08/03/2019 Mild Hybrid Electric Vehicle (MHEV) – control functions – x-engineer.

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Mild Hybrid Electric Vehicle

(MHEV) – control functions
In this article we are going to go through the most common
powertrain control function of an mild hybrid electric vehicle (MHEV),
focusing on the differences and some similarities compared with a
conventional non-hybrid vehicle.

With few exceptions (e.g. electric drive/creep), the following

powertrain control functions are not specific to a particular hybrid
architecture but common for most of them.

Before going through this article, for a better understanding of hybrid

electric vehicles (HEVs) in general and MHEVs in particular, read the
following articles:

Understanding micro, mild, full and plug-in hybrid electric

vehicles
Mild Hybrid Electric Vehicle (MHEV) – introduction
Mild Hybrid Electric Vehicle (MHEV) – architectures
Mild Hybrid Electric Vehicle (MHEV) – components
(Continental)
Mild Hybrid Electric Vehicle (MHEV) – electrical architecture

Cold engine cranking

Internal combustion engines (ICE) have mechanical components
which are moving relative to each other (e.g. the crank mechanism,
the valvetrain, etc.). The friction between these components is
reduced thanks to the lubrication system. When the engine is running,
an oil film is maintained between the components in order to create
hydrodynamic friction. The lower the temperature, the higher the  oil
viscosity, the higher the friction coefficient, the higher the necessary
torque for starting.

Image: Dynamic viscosity and density of the SAE30 lubricant

Credit: Friction in Automotive Engines, H. Allmaier et al.

Another factor that has influence on friction is the oil film thickness.

When the engine is not operation, the oil is drained in the oil pan and
the oil film thickness is at its minimum. Therefore, at the first engine
start, after a long stop period, the friction between the mechanical
components is quite high.

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Image: FMEP function of oil film thickness

Credit: Overview of automotive engine friction and reduction trends, Victor W.
WONG 1, Simon C. TUNG

The combined effect of the low temperature and oil film thickness
requires a  high starting torque  which needs to compensate for the
high friction. Therefore belt integrated starter generators (BiSG), used
in P0 MHEV architectures, are not suitable for first engine starts. The
vehicle must be equipped also with a conventional (pinon-shift-type)
starter, which is going to be used for the first or cold engine start.

In case of a BiSG failure, the conventional starter is also used as a

backup component to allow engine start.

Conventional Stop & Start (Idle Stop &

Start)
When the  vehicle is stationary  and the engine is operating at  idle
speed, unnecessary fuel is burnt, hence increasing fuel consumption
and exhaust gas emissions. For example, on an NEDC cycle, the
vehicle is at standstill (0 kph) for 25% of the time. On a WLTP cycle
the standstill time is 13% and on FTP75 is 9%.

Most of the modern vehicle today have engine Stop & Start functions,

which are stopping the engine when the vehicle is at stand still. This
function can be fulfilled with a conventional starter (connected to the
engine through a gear mesh) or with a BiSG.

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Image: Conventional engine starter Image: 48V Belt integrated Starter Generator (BiSG)
Credit: Bosch Credit: Continental

Compared to a conventional starter, there are several advantages of

using a BiSG for engine Stop & Start:

faster start time due to higher output power of the electric

machine
less noise and vibrations due to belt drive (instead of gear
mesh)

On a conventional Stop & Start system the engine is shutdown when

it’s running at idle speed and the vehicle is stationary. The fuel
savings of this system are between 0 … 5 % on real driving cycles,
going up to 10% in heavy urban traffic conditions.

Advanced Stop & Start

Compared with conventional Stop & Start, advanced Stop & Start
means  stopping the engine  when the driver brakes and the  vehicle
speed is below a threshold (e.g. 8 kph) but still moving. Even if the
vehicle is still slowly moving, the engine must be at idle and the
transmission disconnected before engine shutdown.

The  engine disconnection  is done by the drive through the clutch

pedal on manual transmissions (MT) and through the torque
converter on an automatic transmission (AT). The engine is restarted
when the driver presses the clutch pedal ( on MT) or releases the
brake (on AT).

This function brings additional fuel economy savings since the period
with the engine off is extended.

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Image: Advanced engine Stop & Start

Advanced Stop & Start function must be able to deal with Change of

Mind (CoM)  situations. A CoM situation occurs when the driver
brakes, the vehicle speed drops below the threshold and the engine
shutdown is initiated. If the driver releases the brake pedal, before the
vehicle comes to a complete stop, a engine restart is requested
(because the driver changed his mind). In this situation a very short
engine restart time and fast transmission re-connection  are critical
for maintaining an acceptable level of vehicle driveability.

The conventional starter contains a pinion which is engaging with the

gear on the flywheel before the electric motor delivers torque. The
timing between the pinion engagement and motor torque is fixed, they
can not be controlled independently. Due to this design constraint, if
the pinion is trying to engage before the engine has come to a
complete stop, the starter risks to make a  loud noise  or
being  damaged. This inconvenient can be resolved by using
a  specific pinon-shift-type starter  which has an independently
controlled pinion and motor or use a  belt-integrated starter motor
(BiSG).

