EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE REVIEWER

THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF LIFE

Biology
 “bios” – life
 “logos” – study
 deals with the structures, functions and relationships of living organisms with environment
 molecular, cellular, organismal, population, community, ecosystem or biome

Theories on Origin:
1. Creationism
2. Spontaneous Generation/Abiogenesis
3. Biogenesis
4. Chemical Evolution
5. Panspermia

Branches of Biology:
 Microbiology – microorganisms
 Botany – plants
 Zoology – animals
 Mycology – fungi
 Phycology – algae
 Taxonomy – naming and classifying organisms
 Cytology – cells
 Embryology – formation & development of organisms
 Anatomy – structures and body parts
 Physiology – functions of organisms and its parts
 Biochemistry– biological composition
 Genetics – heredity and variation
 Evolution – origin of organisms
 Ecology – relationship of organisms w/ the environment
 Molecular Biology – molecules that make up the cells
 Genomics – genetic material (DNA)
 Proteomics – different proteins
 Immunology – immune system
 Bioinformatics – biological data using computer programs

Biotechnology
 application of biological concepts to make beneficial products
 uses basic molecules of life to make new products
 used in business, agriculture, bioremediation, food processing, energy production, medicine,
pharmaceuticals

A. Divine Creation
 Malakas at Maganda (PH Version)
B. Spontaneous Generation
 “abiogenesis”
 life from non-living or inanimate objects
 proposed by Aristotle
 believed by many for at least 2,000 years
 life came from pre-existing life
 proven through a series of experiments
 Francesco Redi (1668)  Lazzaro Spallanzani (1767)
 John Needham (1748)  Louis Pasteur (1861)

 LAW OF BIOGENESIS

In nature, life comes only from life

and that of its kind.

a) Francesco Redi: life came from living matter and not from spontaneous generation.

b) John Needham: life was caused by spontaneous generation; he did not heat the broth
long enough to kill the microorgansims.

c) Lazzaro Spallanzani: life came from living matter; but there is no oxygen in his set-up.

d) Louis Pasteur: finally disproved the spontaneous generation.

Events in Spontaneous Generation:

Year Event
1668 Francesco Redi attacks spontaneous generation and disproves it for large organisms.
John Needham adds chick broth to a flask and boils it, lets it cool and waits. Microbes
1745
grow and he proposes it is an example of spontaneous generation.
 Lazzaro Spallanzani repeats Needham’s experiment, but removes all the air from the flask.
1768
No growth occurs.
1859 Louis Pasteur’s swan-neck flasks show that spontaneous generation does not occur.
Thomas H. Huxley gives his “Biogenesis and Abiogenesis” lecture. The speech offered
1870 powerful support for Pasteur’s claim to have experimentally disproved spontaneous
generation.
John Tyndall publishes his method for fractional sterilization, showing the existence of
1877
heat-resistant bacterial spores.

C. Chemical Evolution
 proposed by Alexander Oparin and John
Haldane
 life came from inorganic molecules that
were converted by lightning to organic
molecules which became the precursor
for formation of first cells

D. Panspermia/Cosmozoic Theory
 proposed by Svante Arrhenius
 life was formed in outer space and were transported to Earth through meteors or cosmic
dust

Key Points
 For many centuries many people believed in the concept of spontaneous generation, the
creation of life from organic matter.
 Francesco Redi disproved spontaneous generation for large organisms by showing that
maggots arose from meat only when flied laid eggs in the meat.
 Spontaneous generation for small organisms again gained favor when John Needham showed
that if a broth was boiled (presumed to kill all life) and then allowed to sit in the open air, it
became cloudy.
 Louis Pasteur ended the debate with his famous swan-neck flask experiment, which allowed air
to contact the broth. Microbes present in the dust were not able to navigate the tortuous bends
in the neck of the flask.

BIOLOGY PIONEERS
1. Aristotle
 1st biology teacher
 Father of Biology and Zoology
2. Hippocrates
 Father of Medicine
 Hippocratic Oath for doctors (part of his life-long legacy)
3. Leeuwenhoek Dutch
 his hobby was lens grinding
 he did not invent the microscope, he perfected microscope lenses
 first person to see:
 bacteria
 protozoans
 red blood cells
 sperm cells
 he did not support spontaneous generation
4. Lister
 hospital conditions were dirty and infectious so he used phenol as a disinfectant
 Father of Aseptic Surgery
5. Fleming
 accidentally discovered first antibiotic (penicillin)
 6. Salk
 developed 1st polio vaccine injection (1955)
 didn’t patent vaccine, didn’t want to profit from his discovery
7. Sabin
 developed oral polio vaccine (1959)
 Vaccines are weakened forms of diseases that tricks body into making antibodies

