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Integration Techniques
un+1
R
un du = n+1
+ C, n 6= −1
1
R
u
du = ln |u| + C
R
eu du = eu + C
1
Definition 3.1. The integration by parts formula:
R
This formula is useful when Rvdu is an integral which is easier to evaluate
than the one we started with, udv. So when R facing a difficult integral, we
consider whether we can recognize the form udv for some u and v.
The following steps may make it a bit easier toR use this method.
Step 1: Write the given integral in the form f (x)g(x)dx so that you can
identify the two functions f (x) and g(x). Note that if there appears to be
only one function in the integrand, then you may need to identify the second
one to be the constant function, g(x) = 1.
Now, to use the integration by parts formula, we need to find du and v. That
is, we differentiate u to get:
du
dx
= f 0 (x) → du = f 0 (x)dx
2
Of course, the main difficulty in this method is determining the choice of
u and dv. In Step 1, we recognize the integrand as the product of 2 terms.
But how, in Step 2, do we determine which term should be u and which
should be dv? There is no general rule to follow. It is truly a matter of
experience. However, there are 2 guiding principles you should keep in mind:
R
(1) dv must be something youR know how to integrate, and (2) we want vdu
to be less complicated than udv, i.e. than what we started with. In gen-
eral it is safest to pick dv to be the “most complicated” choice that can be
integrated easily. In order to determine whether a choice is the best one, go
on until you get to Step 4. If the new integral is easier than the original one,
then your choice is a good one. Otherwise go back to Step 2 and make a
switch. With practice, you will start to have a feeling for the right choice.
R
Example 1. Find x ln xdx.
becomes
2 R x2 1
(ln x)( x2 )
R
x ln xdx = − 2 x
dx
x2 x
R
= 2
ln x − 2
dx
x2 ln x x2
= 2
− 4
+C
3
xe3x dx.
R
Example 2. Find
u = x and dv = e3x dx
3x
This gives du = dx and v = e3 . Using the integration by parts formula, we
see that Z Z
udv = uv − vdu
becomes
3x e3x
xe3x dx = x e3 −
R R
3
dx
xe3x 1
e3x dx
R
= 3
− 3
xe3x 1 e3x
= 3
− 3 3
+C
e3x 1
= 3
x− 3
+C
R
Example 3. Find ln xdx.
4
We get:
1
Z Z Z Z
ln xdx = udv = uv − vdu = (ln x)(x) − x dx
x
Z
= x ln x − 1dx = x ln x − x + C
x2 ex dx.
R
Example 4. Find
(i.e., higher
R powerRof x), while f 0 (x) = 2x is less complicated. On the other
hand, g(x)dx = ex dx = ex (+C) and f 0 (x) = ex , so this function does not
get more complicated no matter which way we go. With the goal of making
things less complicated, we therefore choose u = x2 and dv = ex dx. This
gives du = 2xdx and v = ex , so we get
Z Z Z Z
2 x 2
x e dx = udv = uv − vdu = (x )(e ) − (ex ) (2x)dx
x
Z
2 x
=x e −2 xex dx
R
We see that xex dx is less complicated, but is still not something we know
(and the substitution rule does not help). What to do? Use integration by
parts again.
This time, the integrand is xex . Using the same reasoning as before, we let
u = x and dv = ex dx, so that du = dx and v = ex . Then we have
Z Z Z Z
xe dx = udv = uv − vdu = xe − ex dx = xex − ex + C
x x
5
The Method Of Partial Fractions:
3 4
Consider the function f (x) = x
+ x+4
.
3 4 3(x + 4) + 4(x) 7x + 12
f (x) = + = = 2
x x+4 x(x + 4) x + 4x
R
In its original form, we can find f (x)dx easily:
Z
3 4 1 1
Z Z
+ dx = 3 dx + 4 dx = 3 ln |x| + 4 ln |x + 4| + C
x x+4 x x+4
Find x7x+12
R
2 +4x dx.
2. The denominator must have only linear factors, i.e., when factored, the
highest power of x in any factor is 1. (That is, the method we will learn
only works in these cases.)
6
3. A rational function of this type can be broken down into a sum of several
terms, one for each of the factors of the denominator. The form of each
of these terms, i.e. partial fractions, is that the numerator is some
(unknown) constant while the denominator is the corresponding linear
factor of the original denominator. For instance, if the factorization of
the denominator is (x + a)(x + b), then we can decompose the proper
A B
rational function into x+a + x+b for some values of A and B.
Let’s see how this applies to the problem whose answer we already know.
That is, let’s see how we decompose x7x+12 3 4
2 +4x into x + x+4 using the method of
partial fractions.
We see that on the left hand side of this equation we have the constant
term 4A, while on the right hand side the constant term is 12. Thus we must
have 4A = 12, so A = 3. Also, the coefficient of x on the left hand side of
the equation is (A + B), while the coefficient of x on the right hand side is
7, so we must have A + B = 7, and since we have A = 3 then we must have
B = 4. In this way, we see that
7x + 12 3 4
= +
x2 + 4x x x+4
7
1
R
Example 5. Find x2 −4
dx
Solution: We first observe that (1) we don’t recognize this integral, (2) substi-
tution doesn’t help and (3) it doesn’t look like integration by parts will help
much either. Since the integrand is a rational function, we try the method
of partial fractions.
1 1
x2 −4
= (x−2)(x+2)
(a) We factor the denominator
into linear factors
1 A B
(x−2)(x+2)
= x−2
+ x+2
(b) Separate the fraction (common
denominator in reverse) and
place new unknowns in the
numerators.
1
x = 2 → 1 = A(4) + B(0) → A = 4
(d) Make “clever” choices for x in
order to solve for A and B
x = −2 → 1 = A(0) + B(−4) → B = − 41
That is, in the last step above, we can use the “zeroes” of the denominator
function to solve for A and B, since for each of those x-values one of the 2
unknowns is being multiplied by 0.
1 1
dx + − 41 1
R R
= 4 x−2 x+2
dx
1
= 4
ln |x − 2| − 41 ln |x + 2| + C
Notice: The substitution rule was used for each integral in the last step.
Also notice: We can check our partial fraction decomposition by bringing the
partial fractions to a common denominator to see that we get the original
function. It is a good idea to always do this.
8
7x+5
R
Example 6. Find (x+1)(x−1)(x+2)
dx.
1 1 1
R R R
= x+1
dx +2 x−1
dx −3 x+2
dx
= ln |x + 1| + 2 ln |x − 1| − 3 ln |x + 2| + C