HBEF3703 Intro To Guidance and Counselling PDF

HBEF3703
INTRODUCTION TO
GUIDANCE AND
COUNSELLING
Dr Zainal Abidin Ahmad
Prof Dr Wan Abdul Kader Wan Ahmad
B D Singh
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Prof Dr Widad Othman
Open University Malaysia
Module Writers: Dr Zainal Abidin Ahmad

Prof Dr Wan Abdul Kader Wan Ahmad
B D Singh
Acme Learning Private Limited
Moderators: Assoc Prof Dr Arifin Haji Zainal

Assoc Prof Hazidi Abdul Hamid
Translator: Dr Norhasyimah Isa
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Acme Learning Private Limited
Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

Lot 47-48, Jalan SR 1/9, Seksyen 9,
Jalan Serdang Raya, Taman Serdang Raya,
43300 Seri Kembangan, Selangor Darul Ehsan
First Edition, August 2011

Second Edition, December 2013 (rs)August 2013
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) in collaboration with Acme Learning
Private Limited, December 2013, HBEF3703
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).

Table of Contents
Course Guide xi-xv
Topic 1 Introduction to Counselling 1

1.1 Counselling 1
1.2 Definition of Counselling 3
1.3 The Difference between Counselling and Psychotherapy 5
1.4 Counselling Aims 6
1.4.1 Five Counselling Aims 7
1.5 Roles of a Counsellor 10
1.6 Beliefs and Characteristics of a Counsellor 14
1.7 Counselling and Guidance Services 19
1.8 Group Counselling 21
1.8.1 Types of Group 21
1.8.2 Advantages of Cluster Counselling 22
1.9 Confidentiality in Counselling 24
Summary 25
Key Terms 26
Topic 2 The Process of Counselling 27

2.1 Stages in Counselling 27
2.1.1 Building a Relationship 30
2.1.2 Exploration 33
2.1.3 Decision making 35
2.1.4 Enforcement 37
2.1.5 Ending a Counselling Session 39
2.2 Uncooperative Clients 41
2.2.1 Difficult and Uncommitted Clients 41
2.2.2 Difficult but Committed Clients 45
2.2.3 Dealing with Difficult Clients 46
2.3 Seeking Information about Client 47
Summary 49
Key Terms 49

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Topic 3 Communication Skills 50

3.1 Learning the Counselling Skills 51
3.2 Early Preparations 52
3.2.1 Meeting Environment 52
3.2.2 Client Recruitment Procedure 53
3.2.3 Counsellor and Confidentiality 54
3.3 First Counselling Consultation 54
3.3.1 Beginning a Session 55
3.3.2 Structuring the Consultation Session 56
3.3.3 Explaning Session Objective 58
3.3.4 Ending the First Session 58
3.3.5 Making References 59
3.4 Specific Skills 59
3.4.1 Non-verbal Behaviour 60
3.4.2 CounsellorÊs Non-verbal Behaviour: Focusing Skill 63
Basic Communication Skills 65
Summary 72
Key Terms 72
Topic 4 Listening Skills 73

4.1 What is Listening? 74
4.1.1 Approaches to Listening 75
4.1.2 Listening as Behaviour 76
4.1.3 Purposes of Listening 77
4.1.4 Actions Required for Effective Listening 80
4.2 Stages of Listening 84
4.3 Obstacles to Listening 86
4.3.1 Inaccurate Assumptions about Listening 86
4.3.2 Barriers to Listening 87
4.4 Empathic Listening 92
4.5 Listeners in Control 93
4.5.1 Features of a Sound Plan 93
4.6 Traps for Listeners 95
4.6.1 Good Listeners and Bad Listeners 95
4.6.2 Feedback 98
Summary 105
Key Terms 105
Self-Test 106

TABLE OF CONTENTS W v
Topic 5 Role Skills 107

5.1 Focusing Role 107
5.1.1 Types of Focusing Response 109
5.1.2 Focusing Response Level 112
5.2 Clarifying Role 117
5.2.1 Types of Clarifying Response 118
5.2.2 Level of Clarifying Responses 120
5.3 Supporting Role 126
5.3.1 Supporting Role Level 129
Summary 135
Key Terms 135
Topic 6 Behavioural Counselling Theory 136