In order to maintain a good level of vehicle driveability, on P0 MHEV

architectures, the advanced engine stop & start functions are handled
with the high voltage (48V) electric machine (BiSG). The main reason
is that the BiSG has a permanent connection with the engine (through
the belt) and can deliver a high amount of power in a short time.

Stop-in-motion (Sailing / Coasting)

Stop-in-motion  function, also called  Sailing  or  Coasting  or  Stop &
Start Cruising, means disconnecting the engine from the
transmission and stopping (or idling) the engine, while the vehicle is
travelling at a relative high speed (e.g. 40 kph). The Coasting function
is activated when the driver releases slowly the accelerator pedal and
the vehicle decelerates (without driver braking).

The rationale behind Coasting is that less fuel is needed to cover the

same distance with the transmission disconnected and engine at idle
(or off) compared with the situation in which the vehicle is in overrun
for a period, followed by acceleration and cruising.

Coasting  can be performed with the  engine at idle speed  (also

called Idle Coasting) or with the engine off (also called Off Coasting)

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For obvious (fuel economy) benefits, the majority of the vehicle

manufacturers are developing for MHEVs with Off Coasting control
functions.

Image: Vehicle traveled distance with and without Coasting/Sailing

Let’s consider two scenarios. First, the vehicle starts from an initial
vehicle speed, with top gear (6th) engaged (overrun) and decelerates
(in fuel cut, no fuel is burnt). Due to engine losses, the vehicle will
come to a stand still is a relatively short time and distance. In the
second scenario, when the vehicle starts to decelerate, the
transmission is disconnected and the engine is shutdown. There are
no more engine losses to slow down the vehicle and, due to its inertia,
the vehicle will travel a longer distance.

Overall, if the Coasting distance is long enough, the fuel efficiency is

improved compared to an engine in overrun, acceleration and cruising
scenario. In case of a Change of Mind situation (e.g. the driver wants
to accelerate the vehicle after a brake event), the system must be
capable of handling a  fast engine restart. 48V MHEV systems are
able to provide a fast engine restart and transmission re-connection
to allow the vehicle to accelerate.

Coasting with the engine off, on P0 MHEV architectures, comes with
some disadvantages which need to be addressed by the vehicle
manufacturer:

when the engine is stopped, the electric machine can not

generate any electrical energy during deceleration phases
(since is directly linked to the engine); therefore, only long
Coasting distances will provide fuel efficiency benefits;
moreover if the engine stop & start events are often, the fuel
economy can be reduced, since every engine restart event
requires a relatively high amount of fuel (compared with engine
running at idle); this situation can be avoided on P2, P3 or P4
MHEV architectures, since the electric machine is on the
transmission side
on engine side, the auxiliary equipment (e.g. AC compressor),
will not be powered anymore; in this situation the Climate
System can request engine start (or inhibit Coasting) in order to
ensure the required temperature in the cabin; a solution is to
use 48V electric compressor for AC systems
if the vehicle is equipped with an automatic transmission, the
engine stop will not provide anymore the required power for the
transmission’s oil pump; in this situation the AT needs to be

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equipped either with an oil pressure accumulator or an electric

oil pump, in order to provide the necessary oil pressure for the
transmission to operate properly

Coasting function is providing the  maximum fuel economy

benefit for P2, P3 or P4 MHEV architectures, if the vehicle is equipped
with 48V electric AC compressor and electric transmission oil pump.
Compared to a conventional Stop & Start, a  Stop-in-motion
(Coasting)  function can achieve fuel economy improvements of
approx. 5…7 % on WLTC and 7…12 % on FTP75.

Engine load shift

The Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC)  [g/kWh] of an internal
combustion engine (ICE) is the ratio between the hourly rate fuel
consumption [g/h] and the engine power [kW].

When the vehicle is driving at a constant speed, the engine runs at a

specific  operating point  (speed and torque) which might not be at
highest BSFC value. On a P0 MHEV architecture, from the driveability
point of view, the total powertrain torque (at the  crankshaft) must
fulfill the driver’s torque request. The same crankshaft torque level
can be maintained with different torque values for the  electric
machine and internal combustion engine.

Image: BSFC improvement in hybrid electric vehicles

For example, if the driver demands 100 Nm of torque at 2500 rpm, to

maintain a constant vehicle speed, the engine is running at a low
efficiency, where BFSC is 455 g/kWh. In order to increase the
efficiency of the engine, the electric machine is set in generator mode
(and charge the battery), with a load torque of -150 Nm.

To compensate for the additional electric load, the engine torque is

increased to 250 Nm. The same crankshaft torque level is maintained
(250 – 150 = 100 Nm), increasing in the same time the efficiency of
the engine, with the BFSC at 320 g/kWh. Thus, the  engine load
(torque) was shifted  from 100 Nm to 250 Nm with an increase in
efficiency.