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
a) Metabolism: Gathering and Using Energy
 chemical and physical reactions within the body that allows organisms to grow and
maintain its structures
 enables organisms to acquire energy and nutrients in order to sustain themselves
 nutrient uptake, processing and waste elimination
 Catabolism – breaking down of organic matter to harvest energy and molecules
 Anabolism – use of energy to build up molecules (ex. photosynthesis)
b) Irritability
 capability of an organism to respond to stimuli or external factors like light, temperature,
pressure, sound, presence of chemical substances, food sources, etc.
c) Motility
 possible with the use of locomotor organs
 examples: microorganisms, plants, animals/humans
 organisms tend to move in search for food, reproduction and response to the changing
environment
d) Adaptation: Survival of the Fittest
 capability of an organism to make adjustments to changes in the environment
 fundamental process in evolution which led to the diversity of life
e) Evolution: Change is Permanent
 evolution – changes in characteristics of a group of organisms over time
 evolutionary adaptation – gradual or rapid change in body structure or behavior to be
suited and to survive a new environment
f) Reproduction: Continuation of Life
 production of new cells from cell division (unicellular organisms)
 production of new individuals, either sexually or asexually which is necessary for the
perpetuation of the existences of species
 Sexual: use of two individuals contributing their sex cells to produce a unique individual
of their kind.
 Asexual: an organism makes copies of itself; common in lower life forms.
g) Growth & Development: It’s Inevitable
 Growth – increase in all parts of the body brought about by increase in tissues, coupled
with cell division or cell enlargement.
 Development – defined stages in an organism’s life cycle which are accompanied by
changes.
h) Heredity: Unity Amidst Diversity
 DNA – molecule of life that carries the instruction for assembling protein that is responsible
for variations (eye, hair or skin color).
i) Organization of Life: It’s All a Heirarchy
 atom  biosphere
 living organisms are now classified into six kingdoms: Bacteria, Archaea, Protista, Plantae,
Fungi, Animalia
 divided into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya
j) Homeostasis: Keeping it Balanced
 ability of an organism to maintain a constant internal environment despite the changes
in the external environment
 sweating, goose pimples/goosebumps, ear-popping, shivering
FUNCTIONS OF A CELL
 basic unit of life
 synthesis of molecules
 communication
 cell metabolism and energy release
 reproduction and inheritance (DNA)

Cell Structure
 Organelles: specialized structures in cells that perform specific functions; ex. Nucleus,
Mitochondria, Ribosomes, etc.
 Cytoplasm: jelly-like substance that holds organelles

CELL MEMBRANE
 outermost component of a cell
 Functions: selective barrier, encloses cytoplasm
 Extracellular: material outside cell
 Intracellular: material inside cell

Structure of a Cell Membrane:

 called Fluid Mosaic Model
 made of phospholipids and proteins
 Phospholipids form a double layer or bilayer
 Phospholipids contain 2 regions: polar and non-polar
 Polar region: "heads"; hydrophilic (H2O loving); exposed to H2O
 Non-polar regions: "tails"; hydrophobic (H2O fearing); away from H2O

WAYS MOLECULE PASS THROUGH CELL MEMBRANES

 Directly through (Diffusion): O2 and CO2 (small molecules)
 Membrane channels: Proteins that extend from one side of cell membrane to other; Size,
shape and charge (+/-) determine what can go through; ex. Na+ passes through Na+
channels
 Carrier molecules: bind to molecules, transport them across, and drop them off; ex. Glucose
 Vesicles: can transport a variety of materials; fuse with cell membrane

CELL
 Prokaryotic: False Nucleus; Bacteria; Archaebacteria
 Eukaryotic: True Nucleus; Plants; Animals; Fungi; Protists
 Organelles
 Membrane Transport: Passive - Diffusion and Facilitated Diffusion; Active - Transport Proteins
and Vesicular Proteins

Robert Hooke (1663)

 observed a thin slice of cork (from the bark of an oak tree)
 called empty spaces “cells”

Antoine Van Leeuwenhoek

 simple microscope; basically a hand lens
 looked at water, muscle tissue, bacteria, etc.

CELL THEORY
 all living things are made up of cells
 cells are the basic units of structure and function in an organism – new cells are produced from
existing cells
 Apoptosis: ensures the proper development and to keep the body’s natural process of mitosis.
Matthias Schleiden
 all plants are made up of cells

Theodore Schwann
 all animals are made up of cells

Rudolf Virchow
 cells came from pre-existing cells

CELLS ARE DIFFERENT

 can be big, small, flat, round
 a nerve cell can be 2m long
 pag may cell wall, automatic na plant cell

Prokaryotic Cells
 “before the nucleus” (pro – before; karyon – kernel/nucleus)
 oldest living organisms
 most numerous
 smaller and simpler in structure
 has a nucleoid (not bounded by a membrane)
 do not have membranous organelles
 do not contain histones
Shapes of Bacteria:
 Cocci: spherical
 Bacilli: rod-shaped
 Sporchaete: spiral-shaped
 Vibrio: comma-shaped

