,,Bn}
be a partition of unity corresponding to this covering. Define p : Y -t X
n
by py = L,Bi(y)Xi. Then p has a fixed point y E Y . If ,Bi(Y) =P 0, then
i=l
y E S(Xi) for i = 1,2, ... , n, and Xi E S-ly . Since S-ly is convex, py =
n
L,Bi(y)Xi E S-l y . So Y E Sp(y) for each y E Y. Consider R : Y -t 2Y
i=l
defined by R(y) = Tp(y). For each y E Y, R(y) is a nonempty convex
subset of Y. Also, for each z E Y, R-1z = {y E Y : z E Ry} = {y E Y :
py E T- 1z} is an open subset of Y, since T-1 z is open in X and p : Y -t X
is continuous. The multifunction R satisfies conditions of Theorem 4.5 and
has a fixed point. Thus, there is a y in Y such that y = Tp(y), so Y E Sp(y).
Put x = py to get Tx n Sx =P 0.
The following is a well known coincidence theorem of Browder [27].
space E and let Y be a nonempty convex subset of a locally convex topological
vector space F. Let S : X -t 2Y and T : X -t 2Y be such that
(i) for each x E X, Tx is a nonempty convex subset of Y and the graph
ofT is closed in X x Y, and
(ii) for each x E X, Sx is open in Y and for each y E Y, S-ly is nonempty
and convex.
If Y is compact then there exists an x E X such that Tx n Sx =P 0.
The proof of the following minimax theorem of Sion [276] is due to
Lassonde [163].
Theorem 4.45 Let X be a convex subset of a topological vector space E
and Y a convex subset of a topological vector space F. Let f : X x Y -t IR
be such that
(i) for each fixed y E Y, x 1---7 f (x, y) is quasi-convex, and lower semicontinuous
onX
Fixed Point Theory and Best Approximation : The KKM-Map Principle 177
(ii) for each fixed x E X, Y 1-7 f(x, y) is quasi-concave and upper semicontinuou.s
If X or Y is compact then sup inf f(x, y)
y x
= inf
x
sup f(x, y).
y
Proof.
For any Yo, inf f(x, Yo) ~ inf sup f(x, y). So a = sup inf f(x, y) ~ b =
x x y y x
inf sup f(x, y). Suppose a < b. Choose c such that a < c c}, and

Sx = {y E Y : f(x, y) < c} . Then T and S satisfy the conditions of
Theorem 4.44 and therefore there exists an x E X and ayE Y such that
y E Tx n Sx impossible.
Lassonde also gave the following in [163].
Theorem 4.46 Let X be a convex subset of a topological vector space E
and Y a convex subset of a locally convex space F. Let f : X x Y -+ lR be
such that
(i) for each y E Y, x 1-7 f(x, y) is quasi- convex,
(ii) for each x EX, Y 1-7 f(x,y) is quasi-concave, and
(iii) f is upper semicontinuous on X X Y.
If Y is compact, then sup inf f(x, y) = inf sup f(x, y).
y x x y
Proof.
Since f(x, y) ::; sUPYEY f(x, y) for each (x, y) E X X Y, inxf f(x, y) ~
xE
inf sup f(x, y). Therefore, sup inf f(x, y) ::; inf sup f(x, y).
xEX yEY yEY xEX xEX yEY
Suppose, by way of contradiction, that sup inf f(x, y) ~ c ~ inf sup f(x, y).
y x x y
Define T : X -+ 2Y
and S : X -+ by Tx = {y E Y : f(x, y) > c}, and
2Y
Sx = {y E Y : f(x, y) < c}. Then T and S satisfy the conditions of
Theorem 4.44, so there exists an x E X such that Tx n Sx =1= 0. This is
clearly impossible.
4.6. Further Results on Variational and Minimax Inequalities

The following is due to Takahashi [281]. It is used to prove a fixed point
theorem and as an application a minimax theorem is also proved.
Theorem 4.47 Let Y be a convex subset of a topological vector space E
and let X be a nonempty convex subset of Y. Let r E lR and f : X X Y -+
(-00,00], g: X X Y -+ (-00,00] such that
(i) g(x, y) ~ f(x, y) for each (x, y) E X x Y,
(ii) f is quasi-concave in its first variable,
178 CHAPTER 4
(iii) 9 is lower semicontinuous in its second variable,

(iv) X has a nonempty subset Xo such that {y E Y : g(x, y) ::; r for all x E
Xo} is compact and Xo is contained in a compact convex subset C of
Y.
Then either there exists a point z E Y such that 9 (x, z) ::; r for all x E X
or there exists a point Xo E X such that f(xo, xo) > r.
Proof.
For each x in X let Ax = {y E Y : f(x, y) > r} and Ex = {y E Y :
g(x, y) > r}. Suppose that for each yin Y there is a point x in X such that
g(x, y) > r. Then B-Iy -=1= 0 for every y in Y. Then by Theorem 4.22 there
is a point Xo in X such that Xo E Axo and thus f(xo, xo) > r.
Takahashi [281] proved the following.
Theorem 4.48 Let Y be a convex set of a topological vector space E and
let X be a nonempty convex subset of Y. Let f, 9 : X X Y ~ (-00,00] such
that
(i) g(x,y) ::; f(x,y) for each (x,y) E X X Y,
(ii) f is quasi-concave in its first variable,
(iii) 9 is lower semicontinuous in its second variable,
(iv) for each r E R there exists a nonempty compact convex subset Cr of Y
such that the set {y E Y : g(x, y) ::; r} for some x E Cr nx is compact.
Then inf sup g(x, y) ::; sup f(x, x).
yEY xEX xEX
Proof.
If supf(x,x) = 00 then there is nothing to prove. Let supf(x,x) =
xEX xEX
k < 00. Then f(x, x) ::; k for every x EX. Theorem 4.47 implies that there
is a Yo E Y such that g(x, Yo) ::; k for every x in X. Hence sup g(x, Yo) ::; k
xEX
and inf supg(x,y)::; k = supf(x,x).
yEY xEX xEX
The result given below [281] follows the lines of proof of Theorem 4.22.
Theorem 4.49 Let Y be a compact subset of a topological vector space E,

X a convex subset of Y and F : X ~ 2Y such that F-1y is convex for each
y E Y. Let G : X ~ 2Y such that
(i) Gx ~ Fx for each x E X,
(ii) G-1y -=1= 0 for each y E Y and
(iii) Gx is open for each x EX .
Then there exists a z E X such that z E Fz .
The following minimax inequality is given in [281].
Theorem 4.50 Let Y be a compact subset of a topological vector space E

and X a convex subset ofY. Let f: X X Y -+ (-00,00] and g: X X Y-+
(-00,00] satisfy
(i) g(x,y):::; f(x,y) for each (x,y) E X X Y,
(ii) f is a quasi-concave function of x,
(iii) g is a lower semicontinuous function of y.
Then inf sup g(x, y) :::; sup f(x, x).
yEY xEX xEX
The proof of the following [136] is given by using the partition of unity
and the Brouwer fixed point theorem [136].
Theorem 4.51 Let K be a nonempty compact convex subset of a topological
vector space X. Let A be a subset of K X K for which the following conditions
hold:
(i) for each y E K, the set {x E K : (x,y) E A} is closed
(ii) (x, x) E A for every x E K
(iii) for each x E K, the set {y E K : (x, y) rt. A} is convex or empty.
Then, there exists an Xo E K such that {xo} X K C A.
Proof.
Suppose that for each x E K, there exists ayE K such that (x,y) rt. A.
For each y E K, let A(y) = {x E K : (x,y) rt. A}. Then K = UyEKA(y).
By (i), A(y) is open in K for all y E K. Since K is compact, there exists
a finite number of points {Y1, ... , Yn} of K such that K = Uf=1 A(Yi). Let
{,Lh, ... ,.8n} be a partition of unity corresponding to this covering. Define a
mapping p : K -+ K by p( x) = 2:7=1 .8i (x )Yi. Then p has a fixed point, say
Z = pZ. If .8i(Z) # 0, then (Z,Yi) rt. A. Thus, by (iii) we obtain (z,p(z)) =
(z, 2:7=1 .8i(Z)Yi) rt. A. On the other hand, (z,p(z)) = (z, z) E A by (ii), a
contradiction. Therefore, there exists an Xo E K such that {xo} X K C A.
For a distinct pair of topological vector spaces, the following result is
given by [136].
Theorem 4.52 Let K1 be a nonempty compact convex subset of a locally
convex space X and K 2 a nonempty closed convex subset of Y. Let A be a
subset of K1 X K2 having the following properties:
(i) A is closed
(ii) for any y E K 2, the set {x E K1 : (x,y) E A} is nonempty and convex
(iii) for any x E K 1 , the set {y E K2 : (x, y) tJ. A} is convex or empty.
Then there exists Xo E K1 such that {xo} X K2 C A.
Proof.
Suppose that the assertion of Theorem 4.52 is false. Then for each
x E K 1, there is y E K2 such that (x, y) rt. A. Let A(y) = {x E K1 : (x, y) rt.
180 CHAPTER 4
A} for any Y E K2. Then there exists a finite covering {A(Yl), ... , A(Yn)}
of Kl and a partition of unity {Ih, ... , ,Bn} corresponding to this finite
covering. Set p(x) = :L~l ,Bi(X)Yi for any x E K 1. Then p is a continuous
mapping of Kl into K 2. Define a mapping T : Kl --+ 2KJ by T(x) =
{u E Kl : (u,p(x)) E A}, then by (i) and (ii) T(x) is nonempty, convex,
and compact for every x E K 1 • Since p is continuous and A is closed, T
is upper semicontinuous. By the Fan's fixed point theorem, T has a fixed
point z E K 1. Thus, (z,p(z)) E A. On the other hand, by (iii) (z,p(z)) (j. A
a contradiction. Thus, the proof.
The following, given by Tarafdar in [294], uses the partitions of unity
and extends the result of Browder [27].
Theorem 4.53 Let K be a nonempty compact convex subset of a real
Hausdorff topological vector space E. Let T : K --+ 2K be a multifunction
such that
(i) for each x E K, Tx is a nonempty convex subset of K,
(ii) for each Y E K, T-1y = {x E K : Y E Tx} contains an open, possibly
empty, subset Oy of K,
(iii) U{Q y : y E K} = K.
Then there exists a point z E K such that z E T z .
Proof.
Since K is compact, there exists a finite family {Yl,"', Yn} such that
K = Ui=lOy;. Let {,Bl,,B2,"',,Bn} be a partition of unity corresponding
n
to this finite covering. Define a mapping p : K --+ K by px = L.':,Bi(X)Yi,
i=l
x E K. For each i with ,Bi(X) =F 0, x E Q Yi ~ T-1(Yi); that is Yi E T(x).
Since T(x) is convex so px E Tx for each x E K. Let C = CO{Yl' Y2,"', Yn}.
Then p : C --+ C. As in Theorem 4.5, there is a z E C such that z = pz E Tz.
Thus, the proof.
The following is obtained as a corollary [295].
Corollary 4.54 Let K be a nonempty compact convex subset of a real
Hausdorff topological vector space E and T : K --+ 2K a multivalued map
such that
(i) for each x E K, T(x) is a nonempty convex subset of K,
(ii) for each x E K, there exists ayE K such that
Then there exists an Xo E K such that Xo E T(xo).

