Biochemistry FRUCTOSE

MARCH 2019  Sweetest of natural sugars.

 Found abundantly in fruits.
Handout Property of:  Part of high-fructose corn syrup.
SHAINA MAE TABJAN
GALACTOSE
Midterm: Carbohydrates
 Commonly occurs as part of disaccharide
Chapter 4: Carbohydrates, Starches, and Fiber lactose.

The Structural differences between Glucose,

WHAT ARE CARBOHYDRATES? Galactose, and Fructose

 Produced by plants during photosynthesis.

 After eating plant foods, humans convert the
carbohydrates into glucose.

Glucose

 Most abundant carbohydrate.

 Preferred source of energy for the blood,
brain, and nervous system.

Carbohydrate – Rich plant foods make up the

foundation of diets all over the world.

Classification of Carbohydrates

1. Simple Carbohydrates

 Monosaccharides
 Disaccharides DISACCHARIDES
 Perceived as sweeter than complex
carbohydrates. (Mixes with saliva Three disaccharides
and reacts with taste buds.
1. Sucrose – Most common
2. Lactose
2. Oligosaccharides
3. Maltose – Least common, formed from
digestion of starches.
3. Complex Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides Link to Form Disaccharides
 Polysaccharides

MONOSCCHARIDES

Three nutritionally important monosaccharides:

1. Glucose
2. Fructose
3. Galactose

GLUCOSE

 Blood glucose and blood sugar in the body

 Most abundant monosaccharide in the
body.
 It is the preferred and main source of
energy for the brain and red blood cells.
 Part of every disaccharide
 Only monosaccharide in starches.
POLYSACCHARIDES GLYCOGEN

1. Starch  Storage form of glucose in animals.

2. Fiber  Long, branched chains of glucose.
3. Glycogen  Stored in liver and muscle.
 Liver glycogen response to blood glucose
STARCH (BG) levels.
Plants store glucose in chains of starch
 BG  glycogen breakdown   BG
Amylose
 Muscle glycogen can be broken down for
 Straight Chain energy for the muscle.
 More resistant to digestion.
Comparison of Starch and Glycogen Molecules
Resistant Starch

 May improve health of digestive tract.

 May improve glucose tolerance.
 May stimulate growth of beneficial intestinal
bacteria.

Amylopectin

 Branched chains.
 Easier to digest.

FIBER

 Non-digestible polysaccharides
OLIGOSACCHARIDES
 Provides no energy
Classifications:
Soluble
 Pectin, beta-glucan, some gums, mucilage.
 Easily fermented by intestinal bacteria.
 Carbon dioxide, methane, some fatty acids.
Insoluble
 Cellulose, lignin, some hemicelluloses.
 Not easily fermented.
 Similar in length to simple carbohydrates
 Similar in makeup to polysaccharides
 Humans lack the enzymes necessary to
digest them
 Intestinal microflora digest and ferment
them
o Cause bloating, discomfort, and
flatulence
 Food sources
o Legumes, beans, cabbage, brussels
sprouts, broccoli

Health Benefits of Fibers STRUCTURE OF OLIGOSACCHARIDE

Soluble Fibers

 Slow gastric emptying and may delay

absorption of some nutrients.
 Helps reduce serum cholesterol.
 Normalize blood glucose levels.
 May help protect against colon cancer.

Insoluble Fibers

 Relieves constipation.
 Most plant foods contain both soluble and
insoluble fibers.
Quick Review Glucose Is Stored in the Liver and Muscle Cells
as Glycogen
Complex carbohydrates

• Polysaccharides: starch, fiber, glycogen.

• Fiber

- Soluble – fermented by intestinal bacteria;

moves slowly.
- Insoluble – moves quickly through and
reduces constipation.
- Functional – added to foods.

Oligosaccharides

• Contain three to ten units.

Quick Review
• Part of cellulose in cell walls.
Carbohydrate Digestion and Absorption
 Disaccharides and starches are digested to
monosaccharides.
 Monosaccharides are easily absorbed.
 Fiber passes through the GI tract
undigested.
 Digestion of carbohydrates begins in the
mouth.
 Most carbohydrate digestion takes place in
the small intestine.
 Carbohydrates are broken down to
monosaccharides for absorption.
 Monosaccharides are converted to glucose
in the liver and:

• Used as energy.
Absorption of Carbohydrates
• Stored as glycogen in the liver and
 Once digested to monosaccharides
muscle cells.
• Absorbed through the intestinal cell
• Stored as glycerol and fatty acids in
mucosa.
the adipocytes.
• Transported to the liver via the portal
 Fiber travels to the colon undigested and
vein.
most is eliminated from the body.
• Metabolic needs direct fate of the
Lactose Intolerance
monosaccharides.
 Deficiency of lactase, the enzyme that
digest lactose
Galactose and Fructose
Maldigestion – inability to digest lactose due to low
levels of the enzyme
 Used by the liver for energy
 Converted to glucose Intolerance – Maldigestion resulting in nausea,
cramps, bloating, flatulence, and diarrhea.
Glucose
Functions of Carbohydrate
 Used for energy
 Converted to glycogen through  Provide energy
glycogenesis
 Converted to glycerol and fatty acids for • 4 kilocalories per gram
storage in adipocytes  Maintain blood glucose