Eukaryotic Cells
 “true nucleus” (eu – true; karyon – kernel/nucleus)
 with nucleus bounded by a membrane
 contains other membrane-bound organelles
 more complex
 mostly multicellular, few unicellular

Plant Cells Animal Cells

Have chloroplasts
Have vacuoles
Can absorb liquids
Creates food by photosynthesis
Has cell wall made of cellulose
Nucleus (eukaryotic)
Same size as animal cell
Rigid cell wall
Static and protected
Have no cell walls
Can form a variety of shapes
Cannot absorb much liquid because it has no cellulose
Eats other cells
Have lysosomes
Nucleus (eukaryotic)
Same size as plant cell
Flexible membrane
Can move around

Cell Membrane
 squishy
 encloses cell contents
 monitors what comes in/out

Cytoplasm
 water and nutrients
 cytoskeleton – made up of microtubules, filaments and intermediate filaments; gives the cell its
shape (animal cells)
Centrosomes
 assemble microtubules
 contains centrioles (in animal cells)

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

 carry stuff around
 Smooth ER: factory warehouse; enzymes – lipids; cell detox; stores ions
 Rough ER: ribosomes attached

Ribosomes
 Amino Acids - Polypeptides

Golgi Apparatus
 protein processing and packaging
 sends products out

Vesicles
 phospholipid membranes
 ship golgi body products
 vesicular transport
 cytosis “cell action”

Lysosome
 cell digestion
 enzyme sacks
 Cell waste: building material

Nucleus
 stores the cell's DNA
 makes cell laws
 uses DNA to make laws

Chromatin
 holds DNA
 Cell division: Chromosomes

Nucleolus
 makes RNA
 m(essenger)RNA: Ribosomes

Mitochondria
 respiration
 energy: ATP

Cell Wall
 surrounds plasma membrane
 made of cellulose and lignin (very tough)

Plastids
 make and store needed compounds
 plastids and mitochondria started as bacteria
Chloroplasts
 most important Plastids
 Light: Sugar and Oxygen
 Thylakoid: 1
 Grana: Group
 Stroma: Space

Central Vacuole
 push water in the vacuole
 turgor pressure created
 reinforces the plant

Nucleus
 headquarters
 genetic information
 activities director

FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL MEMBRANE

Selective Permeability
 allow substances to pass or not
 Passive transport
o Does not require energy
 Diffusion
o Osmosis
 Facilitated diffusion
o Channel proteins
 Active transport
o Require energy
o Transport proteins
o Vesicular transport
 Exocytosis
 Endocytosis
 Phagocytosis
 Pinocytosis
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis

Passive Transport: Diffusion

 movement of a substance from a region of high concentration to a region of low
concentration
 equalizes the concentration of two solutions
 osmosis

Osmosis
 osmosis
 molecules go through a semipermeable membrane
 just water
 molecules move around to create equilibrium

Diffusion
 molecules spread out over a large area
 everything but water
 molecules move around to create equilibrium
Passive Transport: Facilitated Diffusion
 passive transport of molecules across the membrane via specific channel proteins

Active Transport
 the movement of molecules across a cell membrane in the direction against their
concentration gradient
 requires the use of ATP

Phagocytosis
 “to devour” (cell eating)
 even protists, like amoeba perform phagocytosis
 “to drink” (cell drinking)

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
 an endocytotic mechanism in which specific molecules are ingested into the cell (ex.
Cholesterol)
 receptors on the plasma membrane of the target tissue will specifically bind to the molecules
located outside of the cell

CENTRAL DOGMA OF LIFE: DNA EXPRESSING ITSELF

DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid

RNA: ribonucleic acid

Nitrogenous Base Pairs

DNA-DNA DNA-RNA

James Watson and Francis Crick

 Watson-Crick model
 “double helix”
 they did not discover DNA or even if DNA contained genetic information

Friedrich Meischer
 studied white blood cells by collecting used bandages from hospitals
 used alcohol to dissolve lipids and enzymes that break down proteins then noticed a gray object
left (“nuclein”)

Rosalind Franklin
 first to confirm the helical structure of DNA
 x-ray diffraction
 not recognized for her work

Process: REPLICATION (DNA-DNA)  TRANSCRIPTION (DNA-RNA)  TRANSLATION (RNA-PROTEINS)

Proteins – used for digestion, movement, respiration and everything that humans do.