Proof.
For each y E K, set Oy = ((T-I(y))C)) C an open set. Then (T-1(y))C ~

(T-l(y))c. Hence, Oy = (T-l(y))Cc ~ T-1(y). Condition (ii) implies that
U{Oy : y E K} = K. Thus, the result follows from Theorem 4.53.
Recall that a point Uo E K is said to satisfy the variational inequality if
(Tuo, v - uo) ~ 0 for all v E K ... (4.1)
where T : K -+ E* is a nonlinear single-valued map.

The following results are given in [294].
Lemma 4.55 If K is a convex subset of a Hausdorff topological vector
space E and T is a single-valued mapping of K into E* such that T is
monotone and hemicontinuous, then Uo is a solution of the variational
inequality (4.1) if and only if Uo is a solution of
(Tv, v - uo) ~ 0 for all v E K. (4.2)
Proof.
Since T is monotone if Uo satisfies (4.1), then Uo satisfies (4.2). Suppose
that Uo satisfies (4.2). Let v be an arbitrary point of K. Since K is convex
Vr = (1 - r)uo + rv E K for 0 < r ~ 1. By (4.2) 0 ~ (Tvr,r(v - uo)) =
r(Tvr, v - uo). But since r > 0, (Tvr, v - uo) ~ O. Letting r -+ 0 and using
the hemicontinuity ofT, TV r ~ Tuo (weakly) in E*. Hence (Tuo, v-uo) ~ 0
[294].
Theorem 4.56 Let K be a compact convex subset of a Hausdorff topological

vector space E . Let T : K -+ E* be a single valued monotone nonlinear
mapping. Assume further that for each v E K there exists a u E K such
that (Tu, u-v) < O. Then there is a solution Uo of the variational inequality.
(Tuo,v - uo) ~ 0 for all v E K. (4.1)
Proof.
It is proved by contradiction. Assume that there is no solution of (4.1).
Then for each u E K, the set {v E K : (Tu, v - u) < O} is nonempty. Define
p : K -+ 2K by Pu = {v E K : (Tu, v - u) < O}. Then P(u) =1= 0 and is
convex for each u E K. Now p-l(U) := {v E K : u E Pv} = {v E K :
(Tv, u - v) < O}. For each u E K, the complement, (P-l (u))C of p-l (u) in
K is {v: (Tv,u - v) ~ O} ~ {v: (Tu,u- v) ~ O} = B(u).
Now, B(u) is a closed convex subset of K. Hence (B(u))C is open in K.
Since (p-l(U))c ~ B(u) so (B(u))C ~ p-l(u). Thus for each u E K, P-l(U)
contains an open set (B(u))C of K. By hypothesis for every v E K there
exists a u E K such that (Tu, u- v) < O. This implies that UUEK((B(u))C =
K. By Theorem 4.53, there exists awE K such that w E Pw. That is,
o > (Tw, w - w) = 0, a contradiction.
182 CHAPTER 4
Corollary 4.57 Let K be a compact convex subset of a Hausdorff topological

vector space E. Let T : K ~ E* be a nonlinear monotone and hemicontinuous
map. Then there is a solution Uo of
(Tuo,v - uo);::: 0 for all v E K. (4.1)
Proof.
If for each v E K there exists a u E K such that (Tu, u - v) < 0 holds,
then there is a solution Uo of (4.1) by Theorem 4.56. In case it does not
hold, then it means that there is a Uo E K such that (Tu, u - uo) ;::: 0 for all
u E K. Since T is hemicontinuous by Lemma 4.55, we get (Tuo, u- uo) ;::: 0
for all u E K; that is, Uo is a solution of (4.1).
In case K is not compact, then the following result is given in [292].
Theorem 4.58 Let F : K ~ E* be a monotone and hemicontinuous map.
Further, assume that there exists a nonempty subset Ko contained in a
compact convex subset K 1 of K such that the set
D = {y E K: (Tx, x - y) ;::: 0 for all x E Ko}
is compact. Then there is a point Xo E K such that (Txo, y - xo) ;::: 0 for
all y E K.
Mehta proved the following result for paracompact convex sets in a
locally convex Hausdorff topological vector space [186].
Theorem 4.59 Let X be a nonempty paracompact convex subset of a Hausdorff
locally convex topological vector space E. Let D be a compact subset of X
and T : X ~ 2D a multifunction such that
(i) for all x E X, Tx is convex and nonempty, and
(ii) for each x E X there exists ayE D such that x E int T- 1 (y).
Then there exists a point Xo E D such that Xo E Txo.
The following result, an application of Theorem 4.59, is given by Mehta

[186].
Corollary 4.60 Let X be a nonempty paracompact convex subset of a
separated locally convex linear topological space E and D a compact convex
subset of X.
Let T : X ~ 2D be a multifunction such that
(i) for each x E X, x ¢ coT(x),
(ii) for each x E X there exists ayE D such that x E int A-l(y) where
A(x) = co(Tx) for x E X.
Then there is a maximal element.
Proof.
If there is no maximal element, then Tx and therefore Ax is nonempty
for each x EX. So, A : X -+ 2D is nonempty convex-valued multifunction.
The condition (ii) implies the condition (ii) of Theorem 4.59. Consequently,
there exists an Xo E X such that Xo E Txo ~ A(xo). This is a contradiction
since assumption (i) implies that x r¢. A(x) for all x E X. Consequently, T
has a maximal element.
The following results are due to Kim [146].
Definition 4.61 A topological vector space E is said to have sufficiently
many linear functionals if for each x E E, x i- 0, there exists a linear
functional 1 E E* such that 1(x) i- O.
A topological vector space E with sufficiently many linear functionals has
the property that E* separates points on E. Every locally convex topological
vector space has sufficiently many linear functionals and so does HP for
O<p<1.
Let E be a topological vector space and E* the dual of E. Let X be an
arbitrary subset of E. A map f : X -+ E is weakly continuous if for every
1 E E* the composition 1(1) : X -+ IR is continuous. A continuous map is
weakly continuous but not conversely. If Xn converges to x strongly and fX n
converges to fx weakly then f is weakly continuous but not continuous.
Using partition of unity, Kim gave the following [146].
Theorem 4.62 Let X be a compact convex subset of a topological vector
space E with sufficiently many linear functionals . Let f : X -+ E be a
weakly continuous map such that for each x E X with fx i- x, fx E Ix(x) .
Proof.
Let fx i- x for each x EX. Then there exists at least one 1 E E* such
that l(x - fx) < 0 for each x E X by hypothesis. For every 1 E E*, let
N/ = {y EX: l(y - fy) < O} . Since f is weakly continuous 1(1 - f) is
continuous. Consequently, N/ is an open subset of X and each x E X is
contained in at least one N/. Therefore the family {N/ : 1 E E*} is an open
cover of the compact set X.
Hence there exists a finite subfamily {h,·· · , In} in E* such that X =
Ui=lN/;. Let {,81,j32,··· ,,8n} be a partition of unity subordinated to this
n
cover. Define hx = L,8i(x)li for each x EX. Then h is a continuous map
i=l
of X into E*. For each x E X,
n
h(x)(x - fx) = L,8i(x)li(x - fx) <0 (4.3)
i=l
184 CHAPTER 4
since f3i(X) =I- 0 implies that li(x - fx) < 0 and f3i(X) > o. By Browder's
theorem [27] there exists a yo E X such that h(yo)(yo - x) ~ 0 for each
x E X. Since fyo E Ix(yo), there exists a set Ya E Ix(yo) converging to
f(yo). From the definition of Ix(yo), for each Ya we can find Za E X and a
real number Aa > 0 such that yO' = YO+Aa(Za-YO). Hence, h(Yo)(Yo-Ya) =
Aah(yO)(Yo - z) ~ 0 since h(yo)(Yo - x) ~ 0, and thus h(yo)(yo - fyo) =
lim h(yo)(Yo - yO') ~ o. This contradicts (4.3). Thus the proof.
a
The following results are derived as easy corollaries [146].
Halpern gave the following in [109].
convex topological vector space E and let f : X -t E be a continuous map
such that f x E Ix (x) for each x EX. Then f has a fixed point.
The following extension is due to Ky Fan [86].
Theorem 4.64 Let E be a topological vector space with sufficiently many
continuous linear functionals and let X be a nonempty compact convex
subset of E. Then every continuous map f : X -t X has a fixed point.
Kaczynski [138] gave the following.
Theorem 4.65 Let E be a topological vector space with sufficiently many
continuous linear functionals and let X be a compact convex subset of E.
Let f : X -t E be a continuous map satisfying:
for each x E X with fx =I- x there exists some number A such that
IAI < 1 and AX + (1 - A)fx E X. (4.4)