There are several  constraints  to engine load shift strategy, one of

them being the  exhaust gas emissions. At high loads, the internal
combustion engines have significantly higher emission levels (NOx,
particles) compared to medium or low loads.

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Torque fill
The internal combustion engine generates torque through the crank
mechanism (piston, piston pin, connecting rod and  crankshaft).
These components have mass and inertia (rotational and
translational). Also, the air drawn into the engine has mass, therefore
inertia. Because of these design constraints, the  engine can not
deliver instantaneous torque. If the drive tips-in the accelerator pedal,
it takes a while until the engine accelerates to the required operation
point (torque and speed).

Electric machines, having only one moving part (rotor) and being
governed by electromagnetics laws,  can deliver instantaneous
torque. A hybrid powertrain can benefit from the electric machines
torque delivery in order to improve the overall dynamic performance
of the vehicle.

Image: MHEV – engine torque fill with electric machine

Torque fill  means to compensate (fill) the torque demand of the

driver, which can not be delivered by the engine, with the electric
machine torque. Especially in the low speed range, an internal
combustion engine has a significant torque lag (delay). If the engine
is operating in this region and the driver demands high torque, the
difference between what the engine can deliver and what the driver
demands is compensated by the electric machine.

For example, if the engine torque is 80 Nm and the driver kicks down
the accelerator pedal (full load), demanding 160 Nm, in the fist
instance, the electric machine will provide the additional 80 Nm until
the engine torque will ramp up, blending out in the end the electric
machine torque.

The torque fill function can be regarded as a torque assist  function

during the transient torque demand phases.

Torque boost
On a MHEV, the total powertrain torque is the sum between
the engine torque and electric machine torque. The  full load torque
characteristic of an engine can be boosted (offset) with the electric
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machine torque, improving the overall dynamic performance of the

vehicle.

Image: MHEV – engine torque boost with electric machine

MHEV vehicles, compared with non-hybrid vehicles, for the same

amount of total powertrain torque, have the advantage of  improved
torque characteristic  in the  lower speed range. This feature is
possible due to the maximum constant torque provided by the
electric machine from zero speed.

The electric machine torque boost can be maintained only for a short
period of time, the main reasons being the high voltage battery state
of charge  (low) and the  temperature limitation  (high) of the power
electronics and electric machine.

The torque boost function can be regarded as a torque assistfunction

during the stationary torque demand phases.

Idle charging
In an MHEV, as discussed in the article Mild Hybrid Electric Vehicle
(MHEV) – electrical architecture, there are two electric networks, low
voltage (12V) and high voltage (48V or above). The electric machine
is responsible for providing the required electrical energy for the 12V
network and to maintain a minimum state of charge level in both
batteries (low and high voltage). Therefore, in some conditions, even
if the vehicle is at standstill, the Stop & Start function is inhibited, to
allow the engine to provide torque for battery charging and 12V
components energy demand.

Idle charging means that the engine is running at idle speed, with the
electric machine in generator torque, acting as a load for the engine.
When the engine is in idle charging state, the idle speed is slightly
elevated (e.g. 1000 rpm) and the  engine torque  is the sum
between idle torque and electric machine torque.

From  fuel economy  point of view, idle charging is

introducing  penalties  and should be avoided as much as possible.

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Ideally, the electrical energy should be harvested only during the

deceleration phases of the vehicle. When, for various reasons, this is
not possible, the electric machine must generate the required
electrical energy, even at idle speed.

Energy recuperation
An engine (vehicle) is in  overrun  when it’s in a deceleration phase,
with the engine connected to the wheel through the transmission, and
with both acceleration and brake pedals released. During overrun, the
vehicle’s inertia is spinning the engine and there is no fuel injection
(fuel cut active). In this phase, the engine is acting as a brake to the
vehicle, causing it to slow down.

During overrun the vehicle’s inertial force keeps the vehicle in motion

while the drag forces (losses or resistant forces) try to stop it. These
resistant forces are: the road load, the aero drag, the driveline and
transmission drag and the engine drag. These forces can be
converted to torque by multiplying them with the wheel radius.

Image: MHEV – energy recuperation with electric machine

Additional to the vehicle and engine losses, the electric machine will
be in  generator mode, demanding a certain amount of
torque Tem[Nm] for charging.

We can write that the  total braking torque  Tbrk  [Nm]  of the vehicle,
in overrun, is:

Tbrk = Tveh + Teng + Tem (1)

where:

Tveh [Nm] – is the vehicle drag (resistive) torque, which includes: road

load, aero drag, driveline and transmission losses
Teng [Nm] – are the engine losses, which includes: engine friction and
pumping losses and the auxiliary devices torque losses (e.g. AC
compressor, oil pump, etc.)
Tem [Nm] – is the electric machine charging torque

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