DNA REPLICATION
Helicase – unzipping enzyme
DNA Polymerase – building enzyme
Primase – initiating enzyme
Ligase – glue-ing enzyme

Okazaki Fragments – short synthesized DNA fragments

on the lagging strand

DNA – information storage

mRNA – information carrier
TRANSCRIPTION AND TRANSLATION
Transcription – synthesis of an RNA strand (mRNA) from a DNA template
Codon – sequence of 3 DNA or RNA nucleotides that corresponds with a specific amino acid
AUG (methionine) – start codon
UGA, UAG & UGG – stop codon

GENETIC CODE

PHOTOSYNTHESIS & RESPIRATION: ENERGY CAPTURE AND STORAGE

Photosynthesis and Respiration – fundamental processes

that govern the dynamics of an ecosystem

Photosynthesis
 process of converting light energy to chemical
energy and storing it in the form of glucose
(sugar)

Parts of the Leaf

 sa leaf, may mesophyll tapos sa mesophyll na
yan, may chloroplast
 Under the chloroplast:
o Stroma – aqueous fluid na nakapaligid sa thylakoid
o Granum – stack of thylakoids
o Lumen – found inside the thylakoid
o Thylakoid – stores chlorophyll
 Thylakoid
o small interconnected sacks which contain the membranes that light reactions of
photosynthesis take place
 Stroma
o protein-rich, alkaline aqueous fluid within the inner chloroplast membrane and outside
of the thylakoid space
o the Calvin cycle which fixes the CO2 into sugar takes place in the stroma
Light Dependent Reactions – Light Reactions
Light Independent Reactions – Dark Reactions/Calvin Cycle

PHOTOSYNTHESIS EQUATION

Cellular Respiration
 process by which the chemical energy from nutrients is released and partially captured in the
form of ATP
 sugars (glucose) are converted into usable energy (ATP)
Photosynthesis vs Cellular Respiration

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) – energy currency in cells

Glycolysis
 breakdown of glucose
 takes place in the cytoplasm
 with or without oxygen
 2 ATP
 2 pyruvates
 2 NADH

Krebs Cycle
 TCA (Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle) or Citric Acid Cycle
 pyruvic is broken down into carbon dioxide
 takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria
 requires oxygen
 2 ATP
 8 NADH
 2 FADH2
 6CO2

Electron Transport Chain

 10 NADH (2 from G and 8 from KC)
 2 FADH2 (from KC)
 uses high energy electrons from G and KC to convert ADP to ATP
 takes place in the cristae
 requires oxygen
 32/34 ATP
 H2O

Total Number of ATP

 Glycolysis – 2 ATP
 Krebs Cycle – 2 ATP
 Electron Transport Chain – 32/34 ATP
Total of 36/38 ATP.

Why 36 or 38?
 depends on which shuttle that is used to transport the electrons from glycolysis into the
mitochondria
  if malate-aspartate shuttle – 38 ATP will be produced (trades cytoplasmic NADH for
mitochondrial NADH)
 if phosphero-glycerol shuttle – 36 ATP is produced (trades cytoplasmic NADH for mitochondrial
FADH2)
 NADH yields 3 ATP which would result to 38 ATP if malate shuttle is used. FADH2 yields 2 ATP
resulting to 36 ATP if the phosphero-glycerol shuttle is used.

Aerobic vs Anaerobic Respiration

Cellular Respiration

Photosynthesis vs Cellular Respiration

CELL DIVISION: MITOSIS & MEIOSIS
Types of Cells
a. Somatic Cells
 responsible for growth and maintenance
 divide by mitosis
 result to equational division (haploid to diploid [n  2n])
b. Meiotic Cells
 responsible for production of gametes
 divide by meiosis at the testes or ovary
 results to reductional division (diploid to haploid [2n  n])

Cell Cycle
 repetitive pattern of growth and division that occurs in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

Stages of Cell Cycle:

 Interphase
o G1
o S
o G2
 Mitosis
o Prophase
o Metaphase
o Anaphase
o Telophase

Interphase
 “living” phase of the cell
 cell obtain nutrients, respires, grows, transcribe
its DNA, protein synthesis
 non-dividing stage

Chromosome
 Haploid (n) = 23
 Diploid (2n) = 46
 46 chromosomes in humans
o 23 pairs
 22 pairs of autosomal chromosomes
  1 pair of sex chromosomes (allosomes): X and Y
 male: 46 XY
 female: 46 XX

Mitosis
 division of the mother cell into two daughter cells with the same amount and quality of
genetic material (2 identical daughter cells)
 for somatic cells

Stages of Mitosis: PMAT

Meiosis
 cell division which produces gametes (egg and sperm cells)
 takes place in the testes and ovary
 reductional (diploid to haploid)
 the union of haploids in fertilization maintains the chromosome set (diploid of the species)
 results to 4 genetically different cells

Stages of Meiosis: PMAT x2

Gametogenesis
 production of gametes
o Spermatogenesis: sperm production at the testes; 4 sperm cells
o Oogenesis: egg cell production at the ovary; 1 egg cell, 3 polar bodies

Mitosis vs Meiosis
The purpose of mitosis is to increase the number of cells. The purpose of meiosis is to produce
gametes. They are different ways of cell division and reproduction.
Genetic Disorders
 non-disjunction
 failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly during cell
division
 aneuploidy – not normal number of chromosomes
o monosomy – presence of only one chromosome from a pair
o trisomy – additional chromosome