Remark. Condition (4.4) implies that fx E Ix(x) for each x E X. In fact,
suppose that for each x E X with fx =I- x there exists some number A such
1 .x
that IAI < 1 and AX + (1 - A)fx E X, then fx = - - , y - - - , x = x +
I-A I-A
1~.x(y-x)forsomeYEX.SinceA<l,!< l~A < oo,sofx E1x(x).Itis
shown that if fx E Ix(x), then (4.4) is satisfied. Suppose that fx E Ix(x).
J.L-1 1
Then f x = x + J.L(Y - x) for some J.L > 0 and y EX, so - - x + - fx EX.
J.L J.L
J.L-1
Let A = - - . Then .xx + (1 - A)fx E X. If 0 < J1 ::; 1, then fx is
J1
contained in X. If J1 > 1 then 0 < A < 1, and therefore (4.4) is satisfied
when 0 < J.L ::; 1 or J.L > 1.
The following for a multivalued map, stated without proof, is due to
Kim [146].
Theorem 4.66 Let X be a compact convex subset of a topological vector

space E with sufficiently many linear functionals. Let T : X -+ 2E be an
upper semicontinuous map with Tx nonempty, compact and convex. Then
T has a fixed point.
Using the following result [85], stated without proof, and the partition
of unity, Park [218] proved a fixed point theorem given below.
Theorem 4.67 Let C be a compact convex subset of a Hausdorff topological
vector space E and p : C X E -+ R continuous. If for each x E C,p(x,·) zs
convex, then there is a v E C such that
p(v, v) ~ p(v, u) for all u E Ic(v).
This yields the following result.
The result due to Park [218] is stated without proof.
Theorem 4.68 Let C be a compact convex subset of a real Hausdorff
topological vector space E and f : C -+ E* a continuous map. Then there
exists a point v E C such that
(Jv,v - u) ~ 0 for all u E W(v)
where W(v) denotes either Ic(v) or Oc(v).
The result due to Park [218] is stated without proof.
Theorem 4.69 Let X be a compact convex subset of a real Huasdorff
topological vector space E having sufficiently many linear functionals and
F : X -+ 2 E \(0) upper semicontinuous with Fx compact convex for each
x EX. If F satisfies:
+
for each x E fJX\Fx there is a'x such that ,X < 1 and ('xx (1- 'x)Fx) n
W x # 0, then F has a fixed point.
The following lemma is due to Ha [106].
Lemma 4.70 Let C be a n-simplex and let X be a nonempty compact
convex subset of a Hausdorff topological vector space. If h is an upper
semicontinuous set-valued map on C such that hz is a nonempty closed
convex subset of X for each z E C and if f : X -+ C is a continuous single
valued map then there exist a u E C and Xo E X such that Xo E hu and
u = fxo.
Ha [105] gave the following using a partition of unity argument.
Theorem 4.71 Let E and F be Hausdorff topological vector spaces, where
F is locally convex, and suppose X C E is a nonempty compact convex
subset.
Let G : X -+ 2x be an upper semicontinuous multifunction with nonempty
closed convex values in F. Let g : X -+ F be a continuous map such that
186 CHAPTER 4
(i) Gx n gX =f. 0 for all x EX,

(ii) g-1 (C) is convex (or empty) for any closed convex subset C of P.
Then there exists a point Xo E X such that gxo E Gxo.
Yannelis and Prabhakar [308] proved the following by using the partition
of unity argument. This is a selection theorem given for a paracompact
set. Here, a separable Banach space [189] is not assumed; instead, a linear
topological space is considered.
Theorem 4.72 Let X be a paracompact Hausdorff space and Y a topological
vector space. Suppose P : X -+ 2Y is a multifunction such that
(i) for each x EX, P(x) is nonempty,
(ii) for each x EX, P(x) is convex and
(iii) for each Y E Y, P- 1(y) = {x EX: y E P(x)} is open in X.
Then there exists a continuous function f : X -+ Y such that f(x) E P(x)
for all x EX.
Proof.
Now, P-l(y) is open in X for each y E Y, and for each x E X there is a
y E Y such that x E P-l(y) since P(x) is nonempty. So D = {P-l(y) : Y E
Y} is an open cover of X. Since X is paracompact there is an open, locally
finite refinement C = {Ba : a E 6,}, where 6, is an index set and Ba is an
open set in X. We can find a family of continuous functions {ga : a E 6,}
such that ga : X -+ [0,1], ga(x) = 0 for x 1. Ba andL ga(x) = 1 for all x E
aE6.
X. For each a E 6, choose Ya in Y such that Ba C p- 1(Ya). This is possible
since C is a refinement of D. Define f : X -+ X by f(x) = l.:ga(x)Ya for
aE6.
all x EX. By the local refinement of C each x E X has a neighbourhood
N x which intersects only finitely many Ba's. Hence, f(x) is a finite sum of
continuous functions from X to Y . For any a E 6. such that ga(x) =f. 0,
x E Ba C p-l(Ya) and so Ya E P(x). Thus f(x) is a convex combination of
elements Ya E P(x) and so f(x) E P(x) for all x EX.
As an application of Theorem 4.72, is the following fixed point theorem
is given [308].
Theorem 4.73 Let X be a paracompact convex nonempty subset of a locally
convex Hausdorff topological vector space E, D a compact subset of X, and
T : X -+ 2D a multifunction such that for all x E X, T(x) is convex and
nonempty. If for all Y E D T- 1(y) = {x EX: Y E T(x)} is open in X,
then there exists xED such that x E Tx.
Proof.
For each x E X, T(x) is nonempty convex and for each y E D, T-1y

is an open set in X. Consequently, by Theorem 4.72, there is a continuous
function f : X -+ X such that f(x) E T(x) for all x EX. By the fixed point
theorem in locally convex space, there is an xED such that x = fx E Tx.
In a Euclidean space Rn, the following is given [308].
Let X be a nonempty compact convex subset of Rn and T : X -+ 2x
a lower semicontinuous map with Tx nonempty and convex. Then T has a
fixed point.
The following definition is due to Browder [27].
Definition 4.74 Let X, Y be nonempty sets. Then T : X -+ 2Y and S :

Y -+ 2 x are said to have a coincidence if there exists (x, y) E X X Y such
that y E T(x) and x E S(y).
Recall the following. If E is a topological vector space, then E' stands

for the vector space of all continuous linear functionals on E and (/, x)
stands for the pairing between E' and E for fEE' and x E E.
If f : X -+ 2E is a set-valued map, then F is said to be upper hemicontinuous
provided that for each f in E' and for each .x E IR the set {x EX:
sUPYEF(x)(h, y) < .x} is open in X.
Every upper semicontinuosu map is upper hemicontinuous.
The following result will be used in subsequent work [155].
Lemma 4.75 Let X be a paracompact convex set in a real Hausdorff locally

convex topological vector space E and K a nonempty compact convex subset
of X. Let F be an upper hemicontinuous set-valued mapping defined on X
such that for each x E X, F(x) is a nonempty closed convex subset of E.
If F(x) n X -I 0 for every x E K n 8(X) and F(x) n K =I 0 for every
x E X\K, then there exists x E X such that x E F(x).
The following coincidence result is due to Ko and Tan. A few applications

of this result, given in [155), are also included below.
Theorem 4.76 Let E be a real Hausdorff locally convex topological vector

space, C ~ E a nonempty paracompact convex, K ~ C a nonempty compact
convex set, F a Hausdorff locally convex topological vector space and D ~ F
a nonempty set. If T : C -+ 2D and S : D -+ 2c satisfy
(i) T(x) is convex for each x E C,
(ii) T-l(y) is open in C for each y E D,
(iii) S is upper hemicontinuous on D,
(iv) S(y) is closed convex for each y E D, and
(v) S(y) n K -I 0 if y E T(x) for some x E C - K,
then T and S have a coincidence.
188 CHAPTER 4
Proof.
As the family {T- 1 (y) : y E D} is an open cover of the set C which is
paracompact, there is a partition of unity {,By: y E D} subordinate to the
cover {T-1(y) : y ED} of C. Define p: C -t D by
p(x) = L ,By(x)y, for all x E C.

yED
For each x E C,p(x) E T(x).

