Asztro 1 Cosmology

Astrophysics 1 (Petrovay) Cosmology
THE COSMOLOGICAL PRINCIPLE
Diameter of the observable universe
[the Metagalaxy]: >

∼ 10 Gpc
Size of largest known structures (giant voids):

∼ 100 Mpc
⇒> 6
∼ 10 factor in volume ⇒ on the largest scales
the Universe is homogeneous and isotropic .

A slice of the SDSS survey

There is nothing simpler than a star
Sir Arthur Eddington
...except the Universe.
K. Petrovay
NEWTONIAN COSMOLOGY
The simplest astrophysical system: the Universe — an infinite homogeneous medium.
Consider a mass element at distance a from the (arbitrarily selected) origin.

Shell theorems ⇒ the gravitational acceleration is
g = −4πGρa/3, directed towards the origin.
[NB This does not violate homogeneity and isotropy: they were violated already by selecting an origin.]
⇒ An infinite medium initially at rest should collapse — the Universe cannot remain static!
Collapse may be avoided if the Universe is initially ex-

panding.
Problem analoguous (indeed, identical!) to a vertical

throw:
(−k gives the sign of the total mechanical energy)
THE FRIEDMAN EQUATION
Shell theorem 1: shells at r > a dynamically play no role → let us ignore them.
Then we have
U = −4πGρa2/r for the potential while the specific kinetic energy is 12 ȧ2.
Conservation of mechanical energy then reads

1 ȧ2 − 4πGρa2 /r = E = const. or
2
8πG ȧ 2 c2
ρ= +k 2 where k = −2E/c2
3 a a
Our choice of a is arbitrary; so is the unit of length
⇒ enough to consider values k = −1, 0 or +1.
H = ȧ/a is Hubble’s constant.
Expansion/contraction must be self-similar — a known as scale factor.

EINSTEIN–DE SITTER MODEL
Consider the case k = 0.
Mass conservation: ρa3 = ρ0a30
⇒ the solution reads
a = Ct2/3 (∗)
with C = (6πGρ0)1/3a0
a(t = 0) = 0: Big Bang!
The age of the Universe is 2t where tH = 1/H is the Hubble time

3 H
CRITICAL DENSITY AND THE Ω PARAMETER
For k = 0 the density reads: ρ = ρcr ≡ 3H 2/8πG = 9.5 · 10−30 g/cm3 .
< <
Clearly, for k > 0 we have ρ > ρcr and a increases faster/slower than (∗).
a0
In addition, for k = 1 Friedman eq. shows that ȧ = 0 when a =
1 − (ρcr/ρ)0
⇒ expansion will be halted and turn into contraction.
⇒ ρcr is the critical density of the Universe.
Now introduce the density parameter Ω = ρ/ρcr

< −1
then Ω = 1 implies k = 0
> +1
NB For k = −1 asymptotical solution is a ∝ t (as l.h.s. of Friedman vanishes with t).

Historical notes: Friedman derived his equation in 1922 based on general relativity.
“Newtonian cosmology” could have been discovered by Newton but it was not —although he was struggling
with this recognition. In a manuscript of the 2nd ed. of the Principia we find:
“...the stars would, through their gravity, gradually fall on each other, were they not all carried
back by divine plan.”
But he finally decided not to include this in the printed version...
Einstein, similarly, initially had doubts in Friedman’s results; instead, he invoked antigravity (Λ) to keep the
universe from collapsing. Upon Hubble’s discovery of the expansion he famously called this his “biggest
blunder”.
The possibility of a Newtonian cosmology was finally only pointed out by Milne (1934).
On rigour: If you are unhappy with our above neglect (Weinberg 1972, Silk 2001, Jordan 2005) of the
“dynamically unimportant” shells at r > a, you may be right... But the treatment can be made arbitrarily
exact without changing the outcome (Layzer 1954, McCrea 1955, Callan et al. 1965, Tipler 1996)
Also note that in a Hubble flow, observers in different galaxies are accelerated relative to each other, yet
their reference frames are all inertial! This is due the inertial forces being cancelled by gravitational forces
as observers are on ballistic orbits (∼ free fall).
References on Newtonian cosmology
Milne: A Newtonian expanding Universe. Quart.J. Math. Oxford 5, 64-72 (1934)