Klinefelter Syndrome (47, XXY)

 trisomy
 males have an extra X chromosome
 tall structure, poor beard growth, minor breast development, testicular atrophy (failure to
produce sperm), female pubic pattern

Turner Syndrome (45, X0)

 monosomy
 all or part of one X chromosome is absent
 short stature, webbed neck, rudimentary ovaries, underdeveloped breasts, broad-shield like
chest

Cri-du-chat Syndrome (46, 5p-)

 partial monosomy (loss of some part of the p arm of chromosome 5)
 individual has a shrieking cry similar to that of a meowing cat
 anatomical malformations, gastrointestinal and cardiac functions
 often mentally retarded

Down Syndrome (47, 21+)

 trisomy 21
 prominent epicanthic fold in the corner of the eye
 simian crease
 characteristically short
 small, round heads; protruding, furrowed tongues
 short broad hands, physical and mental development are retarded

Edward Syndrome (47, 18+)

 trisomy 18
 small head
 low set malformed ears
 abnormally small jaws
 lip/cleft palate
 clenched hands
 underdeveloped thumb or nails
 very low rate of survival due to heart and kidney abnormalities and other organ disorders

Patau Syndrome (47, 13+)

 trisomy 13
 cleft palate
 polydactyly
 low set of ears
 abnormal genitalia
 overlapping of fingers over thumb
 cutis aplasia (missing portion of the skin or hair)
 heart and kidney defects
EVOLUTION
 All living things share a common ancestor.
 Evolution is the process by which one species gives rise to another and the tree of life grows.

Evolution as Theory and Fact

 Rodin’s “The Thinker”
 The theory of evolution deals with how evolution happens.
 Evolution is also a fact as there is a huge amount of indisputable evidence for its occurrence.

Discovery 1: Fixed Species

 Michelangelo’s fresco on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel
 from classical times until long after the Renaissance, species were considered to be special
creations, fixed for all time

Discovery 2: Transmutation
 Jean Baptiste de Lamarck
 Around 1800, scientists began to wonder whether species could change or transmute.
 Lamarck though that if an animal acquired a characteristic during its lifetime, it could pass it
onto its offspring.
 Hence, giraffes got their long necks through generations of straining to reach high branches.

Discovery 3: Fossils and Strata

 William Smith
 He was mapping the rocks and fossils of Britain. He and other showed that different species
existed in the past compared with today.

Discovery 4: Darwin’s Voyage

 Voyage of the Beagle
 Charles Darwin toured the world in HMS Beagle
 He was dazzled by the amazing diversity of life and started to wonder how it might have
originated.

Discovery 5: Survival of the Fittest

 Natural Selection explains adaptation
 Darwin proposed how one species might give rise to another (Origin of Species)
 Where food was limited, competition meant that only the fittest would survive.
 This would lead to the natural selection of the best adapted individuals and eventually the
evolution of a new species.

Discovery 6: Huxley v. Wilberforce

 Bishop Wilberforce v. T.H. Huxley
 Darwin’s idea of Evolution by Natural Selection was met with huge controversy.
 A famous debate in 1860 pitted Bishop Wilberforce against Darwin’s bulldog, Thomas Henry
Huxley.
 Evolutionists got the better of the debate, but few were convinced by Darwin’s idea of Natural
Selection.

Discovery 7: Genetics
 Mendel and his peas
 From 1856-63, a monk called Gregor Mendel cultivated 29,000 pea plants to investigate how
evolution worked i.e., how characteristics were passed down the generations.
  He figured out the basic principles of genetics. He showed that offspring received
characteristics from both parents, but only the dominant characteristic trait was expressed.
Mendel’s work only came to light in 1900, long after his death.

Discovery 8: Making Sense

 Julian Huxley and the Modern Synthesis
 In the early 20th century, scientist started to make sense of how evolution worked.
 Building on Mendel’s genetics, studies showed how characteristics in a population could be
selected by environmental pressures.
 This Modern Synthesis, as Julian Huxley called it, brought Darwin’s Natural Selection back to the
centre of evolutionary theory.

Discovery 9: Opposition
 Despite the achievable of scientific consensus on evolution, some Christian groups continued
to oppose the concept.
 In 1925, the teaching of evolution was outlawed in Tennessee, USA, resulting in the infamous
Scopes Monkey Trial.

Evidence 1: Biochemistry
 The basic similarity of all living things suggests that they evolved from a single common
ancestor.
 As we have already seen, all living things pass on information from generation to generation
using the DNA molecule.
 All living things also use a molecule called ATP to carry energy around the organism.

Evidence 2: Similar Genes

 If evolution is true, then we might also expect that closely related organisms will be more
similar to one another than more distantly related organisms.
 Comparison of the human genetic code with that of other organisms show that chimpanzees
are nearly genetically identical (differ by less than 1.2%) whereas the mouse differs by ≈15%.