Define R : C -t 2c by
R(x) = S(p(x)),
for all x E C. By (iii) and continuity of p, R is upper hemicontinuous on

C. By (iv), R(x) is closed convex for each x E C. Now if x E C\K, then
p(x) E T(x) so that by (v)
R(x) n K = S(p(x)) n K =/=0.

Therefore, by Lemma 4.75, there exists an x E C such that x E R(x). Let
y = p(x). Then x E R(x) = S(p(x)) = S(y), and y = p(x) E T(x). Hence,
T and S have a coincidence.
The following application to minimax inequality is given in [155].
Theorem 4.77 Let E and F be Hausdorff locally convex topological vector
spaces, C ~ E nonempty compact convex, D ~ F nonempty and f, g :
C x D -t R. If
(i) f(x, y) ::; g(x, y) for all (x, y) E C x D;
(ii) for each x E C, {y ED: f(x, y) > O} is convex;
(iii) for each y ED: x -t f(x, y) is lower semicontinuous on C;
(iv) for each y ED, {x E C: g(x,y) ::; O} is nonempty and convex;
(v) g is lower semicontinuous on C x D;
then there exists an x E C such that f (x, y) ::; 0 for all y ED.
Proof.
For each x E C, let T(x) = {y ED: f(x,y) > 0}. Suppose T(x) =/= 0
for all x E C. Then T : C -t 2D and
for each x E C, T(x) is convex by (ii)j
for each y E D, T-I(y) is open in C by (iii).
For each y E D, let S(y) = {x E C: g(x,y) ::; O}. Then S: D -t 2c by (iv)
and
for each y E D, S(y) is convex by (iv) and is closed by (v);
S is upper semicontinuous on D.
Therefore, by Theorem 4.76, there exists (x, y) E C X D such that y E T(x)

and x E S(y), so that I(x, y) > 0 and g(x, y) :S 0 which contradicts (i).
This shows that there must exist an x E C for which T(x) = 0 so that
I(x, y) :S 0 for all y E D.
The following result is a special case of Theorem 4.77 [155].
Theorem 4.78 Let E and F be locally convex Hausdorff topological vector
spaces, C C E nonempty compact convex, D C F nonempty and I, 9 :
C X D -t IR. If
(1) f(x,y) :S g(x,y) for all x,y E C X D;
(2) for each x E C, Y -t I(x, y) is quasi-concave;
(3) for each y E D, x -t I(x, y) is lower semicontinuous on C;
(4) for each y E D, x -t g(x, y) is quasi-convex;
(5) 9 is lower semicontinuous on C X D;
then
min sup I(x,y) :S supming(x,y).
:cEO yED yED :cEO
The following fixed point theorem follows from Theorem 4.76 [155].
C ~ E nonempty paracompact convex, and K ~ C nonempty compact
convex. If T : C -t 20 satisfies
(i) T(x) is convex for each x E C;
(ii) T- 1 (y) is open in C for each y E C;
(iii) T(x) ~ K for each x E C\K;
then T has a fixed point in C.
Proof.
Let S : C -t 20 be defined by S(x) = {x} for all x E C. Then
S is upper hemicontinuous. Moreover, if x E C\K and y E T(x), then
S(y) = {V} c T(X) c K by (iii) so that S(y) n K =1= 0. Hence, by Theorem
4.76, T and S have a coincidence, implying that T has a fixed point in C.
An application of Theorem 4.79 to another minimax inequality is as
follows [155].
C C E be nonempty paracompact convex. Let K ~ C be nonempty compact
convex and 1 : C X C -t IR. If
(i) f(x, x) :S 0 for all x E C;
(ii) for each x E C, {y E C : !(x, y) > O} is convex;
(iii) for each y E C,X -+ f(x,y) is lower semicontinuous on C;
(iv) I(x, y) :S 0 for all x, y E C\K;
then there exists an x E C such that 1(x, y) :S 0 for all y E C.
190 CHAPTER 4
Proof.
Let T{x) = {y E C : f{x,y) > O} for all x E C . Suppose T(x) =I- 0 for
all x E C . Then T : C -+ 2c is such that
T{x) is convex for each x E C by (ii);
T- 1 (y) is open for each y E C by (iii);
T(x) C K for each x E C\K by (iv) .
Hence, by Theorem 4.79, there exists an x E C such that x E Tx, so that
f(x, x) > 0, which contradicts (i). Therefore, there exists an x E C such
that T(x) = 0, and consequently, f(x, y) ::; 0 for all y E C .
Application of Fixed Points to Approximation Theory
5.1. Introduction
Fixed point theorems have been used in many instances in approximation
theory. To prove existence of best approximants see, for example, Brandt
[21], Brosowski [23], Ky Fan [86], Hicks and Humphries [114], Reich [230],
Sahney, Singh, and Whitfield [244], Singh [271] [270] [269], Singh and Watson
[275], and Subrahmanyam [278]. For different types of applications of fixed
point theorems (mainly Schauder's fixed point theorem) see Brosowski [23],
Klee [151], Meinardus [188], and Vlasov [302]. Application of the fixed-
point theorem to simultaneous best approximation is given by Sahney and
Singh [243] . For further references and a survey of the subject, we refer to
Brosowski [24] and Cheney [47].
5.2. Preliminaries and Basic Definitions

For every x E E and every positive number r, we define the sets
K[x, r] = {y E E: IIx - yll :::; r}

and
K(x, r) = {y E E: IIx - yll < r}.
Definition 5.1 A subset D of E is called boundedly (weakly) compact if
for every x E E and every r > 0, the set K[x, r] n D is (weakly) compact.
5.3. Existence of Best Approximations

The following results on existence of best approximations are well known.
Theorem 5.2 Let K be a compact subset of a metric space E. To each
element x E E, there corresponds an element y E K such that d(x, y)
inf d(x, z) = d(x, K).
zEK
Theorem 5.3 If C is a closed linear subspace or only a closed nonempty

convex subset of the reflexive Banach space E, then for every x E E, the
equation IIx - yll = d( x, C), for y E C, is solvable in C.
191
192 CHAPTER 5
Example. Consider IR? with l~ norm. Setting x = (1,1), and Xl = (1,0),

we have IIx - aXlll = 111 - 0',111 = J(1-
0')2 + 1 = min if and only if
a = 1. Thus, Xl is the unique best approximation to X in the closed linear
subspace spanned by Xl, denoted by [Xl].
Example. Consider IR? with lr
norm. With X = (1, 1),X1 = (1,0), we have
IIx-ax111 = max(ll-al, 1) = min if and only ifll-al ~ 1 or, equivalently,
° °
~ a ~ 2. Thus there exist infinitely many best approximations of X in
[Xl] of the form {(a, 0) : ~ a ~ 2}.
The last example shows that the element Yo, for which IIx - Yoll is
minimized, may not be unique. However, the following holds for uniformly
convex Banach spaces.
Theorem 5.4 Let C be a nonempty closed convex subset of the uniformly
convex Banach space E. Then, for every x E E, the equation IIx - yll =
d(x, C), where Y E C, is uniquely solvable in C. That is, there exists exactly
one Yo E C such that IIx - yoll ~ IIx - yll for all y E C.
The next theorem uses the following lemma.