6.1 Need for Counselling Theory 137
6.2 Behaviourism Counselling Theory 138
6.2.1 Classical Conditioning Principle 138
6.2.2 Operant Conditioning Principle 139
6.2.3 Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 140
6.3 Behaviourism Personality Theory 141
6.3.1 SkinnerÊs Principle Adaptation 141
6.4 Inappropriate Behaviour 143
6.4.1 How an Individual is Troubled 144
6.5 The Counselling Process 146
6.6 Strategies to Help Client 147
6.6.1 Role Play 147
6.6.2 Assertive Practice 148
6.6.3 Economic Token (Rewards) 149
6.6.4 Self-management, Self-monitoring and
Self-reinforcement 150
Summary 155
Key Terms 156
Topic 7 Person-centred Counselling 157

7.1 General Introduction 158
7.1.1 Personality Theory (View towards Human) 159
7.2 Concepts of Person-centered 159
7.2.1 Phenomenology 159
7.2.2 Concept of Knowing 160
7.2.3 Structure of Personality 161
7.2.4 Process of Personality Growth 163
7.2.5 Subception Process 164

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7.2.6 Personality Growth 164

7.2.7 Psychological Disorder 165
7.3 Counselling Process 166
7.3.1 Therapy Conditions 166
7.3.2 Personality Development 169
7.3.3 Therapy Process 170
7.4 Strategy to Help Clients 172
7.4.1 Counselling Interaction 172
7.4.2 Counselling Skills 173
7.5 Samples of Counselling Cases 175
7.6 Contributions by the Person-centred Theory 179
7.6.1 Limitation Of The Person-centred Theory 180
Summary 182
Key Terms 182
Topic 8 Group Counselling 183

8.1 Introduction to Group Counselling 183
8.2 What makes the Group Effective? 186
Summary 190
Key Terms 191
Self-Test 191
Topic 9 Counselling in a Multicultural Society 192

9.1 Cultural Differences and Counselling 192
" 9.2 Barriers to Multicultural Counselling 194
9.3 The Skilled Multicultural Counsellor 199
9.3.1 Role Playing 200
9.3.2 Bodily Awareness and Relaxation Activities 200
9.3.3 Thoughts and Imagery 201
9.3.4 Desensitisation 202
Summary 203
Key Terms 203
Self-Test 203
Topic 10 Ethical Principles of the Counselling Profession 204

10.1 Purposes of Ethical Codes 204
10.2 Codes of Ethics for Ethical and Effective Counselling 206
10.2.1 Conditions Required for Ethical and Effective
Counselling 207
10.2.2 Tips for Ethical and Effective Counselling 208

TABLE OF CONTENTS W vii
10.2.3 Pre-disciplinary Action 209

10.3 Principles of Ethical Conduct 215
Summary 217
Key Terms 217
Self-Test 217
References 218

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COURSE GUIDE W xi
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
HBEF3703 Introduction to Guidance and Counselling is one of the courses
offered by the Faculty of Education and Languages at Open University Malaysia
(OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all students taking the Bachelor of Teaching with
Honours and Bachelor of Psychology with Honours programmes.
As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently and
optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin
this course, please confirm the course material, the course requirements and how
the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend 120
study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

xii X COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussion 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS 120
COURSE OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Explain counselling concepts, principles and processes;
2. Discuss a counsellorÊs characteristics, roles and skills; and
3. Apply the principles in counselling theories to assist people with their

problems.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic is as follows:
Topic 1 discusses the importance of counselling in todayÊs society. It explains the

characteristics of a counsellor and his role in counselling. The aims and types of
counselling are also discussed.
Topic 2 explains the five levels of counselling where the characteristics of each
level are explained in detail. It clarifies uncooperative clients and ways to
overcome this problem. Lastly, this topic explains sources where a counsellor can
obtain his clientÊs information.
Topic 3 discusses the skills needed by a counsellor. The most important skill is
the communication skill. The first interview session is explained. This topic also
clarifies the clientÊs and counsellorÊs non-verbal behaviour.