Evidence 3: Comparative Anatomy

 Similar comparisons can be made based on anatomical evidence.
 The skeleton of humans and gorillas are very similar suggesting they shared a recent common
ancestor, but very different from the more distantly related woodlouse… yet all have a
common characteristic: bilateral symmetry

Evidence 4: Homology
 The pentadactyl limb is ancestral to all vertebrates but modified for different uses.

Evidence 5: Vestigal Structures

 As evolution progresses, some structures get side-lined as they are no longer of use. These are
known as vestigial structures.
 The coccyx is a much reduced version of an ancestral tail, which was formerly adapted to aid
balance and climbing.
 Another vestigial structure in humans is the appendix.

Evidence 6: Fossil Record

 The fossil record shows a sequence from simple bacteria to more complicated organisms
through time and provides the most compelling evidence for evolution.

Evidence 7: Transitional Fossils

 Many fossils show a clear transition from one species, or group, to another.
  Archaeopteryx was found in Germany in 1861. It shares many characteristics with both
dinosaurs and birds.
 It provides good evidence that birds arose from dinosaur ancestors

Evidence 8: Geography
 Geographic spread of organisms also tells of their past evolution.
 Marsupials occur in two populations today in the Americas and Australia.
 This shows the group evolved before the continents drifted apart.

Evidence 9: Antibiotic Resistance

 We are all familiar with the way that certain bacteria can become resistant to antibiotics.
 This is an example of natural selection in action. The antibiotic acts as an environmental
pressure. It weeds out those bacteria with low resistance and only those with high resistance
survive to reproduce.

ORGAN SYSTEMS
Tissues
 group of cells with similar structure and function plus extracellular substance (matrix)
 Histology: study of tissues

Types of Tissues
1. Epithelial Tissues
 Location: cover body (internal and
external)
 skin, kidney, trachea, glands
 cells close together
 form most glands
 have free surface
Functions:
 Protect (skin)
 Act as a barrier (skin keeps bacteria out)
 Diffusion and filtration (lungs and kidneys)
 Secretion (sweat glands)
 Absorption (small intestine)
2. Connective Tissues
 cells are far apart
 contain large amounts of extracellular matrix
 classified based on type of extracellular matrix and function
 extracellular matrix contains 3 components: protein fibers, ground substance, fluid
 ground substance: proteins and sugars
Functions:
 enclose and separate (around
organs and muscles)
 connect tissues (Tendons: bone to
muscle; ligaments: bone to bone)
 support and movement (bones)
 storage (bones store calcium and
adipose tissue stores fat)
 cushion and insulate (adipose
tissue protects organs and helps
conserve heat)
 transport (blood)
 protect (immune cells)
Cartilage
 type of connective tissue
 composed of chondrocytes
 contains collagen
 withstands compressions
 provides support, flexibility, strength

Blood
 liquid connective tissue
 erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets
 transport food, oxygen, waste, hormones

3. Nervous Tissue
 consist of neurons or nerve cells
 found in brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves
 controls and coordinates body movements
 includes axons, dendrites and cell bodies

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Skin
 weighs 9 lbs
 used to determine body fat
 2 main regions: epidermis and dermis
Functions:
 protection (water loss, microbes, UV light)
 sensation (hot, cold, pain, pressure)
 temperature regulation (helps maintain homeostasis)
 excretion (removes waste)
 vitamin D production (UV light stimulates production)

Epidermis
 1st major skin region (outside)
 composed of stratified squamous epithelium
 Keratinization: process in which new cells (with keratin) push old cells to surface
Dermis
 2nd major skin region (middle)
 dense connective tissue
 contains collagen and elastic fibers
 contains fibroblasts, nerve endings, smooth muscle, glands, blood vessels, and hair follicles
  Cleavage lines: area where skin is most resistant to stretching; due to orientation of collagen
fibers; important in scarring
Hypodermis
 below dermis
 foundation of skin
 attaches skin to underlying bone and muscle
 contains loose and adipose tissue
 ½ of body’s fat

SKELETAL SYSTEM
Functions:
 support
 protect
 movement
 storage
 blood cell production
Components:
a. Bone
b. Cartilage – reduce friction and model for bone formation
c. Tendons – attach bone to muscle
d. Ligaments – attach bone to bone

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
 muscle tissue is specialized for contraction
 contraction moves the body and body parts
 3 types: skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Functions:
 sensory input (sensory receptors respond to stimuli)
 integration (brain and spinal cord process stimuli)
 control of muscles and glands
 mental activity (brain)
 homeostasis
Main Divisions:
1. Central Nervous System (CNS) – brain and spinal cord
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) – 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves
Neuron Structures:
1. Dendrite: receives stimulus from other neurons or sensory receptors
2. Cell body: processes stimulus, contains a nucleus
3. Axon: transmits stimulus to a gland, muscle, organ, or other neuron