Lemma 5.5 Let X be a normed linear space and C a weakly compact subset
of X. Let f : X -+ 1R be a weakly lower semicontinuous function on X. Then
the infinum of f is achieved in C in the sense that there exists an Xo E C
such that f(xo) = inf f(x) [55}.
xEG
Theorem 5.6 Let X be a strictly convex normed linear space and C a
weakly compact convex subset of X. Then for every X EX, the problem
IIx - yll = d(x, C) for Y E C is uniquely solvable. That is, there exists
exactly one Yo E C such that IIx - yoll ~ IIx - yll for all y E C.
Proof.
Applying Lemma 5.5 with f(x) = IIx - yll, it follows that there exists
at least one y in C which minimizes IIx - yll over C. Suppose that there are
two such points, Yl and Y2. Letting d denote inf IIx - yll we have IIx - Ylil =
yEG
IIx - Y211 = d. Using the convexity of C, it follows that )..Yl + (1- )..)Y2 E C.
So,
d < II)..Yl + (1 - )..)Y2 - xII

< )..IIYl - xII + (1 - )..)IIY2 - xII
d,
which implies that II)..Y1 + (1 - )..)Y2 - xii = d for all ).., ~ ° ).
~ 1. This
contradicts the fact that X is strictly convex. So, Yl = Y2, and the theorem
is proved.
Definition 5.7 A Banach space is said to have the Oshman property if the
metric projection on every closed convex subset is upper semicontinuous.
Theorem 5.8 Let C be a closed convex subset of a Banach space E with
the Oshman property. If T : C -+ E is continuous and T(C) is relatively
compact, then there is a point y E C such that d(Ty, C) = IIT(y) - yll [230j.
Theorem 5.9 A convex boundedly compact subset of a normed linear space
is proximinal [24j.
Proof.
The proof in [24] is established by applying Ky Fan's fixed point theorem.
A second proof using Bohnenblust and Karlin's fixed point theorem [16] is
given by Prolla [227].
5.4. Invariance of Best Approximation

In the subject of best approximation, one often wishes to know whether
some useful property of the function being approximated is inherited by
the approximating function. Meinardus [188] seems to have been the first
to observe the general principle that could be applied and the first to have
employed a fixed point theorem to establish it.
Theorem 5.10 Let B be a compact metric space and T : B -+ B continuous.
Let C[ B] be the space of all continuous real-valued functions with supremum
norm. Let A : C[B] -+ C[B] be Lipschitzian with constant 1. Suppose
further that Af(T(x)) = f(x), and that Ah(Tx) E V, whenever h(x) E V,
where V is a finite dimensional subspace of C[B]. Then there is a best
approximation 9 of f with respect to V such that Ag(T(x)) = g(x).
Proof.
Define the mapping S by Sg(x) = Ag(Tx). Then S is nonexpansive.
Indeed,
IISg - Sgdl IIAg(Tx) - Agl(T(x)1I
< IIg(T(x) - gI T (x)1I
< IIg - gIll·
Now the set of best approximations is convex and closed. An appeal to
the Arzela-Ascoli Theorem guarantees compactness. Hence, the theorem
follows from Schauder's fixed point theorem.
Theorem 5.10 was extended by Brosowski in [23].
Theorem 5.11 Let X be a Banach space and T : X -+ X linear and
nonexpansive. Let C be aT-invariant set and y aT-invariant point. If
Pc(y) is nonempty compact and convex, then T has a fixed point which is
a best approximation to y in Pc (y).
194 CHAPTER 5
Brosowski's result was further extended by Singh in [271], where a

convex set was replaced by a star-shaped set and the linearity of the
mapping T was removed.
Further extensions of Meinardus's results are given by Subrahmanyam
[278], and Singh [271]. We recall some definitions introduced by Edelstein
in [78], before stating results of [278] and [271].
Definition 5.12 A mapping T : E -+ E (here E is a metric space) is
said to be locally contractive if for every x E E there exist f. and A (f. > 0,
o ~ A < 1) both of which may depend on x such that p, q E S(x, f.) = {y E
E: d(x,y) < f.} implies d(Tp,Tq) ~ Ad(p,q). T is called (f.,A) uniformly
locally controctive if it is locally controctive and neither f. nor A depends on
x.
Definition 5.13 A metric space E is called TJ-chainable if for every a, b E
E there exists an TJ-chain; that is, there exists a finite set of points a =
Xo < Xl < X2 ... < Xn = b (n may depend on both a and b) such that
d(Xi-b Xi) < TJ for i = 1,2"", n.
Theorem 5.14 Let X be a normed linear space, V a finite dimensional
subspace of X, and suppose that T : X -+ X has a fixed point x such that
Ilx - yll ~ d(x, V) :::} IITx - Tyll ~ IIx - yll. If T maps V into itself, then
x has a best approximation in V, which is another fixed point of T [278}.
Theorem 5.15 Let X be a normed linear space and T : X -+ X a mapping.
Let C be a subset of X such that C is T -invariant and let x E X be a T-
invariant point. Suppose Pc(x) is nonempty compact and star-shaped. If
(1) T is continuous on Pc(x), and
(2) IIx - yll ~ d(x, C) :::} IITx - Tyll ~ IIx - yll for all x, y E Pc(x) U {x},
then C contains a T -invariant point which is a best approximation to x in
C [271}.
Proof.
First, we show that T : Pc(x) -+ Pc(x). Let y E pc(x). Then IITy-
xII = IITy - Txll, implying that Ty E Pc(x). Let p be the star-centre of
Pc(x). Then AP+ (1- A)X E Pc(x) for all x E pc(x). Let k n be a sequence
with 0 ~ k n < 1 which converges to 1. Define Tn : Pc (x) -+ Pc (x) as
follows: Tn(x) = knTx + (1 - kn)p for all x E Pc(x). Then IITnx - TnYl1 =
knllTx-TYIl ~ knllx-YII for IIx-yll ~ d(x, C). Thus, each Tn is (d(x,C),kn)
uniformly locally contractive for each n = 1,2,···. It follows from [78] that
each Tn has a unique fixed point, say, x n . Since Pc(x) is compact, {x n }
has a subsequence Xnj -+ z, say. Now, xnj = Tnjx nj = knjTxnj + (1 - kn;}p.
Using the continuity of T, and taking the limit as i -+ 00, we have z = Tz.
5.5. Invariance of Best Approximation in Locally Convex Spaces

Let E be a locally convex Hausdorff topological linear space and let lP' be
a (fixed) family of continuous seminorms which generates the topology of
E. Let C be a nonempty subset of E and let p be a continuous seminorm.
For x E E, define dp(x, C) = inf{p(x - y) : y E C} and Pc(x) = {y E C :
p(x - y) = dp(x, C)}. The set C is said to be proximinal with respect to
p if for all x in E, Pc(x) is nonempty [230]. It is called approximatively
compact with respect to p (approximatively p-compact) if for each y E E,
every net {xc> : a E ~} C C such that p(y - xc» -+ dp(y, C) has a subnet
that converges to an element of C.
Theorem 5.16 Let C be an approximatively p-compact convex subset of
a locally convex Hausdorff topological linear space E, and let T : C -+ E
be continuous. If either C is compact or T( C) is relatively compact, then
for each continuous seminorm p on E, there is a point y in C such that
dp(Ty, C) = p(Ty - y) [230}.
Definition 5.11 A mapping T : C -+ C is said to be p-contractive if for
each p E lP' there is a kp, with 0 ~ kp < 1 such that p(Tx - Ty) ~ kpp(x - y)
for all x, y E C. If p(Tx - Ty) ~ p(x - y) for each p E lP', then T is called
p-nonexpansive.
Definition 5.18 A locally convex Hausdorff topological vector space E is
sequentially complete if and only if every Cauchy sequence in E converges
to some element in E. E is quasi-complete if every bounded closed subset
of E is complete.
Clearly, every complete space is quasi-complete, and every quasi-complete

space is sequentially complete [156]. However, the converse is not true.
Theorem 5.19 Let E be a locally convex Hausdorff topological linear space
and let T : E -+ E be a p-nonexpansive mapping. Let C be aT-invariant
set and y aT-invariant point. Assume that for every p E lP', Pc(y) is
nonempty, sequentially complete, bounded and star-shaped. Further, assume
that at least one of the following holds:
(1) (I - T)Pc(y) is closed.
(2) T is demicompact.
(3) T is compact.
Then, T has a fixed point which is a best approximation to y in Pc (y) [244}.
and let T : E -+ E be p-nonexpansive. Let C be aT-invariant subset of
E and y aT-invariant point. If the set of best C -approximants to y is
nonempty compact and star-shaped, then it contains aT-invariant point
[269}.
196 CHAPTER 5
Proof.
Let Pc(y) be the set of best C-approximants to y. Then, Pc(y) being
compact, it is complete and totally bounded and, hence, sequentially complete
and bounded. Moreover, it follows from the continuity of I - T that (I -
T)Pc(y) is compact and therefore closed. Thus, the corollary follows from
Theorem 5.23.
and let T : E -+ E be a p-nonexpansive mapping. Let C be aT-invariant set
and y aT-invariant point. Assume that for every PElF, pc(y) is nonempty
weakly compact and star-shaped. If I - T is demiclosed, then T has a fixed
point which is a best approximation to y E E.
The condition that Pc(x) be nonempty and compact may be difficult
to verify in some instances. This leads to the consideration of special cases
when it is possible to replace compactness by weak compactness. The
following result of Hicks and Humphries in [114], which is a variant of
a theorem due to Browder and Petryshyn ([33], Theorem 4), holds in this
situation.
Theorem 5.22 Let D be a nonempty weakly compact and star-shaped subset
of a Hilbert space E. Suppose T is a nonexpansive mapping of D into D.
Remark. Theorem 5.22 is a particular case of Corollary 5.21. Since T is
nonexpansive and E is a Hilbert space, it follows that 1- T is demiclosed
[31 ].
Remark. Hicks and Humphries in [114] proved the following. As usual, the
notation f)C denotes the boundary of C.
Lemma 5.23 If T is nonexpansive and T : f)C -+ C, then T : Pc(x) -+
Pc(x).
In view of Lemma 5.23, it is enough to assume that T maps the boundary
of C into C in Theorems 5.11, 5.15, 5.19, and in Corollary 5.20.
5.6. Some Further Extensions