McCrea & Milne: Newtonian Universes and the curvature of space. Quart. J. Math. Oxford 5, 73-80 (1934)
Layzer: On the significance of Newtonian cosmology. AJ 59, 268-270 (1954)
McCrea: On the significance of Newtonian cosmology. AJ 60, 271 (1955)
Callan et al.: Cosmology and Newtonian Mechanics. Am. J. Phys. 33, 105-108 (1965)
Weinberg: Gravitation and Cosmology. Wiley-VCH (1972)
Tipler: Rigorous Newtonian cosmology. Am. J. Phys. 64, 1311-15 (1996)
Silk: The Big Bang. 3rd ed. Freeman (2001)
Jordan: Cosmology calculations almost without general relativity. Am. J. Phys. 73, 653-662 (2005)
OBSERVATIONAL COSMOLOGY 1: THE HUBBLE FLOW
The spectral lines of galaxies are redshifted.

Interpretation:
Doppler effect ⇒ expansion.
Edwin Hubble, 1925:

Hubble’s law 3= H·d
H = 68 km/s/Mpc Hubble constant
The Hubble flow is self similar. We are not in a privileged position!

In a world expanding according to Hubble’s law each observer will see the same:
⇒ The Big Bang did not happen in any particular point in [3D] space
—it happened “everywhere”: the density diverges in each point as t → 0
and the Universe remains homogeneous at all times.
Note: expansion is slowed by gravitational attraction

⇒ individual galaxies are not expanding
⇒ groups and clusters of galaxies expand slower
Distances and lookback time in a flat, expanding universe
Consider light emitted at t = te from a distant galaxy of diameter D, luminosity L, apparent

size α, measured flux F .
Distance now d(t0) and at emission d(te) = d(t0)/(1 + z) are not directly measured.
Instead:
Angular distance: dA = αD = d(te) as photons travel in straight line in a flat universe

(k = 0).
Luminosity distance: dL = (L/4πF)1/2 = (1 + z)2dA = (1 + z)d(t0)

as both the energy and arrival frequency of photons is reduced by a factor (1 + z).
dz0
Z dT Z d(t0) Z z
dr dr0
Lookback time τ = = =
0 c 0 c[1 + z(r 0 )] 0 (1 + z )H
0
Light-travel distance: dT = cτ(z)

THE COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND
Penzias & Wilson, 1964: a uniform background

radiation from all directions.
Blackbody spectrum, T = 2.73 K.
Self similar expansion ⇒ all lengths scale with a

⇒ photon wavelength λ ∝ a
⇒ radiation energy density u ∝ a−4
But u ∝ T 4 for thermal radiation

(Stefan–Boltzmann law) ⇒ T ∝ a−1 .
Early on, the hot Universe was filled with
an (adiabatically) expanding and cooling gas.
RELATIVISTIC COSMOLOGY
Relativity brings in 2 effects:
(1) Curvature of spacetime is related to k.
(2) E = mc2 or in terms of densities, u = ρc2

All forms of mass/energy contribute to
gravity ⇒ plug ρ = u/c2 into Friedman eq. to
get its standard form:
8πG ȧ 2 c2
2
u= + k 2 (Cosm 1)
3c a a
Much of normal matter is non-relativistic,

i.e. 3 c for its particles.
Then, rest mass/energy dominates u
⇒ no difference.
What about other forms of matter?

For radiation [relativistic matter] u ∝ a−4 while for non-relativistic matter u ∝ a−3
⇒ early on, radiation must have dominated the universe:
Solution in this case is a ∝ t1/2 ⇒ Big Bang solution still holds.

To calculate u(a) for a mixture of different forms of matter:

invoke the First Law of thermodynamics for an expanding volume V = a3.
Expansion is adiabatic, so dE + P dV = 0 or
d d
(ua3) + P a3 = 0 (Cosm 2)
dt dt
This the second basic equation of cosmology.
⇒ For u ∝ a−4 we must have P = 13 u.
Radiation era lasted ∼ 105 years.