COURSE GUIDE W xiii
Topic 4 explains what is listening, stages of listening, obstacles of listening,

emphatic listening, listeners in control and traps for listeners.
Topic 5 explains how a counsellor needs to have role skills when in contact with a
client. This includes the roles of giving focus, explanation and support. You are
exposed to the technique of giving appropriate response with the roles you take
up.
Topic 6 introduces the behaviourist counselling theory. It explains the concept

and techniques used according to the behaviourist stand. Subsequently, it
clarifies how a person obtains the maladaptive behaviour and continues it. A few
examples are discussed on the application of the behaviourist theory.
Topic 7 introduces learner-centred counselling theory which was founded by

Carl Rogers. This theory is an approach to help individuals or groups based on
the philosophy that psychological growth will take place if counsellors treat them
fair, pleasant and with empathy.
Topic 8 explains group counselling, counselling theory and group counselling,

and what makes groups effective.
Topic 9 discusses cultural differences and counselling, barriers to multicultural

counselling, and the skilled multicultural counsellor.
Topic 10 discusses the purposes of ethical codes, codes of ethics and decision
making, and principles of ethical conduct.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting

xiv X COURSE GUIDE
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you
to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or
research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come
across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the
module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage
yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge is required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myVLE.
REFERENCES
The references are listed at the end of the module.

COURSE GUIDE W xv
TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

LIBRARY
The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for the
use of its learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible through
the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases comprising e-
journals, e-theses, e-books and more. Examples of databases available are
EBSCOhost, ProQuest, SpringerLink, Books24x7, InfoSci Books, Emerald
Management Plus and Ebrary Electronic Books. As an OUM learner, you are
encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this library.

xvi X COURSE GUIDE

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Topic
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X Introduction
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By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Identify the definitions of counselling and its importance;
2. Differentiate between counselling and psychotherapy;
3. Explain the five aims of counselling;
4. Describe the roles and characteristics of a counsellor; and
5. Differentiate between individual and group counselling.
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X" INTRODUCTION
In this topic, you will be introduced to an internÊs preparation in becoming a
counsellor and you will be given a few pointers on the counselling process.
Firstly, it is rational to increase the number of professional counsellors if a
country wants to become a developed nation. Next, a few important concepts will
be explained in preparing to become an intern counsellor.
1.1 COUNSELLING
What do you understand by the counselling concept and the tasks of a
counsellor? Is counselling important and useful? Why?
In this country, counselling services have reached an encouraging level especially

in schools and institutions of higher learning, in line with economic, social, cultural,
educational, science and technological developments. In the context of a

2 X TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO COUNSELLING
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developing nation geared towards becoming a developed nation with high

technology, counselling is useful to people in various situations.
Although counselling is regarded as a new field compared to sociology,

economics and psychology, on the whole, the influence of counselling is felt by
the society though not that widely. The number of individuals who seek a
counsellorÊs help to solve their problems in order to achieve a more peaceful life
and one that is of better quality has increased.
Among the problems that are regularly brought forward by individuals range
from personal problems to interpersonal ones at the workplace which affect their
peace of mind, difficulties in making decisions due to confusion and also learning
problems. Hence, professional counsellors in modern society have important
roles to play especially considering that Malaysia is developing rapidly.
This development is not merely in terms of economy, science and technology but
also has to do with national unity and harmony in a multiracial society. The
change in society is the basis of a countryÊs development. Various social problems
exist directly or indirectly as a result of rapid changes in society. These changes
are:
(a)" A big migration of young people searching for jobs in towns;
(b)" A big family system breaks into smaller families and smaller families
become the norm;
(c)" The existence of big organisations in private and corporate fields that drive
people to be alienated when they pay less attention to these individuals;
(d)" The influence of print and electronic media on the thoughts and attitudes
of humans especially among children and adolescents that go against
traditional society values; and
(e)" A better way of life that destroys good values in individuals and society.
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The direct effect of these changes on a person is a psychological reaction in the
form of stress. According to research, stress can cause various illnesses such as
heart disease, high blood pressure and emotional disturbances. Stress that may
arise at school levels are exepctations of teachers and parents who are unrealistic
about academic achievements, small living conditions and pressure from peers
towards a certain behaviour norm. In an institution of higher learning, stress
occurs as an effect of competition for academic excellence, shortage of money and
social pressure.
Reaction from stress differs between adolescents and children. There are cases of
adolescents and children who run away from homes dues to stress when chaos

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO COUNSELLING W 3
happens in the family. Some try to escape or forget the stress by resorting to
drugs or getting involved in crime.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. Have you ever experienced stress or know of any individual who

is experiencing stress?
2. How did you or that individual overcome the stress?
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Counselling may not be able to get rid of all social diseases caused by economic
development but in order to achieve a harmonious state of mind among the
community, it must be adequately available in all institutions that have a role to
play in the countryÊs development. Counselling can no longer be regarded as
„knowledge to deal with insane people‰ but it must be offered widely so that
through its knowledge, community members can benefit in solving their daily
problems.
ACTIVITY 1.1
To know more about psychotheraphy, please visit the following website
www.aboutpsychotherapy.com.
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Then, discuss the findings during your tutorial.
1.2 DEFINITION OF COUNSELLING

The word counselling has different meanings according to the approaches that
the individual practises. One of the definitions having many similarities with
other definitions is that counselling aims at helping a person learn to make a
decision and carrying out that decision. Some have defined counselling as
learning. In these two definitions, the similarity is the word „learn‰. The first
definition teaches a person to make decisions and the second definition is about
learning in general. As you read the following topics, you will understand the
concept and functions of learning in counselling better.