Let K be a nonempty subset of E, and let F = {fo}oEK be a family of
functions from [0, 1] into K having the property that for each Q' E K, we
have fo(1) = Q'. Such a family F is said to be contractive, provided there
exists a function ¢ : (0,1) -+ (0,1) such that for Q' and (3 in K and for all
t E [0,1] and pElF, we have p(/o(t) - f{3(t)) ~ ¢(t)p(Q'- (3). The function F
is said to be jointly continuous, provided that if t -+ to in [0,1] and Q' -+ Q'o
in K, then feAt) -+ fao (to) in K.

and let T : E --+ E be p-nonexpansive. Let C be a T - invariant set and y a T -
invariant point. Suppose that for all p E Jr, Pc (y) is nonempty and compact,
and there is a contractive, jointly continuous family of functions associated
with Pc (y). Then T has a fixed point, which is a best approximation to y
in Pc(y).
Proof. n
For each n = 1,2,3,··· let rn = --,
n+1
and let Tn : Pc(y) --+ Pc(Y)
be defined by Tn(x) = fTx(rn) for all x E Pc(Y). Since T(Pc(y)) c Pc(Y)
and 0 < rn < 1, it follows that each Tn is well defined and maps Pc(Y)
into Pc(y). Furthermore, for each n, for all x, Z E Pc(y), and for all p E Jr,
we have p(Tnx - Tnz) = p(fTx(rn ) - fTz(rn)) ~ <jJ(rn)p(x - z). So, for
each n, Tn is a p-contraction mapping. The set Pc(Y)' being compact, is
complete. Each Tn has a unique fixed point Xn in Pc(y) ([38]). Since Pc(y)
is compact, there is a subnet {x n;} of {xn} such that Xnj --+ x in Pc(y).
Since Tnjx nj = x nj ' we have Tnjx nj --+ x. Since T is continuous, it follows
that Tnj --+ Tx. Using the joint continuity, we have Tnjx nj = fTx nj (rnJ --+
fTx(l) = T(x). Since E is Hausdorff, it follows that Tx = x.
Remark. As noted by Dotson, Jr. [66], star-shaped subsets have the property
of contractiveness and joint continuity. Thus, the immediate consequence
of the above result is Theorem 1 in [269].
5.7. The Problem of Convexity of Chebyshev Sets

Definition 5.25 A Chebyshev set C ~ X where X is a Banach space is
called a sun if Pc(>-.x + (1 - 'x)x) = Pc(x), for x E X, x E C and ,X ~ l.
Equivalently, a Chebyshev set C is a sun if for every x E X, x is the closest
point in C for every point on the my xx.
Theorem 5.26 Let X be a Banach space. Then every boundedly compact

Chebyshev set is a sun [302].
Recall C c X is boundedly compact if C n A is compact for each closed
ball A in X.
Proof.
Let C be a boundedly compact Chebyshev set that is not a sun; and
seek a contradiction; i.e., there exists a point Z such that no point on zz
beyond z has z for its closest point. Consider a closed ball B with center z
and boundary S (disjoint from C). The ball B is closed and convex. Define
Q : B --+ B as follows.
For a point x E B, find its projection Px in C and then join Px to z and
extend so that it cuts S in x'. Q(x) = x'. We note that (i) Q is continuous
198 CHAPTER 5
and (ii) Q(B) is compact. Hence, Schauder's fixed point theorem implies
that Q has a fixed point Xo E B (Q(xo) = xo). Thus, Xo = Q(xo) = x~, i.e.,
x~zxo are in the same line, i.e., x~ has Xo as the closest point, so z must
have Xo as the closest point. Since C is Chebyshev Xo = zoo Then zoz has
a point x~ beyond z. This proves that C is a sun.
Definition 5.27 A Banach space E is called smooth at u =1= 0 if S = {u E

E: lIuli = I} has a unique supporting hyperplane at uiliuli.
Theorem 5.28 Let E be a smooth Banach space. Then every sun in E is
convex.
The two theorems above give the following.

Theorem 5.29 Let E be a smooth Banach space. Then every boundedly
compact Chebyshev set in E is convex.
Some other results characterizing convexity of a Chebyshev set are given
by Brosowski [24]. There is also a concept of moon introduced by Amir and
Deutsch in [3]. They have shown that every sun is a moon.
5.8. Best Simultaneous Approximations and Distance Between

Two Sets
Definition 5.30 Let C be a subset of a normed linear space X. Given any
bounded subset B of X, define d(B,C) = inf sup lIy - xII. An element z
xEC yEB
in C is said to be a best simultaneous approximation to B if d(B, C) =
sup lIy - zll·
yEB
Note that the definition above assigns a meaning to d(B, C) that differs
from the usual one.
The following is a theorem for the best simultaneous approximation
[243].
Let X be a strictly convex Banach space, and C a weakly compact
convex subset of X. Then there exists a unique best simultaneous approximation
from the elements of C to any given compact subset F of X.
The following result also deals with best simultaneous approximation
[243].
Let X be a strictly convex normed linear space and C a reflexive
subspace of X . Then for any nonempty compact subset F of X there exists
one and only one best simultaneous approximation in C.
The distance between two sets has been given by Cheney and Goldstein
[49], Pai [208], and Sahney and Singh [243] .
Cheney and Goldstein proved the following in Hilbert space.
Let A and B be two closed convex sets in Hilbert space H. Let PA and
PB be proximity maps for A and B, respectively. Any fixed point of PAPB
is a point of A nearest B and conversely.
The following result on the distance between two sets is due to Sahney
and Singh [243], which extends a result of Pai [208].
Theorem 5.31 Let X be a strictly convex Banach space and A a closed
convex locally compact subset of X and let B be a compact convex subset
ofX.
Then there exists an a E A and bE B such that d(A, B) =
lIa - bll.
The following result is due to Pai [208].

Theorem 5.32 Let E be a uniformly convex Banach space and let A, B be
two closed, convex sets such that one of them is compact. Then a E A and
bE B exist such that d(A,B) = lIa - bll.
Theorem 5.31 and Theorem 5.32 are particular cases of the following.
Theorem 5.33 Suppose that A is weakly compact and B is a closed convex
weakly locally compact subset of the normed linear space E. Then, there are
points a E A and bE B such that d(A, B) = lIa - bll [156}.
Remark. If E is a reflexive Banach space, A can be an arbitrary bounded
closed set, and B an arbitrary closed convex set.
Since a uniformly convex Banach space is reflexive, Theorem 5.32 follows
from the above observation. Since every compact (locally compact) set is
weakly compact (weakly locally compact), Theorem 5.31 is a special case
of Theorem 5.33.
5.9. Variational Inequalities and Complementarity Problems

The theory of variational inequality has applications in several fields including
nonlinear analysis, mathematical economics, optimization, heat conduction,
and hydrodynamics.
Let f : [a, b] ~ R be a differentiable function with continuous derivative.
One seeks a point Xo E [a, b] such that fxo = minxE[a,b) fx.
If a < Xo < b, then f'(xo) = 0

If a = Xo, then f'(xo) 2:: 0
If b = xo, then f'(xo):::; o.
Consequently, f'(xo)(x - xo) 2:: 0 for all x E [a, b]. Such an inequality is
referred to as the variational inequality.
The well-known result due to Hartman and Stampacchia [112] was
proved by using the partition of unity and the Brouwer fixed point theorem.
200 CHAPTER 5
Let X be a reflexive Banach space and X* its dual. Let f : C -+ X* be

a monotone, hemicontinuous map, where C is a nonempty closed convex
subset of X. Then the variational inequality problem is stated as follows.
Find x E C such that (Ix, Y - x) ~ 0 for all y E C. (V.I.P.)
Any such x satisfying variational inequality is called a solution of the

variational inequality.
In case u E X*, one considers the following. Find x E C such that
(Ix - u, y - x) ~ 0 for all y E C.
The following result in variational inequality is quite useful.
Theorem 5.34 Let f : C -+ X* be a monotone and hemicontinuous map
where C is a convex subset of X. Then for given u E X*, any solution of
(Ix - U,y - x) ~ 0 for all y E C is also a solution of (ly - U,y - x) ~ 0
for all y E C.
In the following (E, E*) is a dual system of a Banach space E, C is a
closed, convex cone in E and D is a nonempty compact convex subset of
C [129].
Let f, 9 : C -+ E* satisfy
(i) (gx, fx) ~ (x,fx) for all xED.
(ii) for each sequence {Yn} in D weakly converging to Yo, lim inf (x, fYn) ~
(x, fyo) for all xED.
(iii) x -+ (gx,fx) is sequentially weakly lower semicontinuous on D.
Then there is an Xo E D such that (x - gxo, fxo) ~ 0 for all xED.
The complementarity problem provides a unified model for problems
arising in game theory, economics, optimization, engineering, and other
applied sciences. Let f : R n -+ R n be a continuous map. The complementarity
problem is to find a solution to the system
y fx
x > 0
y > 0
(x,y) o.
As x and yare nonnegative vectors in R n , so either x and yare orthogonal
(x, y) = 0) or the component-wise product of x and y is the 0 vector.
The complementarity problem requires to find a nonnegative vector whose
image is also nonnegative and such that the two vectors are orthogonal.
The following result is due to Isac [130] for a convex cone of the Hilbert
space H .
Theorem 5.35 Let H be the Hilbert space and C a convex cone. If f :