Soon after, at t ∼ 3.8 · 105 years, protons and electrons combined into H atoms.
Atomic spectra are discrete ⇒ the world becomes transparent. This is known as
the decoupling of radiation and matter. Light emitted by the hot gas propagates freely
in space. By now, z ∼ 1000 ⇒ observed as CMB.
Indeed, CMB was predicted by Gamow in 1946 based on this line of thought.
Vacuum energy (a.k.a. cosmological constant)
Vacuum energy − combined energy density of all physical fields

⇒ should be a physical constant, i.e. u = const. ⇒ it will sooner or later dominate:
When it dominates (Cosmo 1) reduces to ȧ ∝ a in the k = 0 case

⇒ the solution is exponential: a ∝ et/τ.
Physical interpretation: expansion ⇒ volume and energy of vacuum increasing

⇒ a repulsive force must be doing expansion work on it: antigravity
(the 5th physical interaction).
8πG ua3 2
Indeed, rearranging (Cosm 1): = ȧ
3c2 a
8πG 8πG
The time derivative of this reads
2
(−3aȧP − uaȧ) ≡
2
(u + 3P)aȧ = 2aȧ
3c 3c
4πG
⇒ ä = − 2
(u + 3P)a
3c
⇒ The force increases with distance (hence only matters on cosmological scales)
u = const. implies P = −u by (Cosm 2) ⇒ the force is repulsive for u > 0.

Einstein’s field equations (the fundamental equations of general relativity):
1 8πG
Rik − gik R j j = 4 T ik − Λgik (Ei)
2 c
Rik : curvature tensor; gik : metric tensor; T ik : energy–momentum tensor;
Λ: cosmological constant (arises as an integration constant in derivation

from variational principle, cf. Landau–Lifshitz Vol. 2)
Symmetric 4-tensors — 10 independent components — 10 equations.
Homogeneity and isotropy ⇒ equations reduced to 2: (Cosm 1) and (Cosm 2).

E.g. T ik only has 2 independent components:
 
 u 0 0 0 
0 P 0 0
 
T̂ =  
 0 0 P 0 

0 0 0 P
Write Λ = 8πG u ; then formally the last term of (Ei) also involves an energy–momentum
c4 V
tensor T ik = uV gik which implies a Lorentz-invariant medium with P = −u —i.e. vacuum!
OBSERVATIONAL COSMOLOGY 2: ACCELERATING EXPANSION
Cosmological test with supernovae type Ia.
Peak brightness of supernovae of type Ia is universally -21m

⇒ precise photometric parallaxes to large distances
⇒ the time evolution of H can be studied empirically.
Result (1999): The expansion is accelerating!

Possible explanations for the accelerating expansion:
1. Cosmological constant (vacuum energy): quite satisfactory.
2. Quintessence: a hypothetetical scalar field (in some quantum gravitation theories)

with equation of state P = wu, w < −1/3 but w , −1.
But observational constraints ⇒ w ' −1.
“Dark energy”: a common name for quintessence and cosmological constant.
3. Modified Newtonian Dynamics (MOND): an alternative theory where F = m · a · µ(a),

i.e. Newton’s second law is modified at very low accelerations.
Alternative interpretation: Instead of 2nd law, Newtonian gravitation is modified as
F = Gm1m2/µ(a)r2
More success in substituting dark matter than dark energy.
...
SUMMARY: CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE EXPANSION
u is a physical constant for vacuum;

u = particle number density × energy/particle for other forms.
Energy of photons = hc/λ ∝ hc/a ⇒ u ∝ a−4.
Plugging these forms of u(a) into Friedman, for the k = 0 solutions we find:
Form of matter u(a) P(u) k = 0 solution
Non-relativistic u ∝ a−3 P=0 a ∝ t2/3
Relativistic u ∝ a−4 P = u/3 a ∝ t1/2
Vacuum u =const. P = −u a ∝ et/τ

Using the current values a0, (Cosm1) can be written as kc2/a20 = H02(ΩT − 1).
With this and the above results, the self-consistent evolution of equation of a is
ȧ 2
= [Ω M ã−3 + ΩRã−4 + ΩΛ + (1 − ΩT )ã−2]
a
where ã = a/a0 and ΩT = Ω M + ΩR + ΩΛ and the Ω’s refer to current values.
NB This approximate relation will not hold for the first few seconds when matter becomes relativistic.
But Ω M + ΩR + ΩΛ =?
PARTICLES AND INTERACTIONS
BOSONS AND FERMIONS
Wave function of multiparticle system: ψ(x1, x2, . . .)

xi represents the state variables (coordinates, momentum, ...) of the ith particle.
Exchanging 2 particles: ψ → ψ0 = eiφψ as we must have |ψ0|2 = |ψ|2

for the probability density (particles are indistinguishable).
But exchanging them again, ψ00 = ei2φψ = ψ so either
eiφ = +1 — bosons (Bose–Einstein statistics)

or
eiφ = −1 — fermions (Fermi–Dirac statistics)
If two particles are allowed to be in same state, their exchange cannot change ψ
⇒ they must be bosons!
Consequences:
Fermions are subject to Pauli’s exclusion principle:

no two fermions are allowed in the same state.
⇒ When compressed in phase space [degeneration], Fermi gas becomes
very hard (high pressure)
Bosons are not subject to exclusion principle

⇒ they can be [almost] all in ground state
⇒ bosons tend to form condensates in phase space
(Bose condensate —- superfluidity, superconductivity...).
Note: in units of h/2π,
bosons have integer spin — fermions have half-integer spin.