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Below are some definitions of counselling:
Krumboltz (1965) defined counselling as:

Counselling is any ethical activity performed by a counsellor in assisting a
client demonstrates a behaviour that motivates towards problem solving.
As a counselling expert influential in this field, Krumboltz (1965) has a definition

that clearly shows what a counsellor wants to achieve is his clientÊs aim and this
is a very important aim. Here, an approach or a counselling method that can be
used to achieve the aim is not stated or suggested.
The American Guidance and Personnel Society (1980) defines counselling as

using counselling procedures and other fields related to behavioural science to
help learn how to solve certain problem, making decisions regarding career
choices, personal growth, marriage, family or other interpersonal matters.
The American Guidance and Personnel Society (1980) defines counselling as

using counselling procedures and other fields related to behavioural science to
help learn how to solve certain problem, making decisions regarding career
choices, personal growth, marriage, family or other interpersonal matters.
One more definition that may be easier to understand and is relevant to this
course is by Burks and Stefflre (1979).
Burks and Stefflre (1979) defined counselling as:

Counselling refers to professional relationship between a trained counsellor
and a client. This relationship is normally person-to-person, although
sometimes it involves more than two persons. It is designed to help clients
understand and express their views about their lives, and learn to achieve
personal choice aim through a meaningful and informative choice after they
have solved their emotional and interpersonal problems.

Based on these definitions that were put across by experts in the counselling field,
counselling may be simplified based on Zainal Abidin (2002) definition as follows:
Counselling is a discussion between a trained counsellor and an individual

or a small group that experiences confusion and needs help, and together
they think and analyse a few alternatives to overcome the chaotic situation
and implement the chosen alternative.
It is hoped that from these definitions you will understand the gist of a
professional counsellorÊs duty towards his client, whether the client is an
individual or a small group. Besides that, a counsellor has to identify whether a
client really needs counselling or psychotherapy. This is because there is a
difference between a client who needs counselling services and the one who
needs psychotherapy, a more serious service.
ACTIVITY 1.2
From the given counselling definition, what is the role of a counsellor?
Discuss.
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1.3 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COUNSELLING

AND PSYCHOTHERAPY
What do you know about psychotherapy? In your opinion, do counselling and
psychotherapy have the same or different aim?
Let us look at the difference between counselling and psychotherapy. About 40

years ago, there was a prominent difference between counselling and
psychotherapy. Psychotherapy emphasises more on the treating of „mental
illness‰, where else counselling focuses more on helping individuals overcome
dead ends or troubled minds so that they can continue their lives peacefully.
Now, it is very tedious to find the difference between counselling and

psychotherapy. Most counselling textbooks cannot distinguish between the two.
In fact, books on counselling theories are no different than books on
psychotherapy. The difficulty is more obvious when we compare the definitions
of counselling and psychotherapy by a few writers. The definitions of counselling
by a counselling writer can be used by psychotherapy writers. In the same way,

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the definitions of psychotherapy by a psychotherapy writer can be used by a

counselling writer.
There are many similarities between these two fields which involve a special
relationship between an individual who wants to get help to solve his
psychological problem (client) and a trained person who gives that help
(counsellor or therapist). The special relationship is the same and, in fact, the
technique in helping patients and clients is similar.
The difference between the two is in the objective. The counselling objective is to
help an individual overcome his or her personal growth problem at any time
towards achieving the optimum strength development that is in him or her. This
objective can also be accepted as the aim of the psychotherapy process. However,
besides solving growth problems of an individual, psychotherapy also solves
reconstructive change problems. Normally, psychotherapy is carried out for a
long period (one month to two years) as an outpatient or inpatient. On the
contrary, counselling is usually for a short period (less than six months) as an
outpatient only. However, counselling and psychotherapy have similar aims, that
is, to achieve the clientÊs aim or goal itself.
SELF-CHECK 1.2
Do you find psychotherapy and counselling really different from one

another? Why? Explain.
1.4 COUNSELLING AIMS

What do we hope to achieve at the end of a counselling session? Generally, every
individual has different hopes according to his perspective of the counselling
process that has been carried out. For example, after an individual has gone
through the counselling process, he who sought help from the counsellor,
parents, teachers or school principal has a different perception regarding the
ending that he hopes for. Differences in opinion will exist, but this will not be
discussed, as the last choice that determines the counselling aim depends on the
agreement between the client and his counsellor. Both of them will ensure the
direction of their discussion.