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Functions:
 controls homeostasis  regulates metabolism and growth
 maintains water balance  regulates heart rate and blood pressure
 controls uterine contractions  monitors blood glucose levels
 controls milk production  aids the immune system
 regulates ions (calcium, sodium,  reproductive functions
potassium)
Components:
1. Endocrine glands: secrete their product directly into the bloodstream
 2. Chemical signal: molecules that are released from one location, move to another location,
and produce a response
Types of Chemical Signals
a. Intracellular: produce in one part of a cell and move to another part of the same cell
b. Intercellular: released from one cell and bind to receptors on another cell

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
Functions:
 regulates blood supply
 generates blood pressure
 routes blood
 ensures 1-way blood flow

Blood Vessels
 carry blood
 exchange nutrients, waste products, gases within tissues
 transport substances
 regulate blood pressure
 direct blood to flow to tissues

Blood Flow
 blood flows from arteries into arterioles
 arterioles into capillaries
 capillaries into venules
 venules to small veins
 veins return to heart

Vessel Structures:
Arteries
 carry blood away from heart
 thick with a lot of elastic
Veins
 carry blood toward heart
 thick with less elastic
Capillaries
 exchange occurs between blood and tissue fluids

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Components:
 Lymph – fluid that enters lymphatic capillaries composed of water and some solutes
 Lymphocytes
 Lymphatic vessels
 Lymph nodes
 Tonsils
 Spleen
 Thymus gland

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Nose
External Nose: composed mainly of hyaline cartilage
Nasal Cavity: extends from nares (nostrils) to choane; choane – openings to pharynx; hard palate is
its roof
Functions of Nose:
 filters
 airway for respiration
 involved in speech
 olfactory receptors
 warms air
 sneezing dislodges materials from nose
Pharynx
 throat
 common passageway for resp and dig systems
 Nasopharynx: takes in air
 Oropharynx: extends from uvula to epiglottis; takes in food, drink, air
 Laryngopharynx: extends from epiglottis to esophagus; food and drink pass through
Lower Respiratory Tract:
 Larynx
o in front of throat, consists of cartilage
o Thyroid cartilage: largest piece, Adam’s apple
o Epiglottis: piece of cartilage; flat that prevents swallowed materials from entering
larynx
o Vocal folds/cords: source of voice production; air moves past, vibrates, produce
sounds; force of air determine loudness; tension determines pitch
 Trachea
o windpipe
o contains cilia pseudostratified columnar epi
o smoking kills cilia
o coughing dislodges materials from trachea
o divides into right and left primary bronchi (lungs)
 Bronchi
o divide from trachea
o connect to lungs
o lined with cilia
o contain C shaped pieces of cartilage
 Lungs
o primary organ of respiration
o cone shaped
o rest on diaphragm
o right lung – 3 lobes
o left lung – 2 lobes
o contains many air passageways (divisions)

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Teeth
 32 in normal adult
 incisors, canine, premolars, molars, wisdom
 20 primary teeth (baby teeth)
 each tooth has a crown, cusp, neck, root
 center of tooth is pulp cavity
 enamel is hard covering protects against abrasions
 cavities are breakdown of enamel by acids from bacteria
Salivary Glands
 includes submandibular, sublingual, parotid
 produce saliva
 contains enzymes to breakdown food
  mumps is an inflammation of parotid gland
Esophagus
 tube that connects pharynx to stomach
 transport food to stomach
 joins stomach at cardiac opening
 Heartburn
o occurs when gastric juices regurgitate into esophagus
o caused by caffeine, smoking, or eating or drinking in excess
Stomach
 located in the abdomen
 storage tank for food
 can hold up to 2 liters of food
 produces mucus, hydrochloric acid, protein digesting enzymes
 contains a thick mucus layer that lubricates and protects epithelial cells on stomach wall form
acidic pH (3)
Small Intestine
 6m in length
 major absorptive organ
 chyme takes 3-5 hours to pass through
 contains enzymes to further breakdown food
 contains secretions for protection against chyme’s acidity
Large Intestine
 absorb water from indigestible food
 contains cecum, colon, rectum, anal canal
 Cecum: joins small intestine at ileocecal junction; has appendix attached
 Appendix: 9cm structure that is often removed
Liver
 digestive and excretory functions
 stores and processes nutrients
 detoxifies harmful chemicals
 synthesizes new molecules
 secretes 700ml of bile each day
 Bile: dilutes and neutralizes stomach acid and breaks
down fats
Pancreas
 located posterior to stomach and inferior part or left
upper quadrant
 head near midline of body
 tail extends to left and touches spleen
 endocrine tissues have pancreatic islet that produce
insulin and glucagon
 exocrine tissues produce digestive enzymes