THE FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES
Fermions: the building blocks of matter
Bosons: mediators of interactions between fermions.

HADRONS
Strong interaction potential → ∞ at finite distance ⇒ free quarks do not occur

— they are confined into systems of several quarks, called hadrons.
Systems of 2 quarks: mesons. They are bosons.
Systems of 3 quarks: baryons. They are fermions.

Nucleons (proton, neutron) are the lowest mass baryons. — the only stable hadrons.
Hyperons: more massive baryons.
THE FORMS OF MATTER IN THE UNIVERSE
Baryonic matter = nucleons + electrons. Non-relativistic (”cold”).

Number of electrons = number of protons but me ' m p/1840
⇒ electrons are lumped together with the nucleons.
Ωb = 0.045 [from primordial nucleosynthesis]; of this, only 0.003 detectable;
rest is in hot, dilute intergalactic medium with very little emission or absorption.
Electromagnetic radiation = photons. Relativistic (”hot”).

∼ 4 · 108 photons in each m3.
Ωγ = 5 · 10−5
Cold Dark Matter (CDM) = hypothetic massive particles (neutralino, axion etc.),
predicted by Grand Unification Theories. Non-relativistic.
Ω M = ΩCDM + Ωb = 0.31
Dark energy
ΩΛ = 0.69
Expressed in Planck units ∼ 10−120,

an implausibly small value!
(the “cosmological constant problem”).
Neutrinos = νe, νµ, ντ.

Relativistic through most of the history of the Universe
— a candidate for “Warm Dark Matter”.
Ων = 4 · 10−4–1.3 · 10−2
Massive black holes.

Can be individually large but still insignificant due to their low number.
OBSERVATIONAL COSMOLOGY 3: STRUCTURE FORMATION
The CMB, emitted around z = 1000, is Their scale agrees with observa-
nearly isotropic, with small random fluctuations: tions for Ωtotal = 1:
remnants of small initial density fluctuations in the
gas at decoupling:
These fluctuations are later amplified by their self-gravity, leading to the formation
of galaxies and their clusters.
Numerical simulations: the structure thus formed agrees best with observations
if matter is mostly in the form of CDM.
ΛCDM COSMOLOGY
This scenario of the evolution of the

Universe is known as “concordance
model” or ΛCDM cosmology.
The age of the Universe: 13.8 Gyr

THE HOT UNIVERSE
Photons with hc/λ > mec2 create e−–e+ pairs which in turn annihilate to photons:
⇒ for kT > 511 keV much of u is in the form of e− and e+ (and µ− and µ+ and τ− and τ+):
this is the lepton era of the Universe (∼ 10 s)
which in turn is preceded by the hadron era (∼ 0.1 s).
Upon annihilation, a very small (∼ 10−9) surplus of particles vs. antiparticles remained
(“the problem of baryogenesis”)
PRIMORDIAL NUCLEOSYNTHESIS
In the hot gas of the early universe fusion reac-

tions took place ⇒ overabundance of He and Baryon density Ωb can be deter-
some other light elements — a proof of the Big mined from overabundances:
Bang.
INFLATIONARY COSMOLOGY
Assumption: The very early universe (t < 10−32 s) was vacuum dominated due to a scalar
field of high energy density ⇒ an exponential expansion (“inflation”) occurred.
The scalar field then went into a lower energy state by spontaneous symmetry breaking.
Inflation correctly predicts CMB fluctuation spectra by enlarging vacuum fluctuations.

It may potentially also solve some problems of classical cosmology.
Flatness problem
Dividing (Cosm1) with H 2 yields ΩT − 1 = kc2/a2 H 2.