1.4.1 Five Counselling Aims

Figure 1.1 shows five counselling aims.
Figure 1.1: Counselling aims
From Figure 1.1, we can see that the main aims of counselling are to:
(a) Make behaviour change easier;
(b) Increase clientsÊ ability to start and continue relationships;
(c) Help clients cope with problems and issues effectively;
(d) Encourage effective decision-making process; and
(e) Increase clientsÊ development and achievement potential.
Let us read further on each aim.
(a) To Make ClientsÊ Change in Behaviour Easier

The majority of theorists agree that the aim of counselling is to help the
client make some changes in behaviour that enable him or her to have a
more productive and satisfactory life. Prior to visiting a counsellor, there
must be something that disturbs him or maybe his relationship with
someone is unsatisfactory (e.g. his employer). Perhaps, it could even be the
routine way the client interacts with others so much so that it causes a
negative reaction from others. This negative effect causes the client to feel
disturbed.
It is hoped that after completing a session, the client will understand and
analyse effectively and satisfactorily ways to interact with his or her

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employer or others who have the tendency to create disturbing responses.

Here, the aim of counselling is to encourage and to make it easier for clients
to change his or her behaviour to a more effective one.
For example, Ali (a teacher) is unaware that he always gives negative

responses such as cynical remarks to his students who give wrong answers
in class. AliÊs behaviour causes his students not to interact with him in class.
This poses a problem and disrupts effective teaching. With a counselling
session, Ali will be able to identify the real problem and a counsellor can
assist Ali in changing his behaviour, where he should have given support to
his students when interacting with him and guided them although the
answers they gave were wrong.
(b) To Increase ClientsÊ Ability to Start and Continue Relationships

A big part of our lives involve interacting with people. However, many
clients face problems due to their inability to interact with others correctly
and appropriately. This problem can be linked to the client not having
communication skills or having a negative personal image. In this case, the
counsellorÊs aim is to find ways to increase effective interaction with others.
Relationship problems can occur among adults in a family, between
husbands and wives and between school children and their peers. In each
case, a counsellor will try to find ways to help the client increase his quality
of life by improving the way he interacts with others.
For example, when MonaÊs principal gave her some comments, she felt very
angry and refused to listen to what was said. This led to a communication
breakdown between the two. Mona saw the comments as criticism. A
counsellor can assist Mona in having a better relationship with her
principal. Mona could be taught not to react negatively but rationally by
listening calmly to every comment and taking into account the positive ones
in her situation.
SELF-CHECK 1.3
Explain how counseling helps to make clientsÊ change in behaviour

easier.

(c) To Help Clients Cope with Problems and Issues

Another important counselling aim is to help the client manage himself in
difficult situations. Each individual experiences difficulties in his life when
he grows up. It is rare that a person grows up by reaching and perfecting
every significant personÊs claim in his life, such as his motherÊs and fatherÊs.
ParentsÊ expectation on their children often leads to unpredictable effects. A

child, for instance, will learn a less efficient and less effective behaviour or
both when he is unable to fulfil his parentsÊ wishes. This learning will carry
on into adulthood. Unfortunately, in specific situations such as at the
workplace, the behaviour pattern that one learns will not help him but
instead will cause him constant problems. In this kind of situation, a
counsellor will train his client to manage himself effectively, especially in
new situations and new demands.
For example, Ahmad is always criticised when he fails in his subjects. The
effect is Ahmad becomes lazy and always play truant in school. He brings
this attitude to the working environment. He is always late and lazy to try
something new. A counsellor can help Ahmad manage himself effectively
and increase his self-image.
(d) To Encourage Effective Decision-Making Process