• Carbohydrate intake

• Glycogenolysis > 4 hours after a

meal
  Spare protein
• Prevents the need for glycogenesis
 Prevents ketosis
How to Maintain Blood Glucose Levels
 Goal for blood glucose is 70–100 mg/dl
 Insulin – lowers blood glucose levels
• Needed for glucose to enter the cell
from the blood stream
- Exception: liver, kidney, and
brain cells
• Helps convert glucose to glycogen
through glycogenesis.
• Helps convert glucose to fatty acids
through lipogenesis.
• Inhibits lipolysis.
 Glucagon – increases blood glucose levels
• Stimulates the release of glucose
into the blood.
• Stimulates glycogenolysis
• Stimulates gluconeogenesis
Insulin and Glucagon Regulate Glucose
Metabolism
How to Maintain Blood Glucose Levels
 Epinephrine and norepinephrine –
increases blood glucose.
• Stimulate glycogenolysis and
gluconeogenesis.
 Cortisol – increases blood glucose.
• Stimulates gluconeogenesis.
• Reduces uptake of glucose by the
muscle cells.
 Growth hormone – increases blood
glucose
• Stimulates fat breakdown for energy.
• Reduces uptake of glucose by the
muscles.
• Increase glucose production in the
liver.
Quick Review
 Glucose is the body’s preferred source of
energy
• Especially the brain and red blood
cells
 Adequate carbohydrate intake
• Maintains blood glucose levels
• Spares protein
• Prevents ketosis
 Blood glucose levels are maintained by two
hormones
• Insulin which lowers blood glucose
levels
• Glucagon which raises blood
glucose levels
 Epinephrine, norepinephrine, cortisol, and
growth hormone raise blood glucose levels.
Glycemic Index
 Classifies the effects of carbohydrate-
containing foods on blood glucose
 May be helpful for diabetics
 Glycemic index (GI) refers to the measured
upward rise, peaks, and falls of blood
glucose following consumption of high-
carbohydrate food
• Ranks foods according blood
glucose
Glycemic Load
 Glycemic load (GL) – adjust GI by taking
into account the amount of carbohydrate
consumed in a typical serving of food
 Factors affecting GI
• Ripeness of fruit
• Cooking
 • Processing
• Size of food pieces
• Amount of fiber
• Combinations of food eaten
Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load
 Usefulness of GI and GL for disease
prevention and weight management is
controversial
 Is helpful in educating people about
• Carbohydrate content of foods
• Portion sizes
• Serving numbers
Dietary Fiber
 Benefits
• Helps lower risk of
- Bowel irregularity
- Obesity
- Heart disease
- Cancer
- Diabetes mellitus
 Chronic constipation can lead to
diverticulosis and diverticulitis.
 Prevention of constipation and
diverticulosis:
• Insoluble fiber helps reduce transit
time of foods in the colon.
• Soluble fiber helps make stool easier
to pass by increasing bulk and
softening texture.
 Prevention of heart disease and diabetes.
• Viscous, soluble fiber helps lower
elevated blood cholesterol levels.
- Interferes with reabsorption
of bile acid.
• Slow moving, viscous, soluble fiber
may reduce the rate which fat and
carbohydrate are absorbed
- Decreasing level of fat in
blood and improving insulin
sensitivity, decrease risk of
heart disease
• Insoluble fiber has been shown to
promote heart health
• Viscous soluble fiber helps slow
digestion and absorption helping
control blood glucose levels
 Fiber helps reduce the incidence of several
cancers
• Decreases the amount of time
cancer-promoting substances spend
in contact with the intestinal lining
• Encourages the growth of colon-
friendly bacteria
• Reduces acid in the colon
 Helps prevent obesity
• Increase satiety
• Reduce food intake
Caution: Increase dietary fiber and fluid intake
gradually.
Quick Review
 Glycemic index (GI) ranks foods according
to effects on glucose levels compared to
white bread or pure glucose
 Glycemic load adjusts for serving size
 Foods that contain high fiber or are eaten
with protein and fat generally have a lower
GI.
 High-fiber diet health benefits include
reduced risk of
• Constipation
• Diverticulosis
• Heart disease
• Obesity
• Diabetes Mellitus
• Cancer
 Carbohydrate Sources