URINARY SYSTEM
Functions:
 excretion
 blood volume and blood pressure control
 pH regulation
 concentration of solutes
 vit D production
 red blood cell concentration
Components:
 2 kidneys
  2 ureters
 1 urinary bladder
 1 urethra
Kidney
 shape and size: bean-shaped, weighs 5 oz.
 between 12th thoracic and 3rd lumbar vertebra
Nephron
 functional unit of kidneys
 over 1 million/kidney
Ureters
 small tubes that carry urine from renal pelvis of kidney to bladder
Urinary Bladder
 in pelvic activity
 stores urine
 can hold a few ml to a max. of 1000 ml
Urethra
 tube that exits bladder
 carries urine from urinary bladder to outside of body

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Functions:
 production of gametes
 fertilization
 development and nourishment of new individuals
 production of sex hormones
Gametes
 sex cells
 sperm in males
 oocytes (eggs) in females
Meiosis
 special type of cell division that leads to formation of sex cells
 Each sperm cell and each oocyte contains 23 chromosomes.
Fertilization
 union of sperm and oocyte
Zygote
 what develops after fertilization
 develops into an embryo 3-14 days after fertilization
Embryo
 14-56 days after fertilization
Fetus
 56 days after fertilization

Functions of Male Reproductive System

 produce sperm cells (sex cells)
 produce male sex hormones
 transfer sperm cells to female
Scrotum
 contains testes
 sperm must develop at temp. less than body temp.
Testes
 primary male reproductive organ
 produces sperm
 in scrotum
  contain seminiferous tubules: where sperm is produced
Epididymis
 thread-like tubules on side of each testis
 where seminiferous tubules empty new sperm
 where sperm continue to mature develop ability to swim and bind to oocytes
Ductus Deferens
 “vas deferns”
 extends from epididymis and joins seminal vesicle
 cut during vasectomy
Urethra
 extends from urinary bladder to end of penis
 passageway for urine and male reproductive fluids (not at the same time)
Penis
 corpus cavernosum, corpus spongiosum, spongy urethra: 3 columns of erectile tissue which fill
with blood for erection
 transfer sperm from male to female
 excrete urine
Glands:
a. Seminal Vesicles – next to vas deferens; help from ejaculatory duct
b. Prostate Gland – surrounds urethra; size of a walnut
c. Bulbourethral Gland – small mucus secreting glands near base of prostate gland
Sperm Cells Structure
 Head – contains a nucleus and DNA
 Midpiece – contains mitochondria
 Tail – contains flagellum for movement

Functions of Female Reproductive System:

 produce female oocytes (sex cells)
 produce female sex hormones
 receive sperm from males
 develop and nourish embryos
Ovaries
 primary female reproductive organ
 produces oocytes and sex hormones
 one on either side of uterus
 ovarian ligaments: anchor ovaries to uterus
 suspensory ligaments: anchor ovaries to pelvic activity
 ovarian follicle: cells in ovaries that contain oocytes
Uterine (Fallopian) Tubes
 part of uterus which extends toward ovaries and receives oocytes
 fimbriae: fringe-like structures around opening of uterine tubes that help sweep oocyte into
uterine tubes
 tubal ligation (sterilization of female)
 ectopic pregnancy: if fertilized oocyte (zygote) implants somewhere beside uterus (usually in
fall. tube)
Uterus
 pear sized structure located in pelvic cavity
 functions: receive, retain, and provide nourishment for fertilized oocyte, where embryo resides
and develops
 body: main part
 cervix: narrow region that leads to vagina
Vagina
 extends from uterus to outside of body
 female copulation organ that receives penis during intercourse
 allows menstrual flow
 involved in childbirth
 contains very muscular walls and a mucous membrane
 every acidic to keep bacteria out
Mammary Glands
 Organs of milk production in breasts
 Modified sweat glands
 Female breasts begin to enlarge during puberty
 Consists of lobes covered by adipose
 Lobes, ducts, lobules are altered during lactation to expel milk

ECOLOGY

Ecology – study of interactions between organisms and their environments, focusing on energy
transfer; science of relationships.

Two Factors of Environment:

1. Biotic Factors – all living organisms

2. Abiotic Factors – nonliving parts of the environment

Organism  Population  Community  Ecosystem  Biosphere

Organism – any unicellular or multicellular form exhibiting all of the characteristics of life, an individual

Community - several interacting populations that inhabit a common environment and are
interdependent.

Ecosystem - populations in a community and the abiotic factors with which they interact (ex. marine,
terrestrial).

Biosphere - life supporting portions of Earth composed of air, land, fresh water, and salt water.

Habitat vs. Niche

Niche

 role of species plays in a community; total way of life

 determined by the tolerance limitations of an organism, or a limiting factor

Habitat

 the place in which an organism lives out its life

Limiting factor - any biotic or abiotic factor that restricts the existence of organisms in a specific
environment. (amount of water, amount of food, temperature, amount of space, availability of
mates)

**pagod na ko paki-download nalang nung ppt sa ecology :---((**