C -7 H such that f(x) = x - g(x) where 9 : C -7 C, then x is a fixed point
of 9 if and only if x is a solution of the complementarity problem.
If x is a fixed point of g, then fx = 0, so x E C, fx E C* (dual cone)
and (x, fx) = O.
In case x is a solution of the complementarity problem, then x E C and
(x-x, fx) ~ 0 for every x E C (since C.P. {::} V.I.P.). But since fx = x-gx
and gx E C, we get
(x - gx, gx - x) ~ o.
Consequently, O:S (x - gx, x - gx) :S 0, that is, gx = x.
The following lemma is used in subsequent work.
Lemma 5.36 Let H be a Hilbert space and C C H a closed convex cone.
If x E H is any element, then the following holds:
(i) Ilx -
Paxll :S Ilx - yli for all y E C,
(ii) (x - Pax, Pax - y) ~ 0 for all y E C,
(iii) (Pax - x, y) ~ 0 for all y E C,
(iv) (Pax - x, Pax) = O.
Isac [130] gave the following result.
Theorem 5.37 Let C be a closed convex cone in a Hilbert space H. If
f : C -7 H is a map, then find x E C such that
fx E C* and (x,fx) = 0 (C.P.)
iff find x E C such that Tx = x, where T : C -7 C is defined by Tx =

Pc(x - pfx), and p > 0 is a real number.
Proof.
Note that by Lemma 5.36, x E C is a fixed point of T if and only if
x - (x - piX) E C* and (x, x - (x - pfx) = 0, that is, if and only if fx E C*
and (x, fx) = o.
The following result due to Moreau [193] is used to prove a theorem
given below [129].
Recall that a polar cone of a convex cone A CHis AP = {x E H :
(x, y) :S 0 for all YEA}. If A and B are two closed convex cones in H,
then A and B are mutually polar if A = BP.
Theorem 5.38 If A and B are two mutually polar convex cones in H,
then for all x, y, Z E H the following are equivalent.
(i) Z = x + y, x E A, y E B and (x, y) = o.
(ii) x = PAZ and y = PEZ.
202 CHAPTER 5
The following result gives a very close relationship between the

complementarity problem (c.P.) and the fixed point theorem [129], [131].
Theorem 5.39 Let C be a closed convex cone of a Hilbert space H. Then
the complementarity problem (C.P.) has a solution, if and only if, T(x) =
Pcx - f Pcx for x E H has a fixed point in H. If Xo = Txo, then x = Pcxo
is a solution of the complementarity problem.
Proof.
Let Txo = Xo. That is, Xo = Pcxo - fPcxo.
Put Pcxo = x. Then x E C and Xo = x - fx, that is, x - Xo = fx.
By Lemma 5.36, we get that (Ix, x) = 0 and x is a solution of the
complementarity problem.
Conversely, if x E C is a solution of the complementarity problem, then
by writing Xo = x - fx and using Moreau's theorem, we get that Pcxo = x
and Txo = Pcxo - j Pcxo = x - jx = xo, that is, T has a fixed point.
In [129], Isac has shown that the variational inequality problem is equivalent
to the complementarity problem.
Let (E, E*) be a dual system of locally convex space E, C a closed
convex cone in E, and j : C -+ C,g : C -+ E*
Consider the following problems.
(i) Find Xo E C such that (x - jxo,gxo) 2: 0 for all x E C (V.I.P.).
(ii) Find Xo E C such that gxo E C* and (lxo,gxo) = 0 (C.P.).
The V.I.P. and C.P. are equivalent. Let Xo be a solution of the variational
inequality problem (V.I.) . Then (x - jxO,gxo) 2: 0 for all x E C.
For u E C, let x = u + jxo. Then (u,gxo) 2: 0 for all u E C, that is,
gxo E C*.
Put x = 0 to get (lxo, gxo) :S 0, and x = 2jxo to get (lxo, gxo) 2: 0
so (lxo, gxo) = 0, that is, Xo is a solution of the complementarity problem
(C.P.) .
Conversely, if Xo is a solution of the complementarity problem, then
(x, gxo) 2: 0 for all x E C and (lxo, gxo) = O. Hence, (x - jxo, gxo) 2: 0
for all x E C, and Xo is a solution of the variational inequality problem
(V.I.P.).
Let C be closed convex cone in a Hilbert space H. Let D be a subset of
Hand j, 9 : D -+ H. The problem to find u E D such that
g(u) E C, j(u) E C*, (g(u), j(u) =0 (I.C.P.)
is known as the implicit complementarity problem [131].
If 9 is an identity function, then it reduces to the following [199]:
Find u E C such that
j (u) E C*, (u, j (u) = O. (C.P.)
The corresponding implicit variational inequality problem is to find u E

D such that
(lu,gv - gu) ~ 0 for all g(v),g(u) E C. (I.V.P.)
If 9 = I, an identity function, then the problem reduces to find u E C

such that (lu, v - u) ~ 0 for all v E C, known as the variational inequality
problem (V.I.P.).
The following interesting results, arising in different fields, are very
closely related to each other. Villar [300] and Blum and Oettli [15] have
given a very illustrative interconnection within these diverse fields. See [15]
for the following:
The problem of finding an x in K such that f(x, y) ~ 0 for all y E K,
where K is a given set and f : K x K -+ IR is a given function with
f(x, x) = 0 for all x E K is known as an equilibrium problem.
Problems in optimization, complementarity problems, variational inequalities,
and fixed point theory are shown as close relatives of the equilibrium
problem (E.P.) [15].
Equilibrium Problem. Let X be a real topological vector space, K a

closed convex subset of X, f : K X K -+ IR such that f(x,x) = 0 for
all x E K. Then the equilibrium problem is to find an x in X such that
x E K, f(x, y) ~ 0 for all y in K (E.P.).
Examples.
1. Consider the problem of optimization. Let 9 : K -+ lR.. The problem is
to find x E K such that gx ~ gy for all y E K; that is, g(x) = min {gy :
y E K} (O.P.).
Set f(x, y) = gy - gx. The (O.P.) coincides with (E.P.).
2. Fixed Points: Let X = X* be a Hilbert space. Let 9 : K -+ K. Find
an x E K such that x = gx (F.P.).
Set f(x, y) = (x - gx, y - x).
Then x is a solution of (E.P.) iff x is a solution of (F.P.).
If x is a fixed point of g, then (x - gx, y - x) ~ 0 for all y E K, that is,
f(x, y) ~ O.
If (E.P.) is satisfied, then by taking y = gx, we get that 0 < f(x, y) =
-lIgx - xll 2 a contradiction, so gx = x and (E.P.) implies (F.P.).
Let 9 : K -+ X*. Find x E X such that x E K, (gx,y - x) ~ 0 for all
y E K (Variational Problem, V.P.).
Set f(x,y) = (gx,y - x). Then (V.P.) if and only if (E.P.).
Let K be a closed convex cone with K* = {x E X* : (x, y) ~ 0 for all
y E K}-polar cone of K.
204 CHAPTER 5
Let 9 : K -+ X*. Find x such that x E K,gx E K* and (gx, x) = 0

(Complementarity Problem, C.P.).
The following is a very useful result.
(C.P.) if and only if (V.P.).
It is shown that (V.P.) ~ (C.P.). Let y = 2x. Then (gx, x) 2: O. Let
y = O. Then (gx, x) ~ o. Hence, (gx, x) = 0, and (gx, y) 2: 0 for all y E K.
Further works showing equivalence among resuts in fixed point theory,
variational inequality, complementarity problem, and nonempty intersection
problem is given in [300].
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INDEX
(!O, A) uniformly locally contractive, best approximation, 73