The same holds for t = t0 (current time), so dividing them we have

a20 H02 1/2 matter dominated case
ΩT − 1


= 2 2 ∝ ap p=

where 1 radiation dominated case

ΩT,0 − 1 a H 

 −2 vacuum dominated case
Currently ΩT ' 1, which would imply an implausible

fine tuning at early times:
⇒ Inflation, i.e. a vacuum dominated phase in the

very early universe might explain this.
Horizon problem
Particle horizon: the distance photons travelled since the Big Bang.
c dt = dr = (a/a0) dr0, i.e. in comoving frame the horizon is
Z t Z a0 Z a0 −1/2
c dt c da u da
= ∝
0 a/a0 0 ȧa/a0 0 a a
This converges for matter or radiation dominated early universe

but diverges for vacuum dominated
⇒ The known universe could not have been causally connected earlier
— its homogeneity must be due to a highly implausible initial condition
unless the early universe was vacuum dominated.

But: R. Penrose: if homogeneity is due to early mixing, that must have increased entropy
⇒ initial state had even lower entropy (i.e. was more special)
...or is there another solution?
abstrusegoose.com

Asztro 1 Cosmology

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Asztro 1 Cosmology

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Astrophysics 1 (Petrovay) Cosmology

THE COSMOLOGICAL PRINCIPLE

Diameter of the observable universe

[the Metagalaxy]: >

Size of largest known structures (giant voids):

the Universe is homogeneous and isotropic .

A slice of the SDSS survey

There is nothing simpler than a star

Sir Arthur Eddington

...except the Universe.

The simplest astrophysical system: the Universe — an infinite homogeneous medium.

Consider a mass element at distance a from the (arbitrarily selected) origin.

Collapse may be avoided if the Universe is initially ex-

Problem analoguous (indeed, identical!) to a vertical

THE FRIEDMAN EQUATION

Conservation of mechanical energy then reads

H = ȧ/a is Hubble’s constant.

Expansion/contraction must be self-similar — a known as scale factor.

EINSTEIN–DE SITTER MODEL

Consider the case k = 0.

Mass conservation: ρa3 = ρ0a30

⇒ the solution reads

a(t = 0) = 0: Big Bang!

The age of the Universe is 2t where tH = 1/H is the Hubble time

CRITICAL DENSITY AND THE Ω PARAMETER

For k = 0 the density reads: ρ = ρcr ≡ 3H 2/8πG = 9.5 · 10−30 g/cm3 .

⇒ expansion will be halted and turn into contraction.

⇒ ρcr is the critical density of the Universe.

Now introduce the density parameter Ω = ρ/ρcr

NB For k = −1 asymptotical solution is a ∝ t (as l.h.s. of Friedman vanishes with t).

References on Newtonian cosmology

Milne: A Newtonian expanding Universe. Quart.J. Math. Oxford 5, 64-72 (1934)

OBSERVATIONAL COSMOLOGY 1: THE HUBBLE FLOW

The spectral lines of galaxies are redshifted.

Edwin Hubble, 1925:

The Hubble flow is self similar. We are not in a privileged position!

Note: expansion is slowed by gravitational attraction

Distances and lookback time in a flat, expanding universe

Consider light emitted at t = te from a distant galaxy of diameter D, luminosity L, apparent

Angular distance: dA = αD = d(te) as photons travel in straight line in a flat universe

Luminosity distance: dL = (L/4πF)1/2 = (1 + z)2dA = (1 + z)d(t0)

Light-travel distance: dT = cτ(z)

THE COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND

Penzias & Wilson, 1964: a uniform background

Blackbody spectrum, T = 2.73 K.

Self similar expansion ⇒ all lengths scale with a

But u ∝ T 4 for thermal radiation

Relativity brings in 2 effects:

(1) Curvature of spacetime is related to k.

(2) E = mc2 or in terms of densities, u = ρc2

Much of normal matter is non-relativistic,

What about other forms of matter?

Solution in this case is a ∝ t1/2 ⇒ Big Bang solution still holds.

To calculate u(a) for a mixture of different forms of matter:

This the second basic equation of cosmology.

⇒ For u ∝ a−4 we must have P = 13 u.

Radiation era lasted ∼ 105 years.

Vacuum energy (a.k.a. cosmological constant)

Vacuum energy − combined energy density of all physical fields

When it dominates (Cosmo 1) reduces to ȧ ∝ a in the k = 0 case

Physical interpretation: expansion ⇒ volume and energy of vacuum increasing

u = const. implies P = −u by (Cosm 2) ⇒ the force is repulsive for u > 0.

Einstein’s field equations (the fundamental equations of general relativity):

Rik : curvature tensor; gik : metric tensor; T ik : energy–momentum tensor;