The process of making decisions is very difficult for certain people. They are
scared of having to shoulder responsibilities due to wrong choices made
and they always make decisions without thinking of the existing
alternatives. For these clients, the aim of counselling is to help them make
important decisions in their lives. It is vital to note that the counsellorÊs role
is not to give the last say and to direct client to choose in certain decisions.
The final decision is made by the client and he must understand and know
why and how to achieve that decision. The client will learn to make risk
estimates undertaken from that decision in terms of time, money, and
alternative decisions. The client also learns to make a few explorations
about his values in life that are relevant to the present situation and
condition, realising that these values are considered in the decision-making
process.
For example, Ah Kau feels dissatisfied and stressed with his job. He is
fearful of making any changes. A counsellor can help Ah Kau find the cause
of his dissatisfaction and search for his value in life. A counsellor can also
help Ah Kau find and estimate the risk of various alternatives such as
changing departments, having a discussion with his employer or changing
jobs.

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(e) To Increase ClientsÊ Development and Achievement Potential

Helping a client achieve his potentials has always been one of the aims of
counselling. This aim provides opportunities for the client to learn ways of
using his abilities and interests to the maximum level. This aim also means
the client is taught to increase personal effectiveness.
This reinforcement means that the counsellor can help the person to learn
how to stop smoking, to take care of his health, overcome problems of
shyness that is unproductive, lessen feelings of stress as well as the feeling
of being down. To simplify, the aim of counselling is to help the client
decrease or overcome whatever hinders or retards his development of
potential ability and interest.
For example, IndraÊs ambition is to be an actress. She feels stressed because

she always stammers and she feels scared to be in front of a crowd. This
hinders her ambition. A counsellor can help her feel comfortable when
standing in front of a crowd and this will indirectly help her achieve her
ambition to be an actress.
SELF-CHECK 1.4
What are the five aims of counselling? Give relevant examples.
ACTIVITY 1.3
May Ling is always angry and throws things when things do not run
smoothly for her. What counselling aim can be achieved when counselling
is given to May Ling?
1.5 ROLES OF A COUNSELLOR

A counsellorÊs role depends on the place and setting in which he contributes his
service (see Table 1.1). Over the years, the counsellorÊs role has gone through
changes. The roles have now spread to public counselling centres, hospitals,
prisons, Islamic offices, the Haj Fund, churches, some government departments
and other places that require counselling service instead of mainly helping
students with problems at schools and career choices. Counselling is also found

in cities such as Kuala Lumpur and Ipoh where counsellors provide their services
as a „private practice‰ to the public.
Table 1.1: Examples of Counselling Services
Place Example
Schools Help students make appropriate career choices.
Prisons Help inmates in rehabilitation process and integrating them into
the community.
Hospitals Help families that have lost their family members to deal with
the loss.
Islamic Offices Help spouses who are experiencing marital problems.
Government Offices Help stressed employees or people with problems of being burnt
out.
Churches Help those with personal problems such as issues with their
parents.
This new development took place due to the recognition that counsellors have the
required training to help in matters such as drug abuse at rehabilitation centres,
rehabilitation work in prisons and in places where there are emotional problems
and tension. In the West, there are counsellors who have joined the professional
mental health team which includes psychiatrists, psychology experts and
psychiatric nurses, where the counsellor becomes the case manager of a patient
giving treatment and main service.
With the expansion of the counsellorÊs roles at specific places, the focal point of
approaches will be towards the whole individual that includes his whole life.
This means the focus of counselling includes physical, social, mental and
emotional concerns as well as individual spiritual needs (see Figure 1.2).

"
Figure 1.2: Aspects that make up a whole individual
Let us read further on each aspect.
(a) Physical Health

An individualÊs physical health is important in the counselling process.
Examples of counselling that involves physical health are:
(i)" Helping the individual get into the habit of taking care of his physical
health, such as avoiding obesity and quitting smoking;
(ii)" Exploring emotional or psychological matters that hinder an
individual from practising positive attitudes such as eating a lot due
to negative self-image;
(iii)" Motivating an individual to practise a healthy lifestyle such as by
exercising; and
(iv)" Teaching an individual to decrease his tension or stress.
(b) Social Needs

An individualÊs social needs include family relationships, working
environment, friendship and other activities that tie him to other people in
the community. These relationships give the individual strength and
prevent him from experiencing feelings of alienation, feelings of being
down and low self-esteem.