194 best approximation operator, 76,
(p - f), 109 78
H-KKM, 157 best simultaneous approximation,
H-compact, 157 198
H-convex, 156 bounded compact, 191
H-space, 156 bounded linear functional, 5
T-invariant, 195 boundedly (weakly) compact, 191
T-invariant point, 195 boundedly compact, 197
T-orbitally lower semicontinuous, Brouwer, 11
18 Brouwer's Fixed Point Theorem,
1}-chainable, 194 11
a-compact, 107
aW o ,112 canonical isomorphism, 68
k-set contraction, 28 canonical mapping, 5
p-contractive, 195 Caristi, 16
p-nonexpansive, 195 Chebyshev map, 76
I-set contraction, 29 Chebyshev set, 76
dosed, 35
T-orbitally complete, 18 coincidence, 187
acyclic, 107 coincidence theorem, 174
acyclic map, 107 compact, 2, 35
admissible, 97 compact map, 12
almost affine, 93, 109 compactly dosed, 157
approximatively compact, 93 complementarity problem, 200
approximatively compact sets, 96 complete, 1
approximatively compact with respect completely continuous, 12
to p, 195 condensing, 103
approximatively weakly compact, cone, 88, 172
96 contractible, 156
asymptotically nonexpansive, 63 contractible subsets, 156
asymptotically regular, 24 contraction, 13
contraction map, 13
Banach Contraction Principle, 12 contractive, 13
Banach contraction theorem, 12 converges weakly, 5
base of neighbourhoods, 5 convex, 4, 43
217
218 INDEX
convex hull, 4 inward set, 37

convex metric space, 64 Ishikawa iteration scheme, 57
convex space, 107 Ishikawa scheme, 57
convex structure, 64 isometric embedding, 5
cover, 2 iteration process, 55
demiclosed, 6, 26, 39 jointly continuous, 196

demicompact, 33
demicontinuous, 6 Kakutani factorizable multifunction,
densifying, 29 37
diameter, 2 Kakutani map, 107
diametral point, 9 Kakutani multifunction, 37
dual, 172 KKM principle, 122
duality mapping, 7 KKM-map, 121
KKM-map, 122
equilibrium problem, 203
expansive map, 21 LANE map, 83
Lipschitz class, 13, 67
fibres of F, 34 Lipschitz mapping, 38
filter, 164 Lipschitzian mapping, 62
finite intersection property, 2 locally contractive, 194
finite subcover, 2 locally convex space, 5, 8
finitely closed, 124 locally uniformly convex, 7
fixed point, 10 lower (upper) semicontinuous, 16
Fnkhet, 62 lower semicontinuous, 16, 35
Fnkhet differentiable norm, 62 LUC, 7
Fredholm equation, 46
Fredholm integral equation, 46 Mann Iterative Process, 56
Mann iterative process, 56
gauge function, 7
maximal element, 150, 165
generalized contraction, 20, 22
measure of noncompactness, 28
generalized contraction (with respect
metric, 1
to Q, 22
metric projection, 76
Hammerstein integral equation, 47 metric space, 1
Hausdorff metric, 29 minimizing sequence, 93
Hausdorff topological space, 8 Minkowski functional, 9
hemicontinuous, 6, 7, 132 monotone, 6
moon, 198
I-scheme, 57 multifunction, 34
inner product, 3 acyclic, 97
inner product space, 3 admissible, 97
inward, 37 closed, 35
inward map, 37 compact, 35
condensing, 103 quasi-concave, 126

demiclosed, 39 quasi-convex, 126
inward, 42 quasi-nonexpansive, 27
Lipschitz mapping, 38
lower semicontinuous, 35 radial retraction, 31, 76
nonexpansive, 39 reflexive, 5, 6
quasi-complete, 103
scalars, 3
upper hemicontinuous, 187
Schauder, 12
upper semicontinuous, 35
Schauder Fixed Point Theorem, 12
weakly inward, 42
Schauder Fixed Point Theorem (secon(
nonempty, 187 form), 12
nonexpansive, 15, 22, 39 selection, 159
nonlinear ergodic theorem, 62 semicontractive, 82
nonlinear integral equation, 47 semiconvex, 42
norm, 3 semiconvexity, 43
norm topology, 5 seminorm, 8
normal structure, 10 separating, 9
normed linear space, 3 sequence
normed vector space, 3 Cauchy, 1
sequence of iterates, 15
open cover, 2 sequentially complete, 195
Opial's condition, 39 sequentially strongly continuous,
orbit, 18 134
orbitally complete, 18 set
orbitally lower semicontinuous, 18 absolutely convex, 8
Oshman property, 193 absorbing, 8
outward map, 37 balanced, 8
outward set, 37 circled, 8
inward, 37
paracompact, 159 set-valued map, 34, 76
partition of unity, 159 smooth, 198
polar, 172 space
polytopes, 107 C[a, b], 1
precompact, 2 Banach, 2, 3
proper, 17, 97 dual, 5
proper map, 17 Hausdorff topological, 8
property (S), 113 Hilbert, 3, 4
proximinal, 76 inner product, 4
proximinal with respect to p, 195 linear, 2
proximity map, 76 normed, 3
normed linear, 3
quasi-complete, 103, 195 normed vector, 3
220 INDEX
topological, 8
vector, 3
star center, 4
starshaped, 4
strictly contractive, 14
strictly convex, 4
strictly monotone, 6
strong topology, 5
strongly continuous, 6, 82
strongly monotone, 67
sufficiently many linear functionals,
183
sun, 197
supremum norm, 4
topological vector spaces, 7

totally bounded, 2, 103
two point boundary value problem,
46
ueED, 7
uniformly convex, 4
in every direction, 7
unit ball, 6
unit sphere, 6
upper semicontinuous, 16, 35
Urysohn integral equation, 47
variational inequality, 199

vectors, 3
Volterra integral equation, 45
weak closure, 5
weak topology, 5, 9
weak* -topology, 9
weakly H-convex, 156
weakly asymptotically regular, 62
weakly closed, 5
weakly compact, 5
weakly continuous, 6, 183
weakly inward, 37, 43
weakly outward, 37
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Fixed Point Theory and Best Approximation:

The KKM-map Principle

SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V.

ISBN 978-90-481-4918-6 ISBN 978-94-015-8822-5 (eBook)

Printed on acid-free paper

Ali Rights Reserved

To our parents and especially to Shri Mahadeo Singh on the occasion

FIXED POINT THEORY AND BEST APPROXIMATION:

1 Introductory Concepts and Fixed Point Theorems 1

2 Ky Fan's Best Approximation Theorem 73

3 Principle and Applications of KKM-maps 121

4 Partitions of Unity and Applications 159

5 Application of Fixed Points to Approximation Theory 191

We thank our colleagues for their support, especially P.P.Narayanaswami

1.1. Topological Preliminaries

We begin with some basic definitions.

d(J,g) = max IJx - gxl.

Note: If f:X t-+ Y and a reference is made to f(x), it is standard practice

adopt this convention throughout this book. An exception, on behalf of

4. For every element x EX, there exists an element -x E X called the

IIfll = max If(x)1

is a normed vector space. But prO, 1] is not a Banach space.

1.1.2. HILBERT SPACES

H3: (x, y) = (y, x) (conjugate)

Definition 1.11 A set C in a Banach space X is said to be convex if

Definition 1.13 A Banach space X is called uniformly convex if for any

In other words, X is uniformly convex if for any two points x and y

Definition 1.14 A Banach space X is called strictly convex if and only if

A uniformly convex Banach space is strictly convex but not conversely.

(j, y) for every f E X*.

II lim xnll ~ lim inf Ilxnll.

(ii) Norm convergence implies weak convergence but not conversely.

(ii) A Banach space X is reflexive if and only if every bounded sequence

B = {x EX: IIxll ~ I} and S = {x EX: IIxll = I}

and the boundary of Bn denoted by 8B r = {x EX: IIxll = r}.

lim inf Ilx n - yll > lim inf IIx n - xii.

(Tx - Ty,x - y) 2: 0 for all X,y in C,

An important example of a monotone mapping from a Banach space X

J(x) = {f E X* : (/, x) = IIfllllxll, IIfll = J..L(lIxll)}·

A uniformly convex space is a (UCED)-space, but the converse is not

1,1,3. TOPOLOGICAL VECTOR SPACES

Let X be a nonempty set. A family T of subsets of X defines a topology

(i) the union of any arbitrary collections of members of T, is in T, and

1.1.4. LOCALLY CONVEX SPACES

A vector topology T on X is said to be locally convex if T admits a local

A family IF of seminorms on X is said to be separating if to each nonzero

1.2. Normal Structure

C = {f(t) E C[O, 1] : °= f(O) :s f(t) :s f(l) = I}

Definition 1.23 A convex set G in a Banach space X is said to have

1. Every uniformly convex Banach space has normal structure.

1.3. Fixed Points

Definition 1.24 Let T : X -+ X be a function on a set X. A point Xo E X

Example. Let T : [0,1] -+ [0,1] be defined by Tx = x/10. Then T(O) = 0,

We know that x = 3 and x = 4 are roots of this equation.

Then IITxll = 1 and T is continuous.

Txo {J1-lI xoIl 2,xl,x2,""xn , ... }

1.4. The Banach Contraction Principle

In this section, we discuss the Banach Contraction Principle and some

d(X2' Xl) = d(fXI' Ixo) :s; kd(X17 xo).

Similarly, d(xn+1' xn) :s; kd(xn , xn-d

d(x n+p , xn) < d(x n+p, xn+p-d + .. . + d(Xn+l' xn)

The right hand side goes to zero as n -+ 00 since k < l.

d(fx, xo) < d(fx, Ixo) + d(fxo, xo)