 Best choices should include nutrient-dense,

low-saturated fat foods, simple
carbohydrates, fiber, complex
carbohydrates

Food Sources of Carbohydrates

Importance of Whole Grains

Food Sources of Fiber

Quick Review Forms of Diabetes

 Best sources of carbohydrates are  Type 1

• Fresh fruits and vegetables • Usually begins in childhood or early

adulthood.
• Whole grains
• 5–10% of diabetics
• Legumes
• Immune system destroys beta cells
• Low-fat dairy products of the pancreas.
 Excellent sources of fiber are - No insulin produced.
• Whole grains • Common symptoms of elevated
• Fruits blood sugar:

• Vegetables - Polydipsia

• Legumes - Polyuria

• Nuts - Polyphagia

• Require insulin and frequent blood

• Seeds
glucose monitoring.
 Packaged foods can be good sources of
starch and fiber  Type 2

• Read label carefully • Overweight individuals develop this

form frequently.
• Avoid too much sugar, fat, and
• 90–95% of diabetics
kilocalories

Diabetes Mellitus • Can go undiagnosed

- Damages vital organs

 Occurs when an individual either doesn’t
make enough, or is unable to utilize, the
hormone insulin to regulate blood glucose
levels
 Epidemic
• Sixth leading cause of death in
the United States.
• Costs the U.S. almost $100 billion
annually.
• Number of people with diabetes is
rising annually.
without individual being
aware of it.
 Polycystic ovary syndrome
• Hormonal imbalance in women.
• Have higher incidence of insulin
resistance and hyperinsulinemia.
- Increased risk of developing
type 2 diabetes
 Prediabetes
• Impaired glucose tolerance.

• Fasting blood sugar between 100

mg/dl and 126 mg/dl.

• High risk of developing diabetes and

heart disease.

Long-term damage from diabetes

• Nerve damage

• Leg and foot amputations

• Eye diseases
 • Blindness Hypoglycemia

• Tooth loss  A blood glucose level that is too low (usually

below
• Gum problems 70 mg/dl)
• Kidney disease  Signs and symptoms
• Heart disease • Hunger

• Nervousness
Slowing of onset of complications
• Dizziness
• Control level of blood glucose through
• Light-headed
- Diet.
• Confused
- Insulin or oral medication.
• Weak
- Monitoring blood glucose.
• Shaky
- Regular healthcare visits.
• Sweaty

 Eating or drinking carbohydrate rich

foods

• Relieves symptoms

• Raises blood glucose

Change in Blood Glucose After Eating a High-

Carbohydrate Meal

Quick Review

 Diabetes involves inadequate regulation of

blood glucose levels.

 Type 1 diabetes – inadequate production of

insulin.

 Type 2 diabetes – insulin resistance.

 Chronic high blood glucose can damage Fasting Hypoglycemia

vital organs.
 Occurs in the morning after an overnight
 Diabetics need medications and/or insulin to fast.
manage blood glucose.
 Occurs during long stretches between
 High-fiber diet and routine exercise play a meals or after exercise.
key role in managing and preventing
 May be caused by:
diabetes.
• Medications
 Polycystic ovary syndrome increases the
risk of developing type 2 diabetes. • Illness

• Drinking too much alcohol

• Certain tumors

• Hormone imbalances
Quick Review • Make yeast rise

 Symptoms of hypoglycemia • Make foods taste sweet

• Hungry, nervous, light-headed, Finding Added Sugars on the Label

shaky, and/or sweaty

 Diabetics who take medications and/or

insulin and do not eat properly are at risk

 Individuals without diabetes may experience

reactive hypoglycemia several hours after
meals

 Fasting hypoglycemia may occur upon

awaking in the morning

 Can be caused by medications, illnesses,

hormone imbalances, or excessive
consumption of alcohol.

Natural versus Added Sugar

 Naturally occurring sugar

• Sugars such as fructose and lactose

found naturally in foods.

• Tend to be nutrient dense.

 Added sugar

• Sugars added to processed foods

and sweets.

• Empty calories.

Slices of an Orange versus Orange Slices Americans Drink the Majority of Their Sugar

Added Sugar

 Reasons sugar is added to foods

• To keep product moist

• To turn pastries a golden brown

• Preservative

• Thickening agent
Health Effects of Sugar

 Sugar can contribute to:

• Dental carries

• Elevated level of fat in the blood

• Lowing of HDL cholesterol

 Sugar does not cause:

• Increased risk of diabetes

• Hyperactivity in children

 Sugar is not considered an addictive

substance.

Quick Review

 Taste buds do not distinguish between

naturally occurring sugar and added sugar

 Foods with naturally occurring sugar provide

more nutrition and satiation than empty-
calorie sweets

 There are numerous names for added sugar

 Soft drinks are the number-one contributor

of added sugars to U.S. diets

Putting It All Together

 Carbohydrates are an important part of a

healthy diet

 Whole grains, fruits, vegetables, and lean

dairy products

• Provide carbohydrates and vitamins

and minerals

• Should be the predominant source

of carbohydrates

 Whole grains, fruits, and vegetables are a

good source of fiber and phytochemicals

• Adequate amounts of these can

prevent many chronic disease

 Sugary foods should be eaten in moderation

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