(c) Mental Health

A counsellor must always be aware of the relationship between his clientÊs
thoughts and feelings to his actions or behaviour. The counsellorÊs role
towards his client is to stimulate his thought process so that his ability to
solve problems will increase and he becomes more creative. Creative mental
activity is the guide to a personÊs quality of life.
(d) Emotional Needs

In many cases, a human beingÊs well-being is linked to the aim of increasing
emotional contentment. This aim has become a tradition for all counsellors
and will continue to be the focus of counselling. Normally, an individual
will meet a counsellor to obtain clarification about certain feelings. Often,
the expressed feelings are related to his life or certain events that disturb
him in his life. So, the importance of emotional contentment is clear when a
client talks about things that affect his feelings physically, socially, mentally
and spiritually.
(e) Spiritual Needs

The subject of spirituality in counselling is getting more attention now
compared to the past. Before the expansion of counselling, explanations of
certain behaviour were done through the perspective of psychology. For
instance, from the learning perspective, deviant behaviour is explained
where an individual has learnt characteristics, acts and thoughts that are not
normal in his community. This act receives reinforcement from his
environment and so deviant behaviour continues.
Why does the question of spirituality receive attention in counselling?
Basically, there is awareness that every personÊs behaviour, thoughts and

feelings are related to his religious beliefs and teachings. For the majority,
their values in life and the ways they react in a community are influenced
by religious teachings. Now, spirituality is the basis for guidance that
determines their behaviour pattern, lifestyle and values in life.
With this explanation, it is clear that the domain of a counsellorÊs job is in

the form of growth facilitation and individual development from the
physical, mental, social and spiritual aspects. By providing attention on the
function of an individual as a whole, a counsellor will be able to help that
individual live his life more productively and meaningfully.
Myers (1992) found that if a strong bond exists between physical and
mental health in counselling, there will be a positive impact on the clientÊs
emotional contentment and physical health. He supports the idea of giving
development, prevention and contentment counselling throughout oneÊs

"
life to facilitate mental and physical contentment. He believes that this

approach will be a new paradigm for all counsellorsÊ new roles, now and in
the near future.
"""""""""
SELF-CHECK 1.5
As a teacher and a student, how can counselling have an impact on your

entire life physically, socially, mentally, emotionally and spiritually?
Explain.
"
1.6 BELIEFS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF A

COUNSELLOR
Counselling must be understood as a unique interpersonal process. Its
effectiveness depends on the attitudes, skills and knowledge shown by a
counsellor when he deals with his client. A counsellorÊs client must be able to feel
that the counsellor is a helper with certain beliefs and characteristics:
You as a counsellor should have the following beliefs regarding your clients:
(a) A Client is a Unique Individual

One important characteristic that a counsellor must have is to trust that
every human being created by God is useful, valuable and unique. Sincere
acceptance towards a client actually can be felt by the client, and to him it is
not merely an abstract explanation. This does not mean we must simply
accept or not accept his behaviour, or like or dislike the character he
demonstrates. In fact, we must show our sincerity and respect towards him
as a valuable individual and a useful human being.
A counsellor must try to understand that a clientÊs self and world

observations are his realities. Every belief, attitude, feeling and thought
about himself and his environment greatly influences the way he reacts. As
a counsellor, you must focus your attention on this perception because this
will show how the clientÊs thoughts influence why he reacts and behaves in
a particular way.
A counsellor who can show that he accepts his client in a counselling

process without any condition will motivate his client to have hope and
develop feelings of trust in his counsellor.

How can the characteristic of accepting be communicated to clients? Can

you do it? There are a few non-verbal ways that can communicate this
characteristic such as showing expressions that are calm, maintaining
posture while entertaining client, demonstrating seriousness in answering
that does not involve stalling and using unthreatening voice intonation. We
must cater to clientsÊ feelings of sensitivity when using our voices.
(b) A Client can Change

A counsellor must be optimistic. They must believe that a client can change,
at least by demonstrating changes in feelings, attitude, cognitive structure
and behaviour. At the same time, a counsellor must also accept the fact that
helping someone change is a difficult and time consuming task. At times
this effort fails and some people cannot be helped at all. When this happens
it does not mean that changes are impossible.
A counsellor must know that, sometimes, changes may not take place due
to certain factors:
(i)" The client is not ready to change;
(ii)" Changes can take place if the clientÊs environment itself is changed;
and
(iii)" A counsellor does not have the specific expertise or adequate
experience to influence a change in client.
As a counsellor, you must convince the client that you trust him to change.
Do not merely say it but show him with your actions and attitude.
Utterances like, „I really believe you will solve this problem,‰ will not on its
own change the client or influence your belief. This utterance must be
accompanied by relevant body movements, convincing facial expressions
and voice intonation that have positive quality. All these have therapeutic
value in putting across our attitude and belief towards our clients.
(c) A Client can Function Effectively as an Individual

A counsellor must understand the psychological principles that influence
human behaviour and realise that the environment plays a part in creating
that behaviour. You were exposed to the principles of psychology in the
previous units relating to principles of behaviourism and cognition. The
learning theory that was explained before this will also help in
understanding how effective individuals function.
In carrying out a counselling process, it is important to know how an

individual functions whether our aim is to get our clientÊs trust or in the
explorations of problems that hinder his function and growth. This

"
knowledge is required when we make judgments on which way is

appropriate to be used to assist and to decide when counselling should be
stopped.
On top of that, you as a counsellor need to have the following characteristics:
(a) Be Knowledgeable and Skilful in Helping Individuals

Counselling means more than the willingness to build a special relationship
with the client, appreciating and respecting the client, believing that the
client can change and having knowledge how effective people function. A
counsellor also has to have clinical skills that can help clients find the source
of the hindrance that is blocking their ability to change so that they can
function at a much desired level.
Clients can be assisted in various ways. What works at one place and time
may not provide a desired effect in another place and time. There are many
approaches, methods and theories that can be used. As a counsellor who is
new to the field and is trying out, you must refrain from using approaches
that is taken from theory A, B and so on. As a counsellor in training, you
are encouraged to try a few approaches that can be observed by your
supervisor. Then, slowly you adapt the approaches that you have tried with
your own style that you practiced in the training.
While you are designing and expanding your counselling skills, you should
seize the opportunity to conduct counselling sessions for clients from
different cultural backgrounds, for example, clients from different ethnic
groups in Malaysia. In this way, you can see the different ways the ethnic
groups perceive themselves, their environment and worlds. This will add
on to your experience that not all clients will give the same response though
their problems appear to be similar. This experience is useful so that you
will understand when you ought to change your strategy and to use a
suitable technique in a relevant situation.
A counsellor must accept the fact that learning ways to help people takes a
long time. Trainee counsellors normally start their counselling training
process via a few attempts, from one to another. They read and listen to
ways the counsellor conducts counselling. They also emulate skilled
counsellorsÊ behaviours to obtain suitable actions that can be used as part of
their rituals or styles. A counsellorÊs development is a process that is on
going. A counsellor has to increase his skills as long as he still carries out his
professional role.

(b) Be Willing to be Involved

A counsellor must demonstrate his willingness to get involved in the
counselling process. Commitment and the readiness to share experiences
are more meaningful to a client than the allocated time given and the effort
needed to help a person. This includes communication with a client in a
client-counsellor relationship, where nothing is more important at that time
than his client and what is to be discussed in that meeting.
Commitment and the willingness to be involved with a client drive a

counsellor to be focused on his clientÊs inner thoughts, such as how he sees
his problems. In this way, a counsellor can help his client understands his
self, the change process and the hindrances he has to face. At the same time,
the client will be helped in taking risks and have the perspective that a
counsellor is a tool to help him change.
A counsellor who feels that he is sufficient, stable and disciplined will push
aside all his weaknesses and focus on helping his client. A counsellor will
show his willingness to be involved with his client by being understanding,
accepting and showing sincerity towards his client.
"
(c) Be Able to Know Yourself
A counsellor must have a positive self-concept and feel at ease, comfortable
and safe about himself. By demonstrating mental health, a counsellor can be
a role model to his client. As a counsellor you must be sensitive to your own
feelings, attitude and values and how all these play a role in helping others.
Normally, a counsellor has high social interest and strong motivation to
cooperate with others. A counsellor also needs to have high tolerance in
handling defensive, uncooperative clients and clients that feel down.
A counsellor must know how to solve his own problems and handle conflict
and stress that he experiences. At the same time, a counsellor must also
know his own skills and his limitations. A counsellor must be open to
improve himself and his self-development by increasing his knowledge,
skills and experience.
A counsellor must realise that he cannot help everybody who has problems
and in certain cases, he has to refer clients who demand more than his
ability to a relevant expert.

"
The process that requires a counsellor to know or to identify one self is

actually to admit the limit to oneÊs capabilities. This process is important in
counselling because:
(i) The more sensitive a counsellor is to his own feelings, thoughts and
acts, the easier it is for him to understand othersÊ feelings, thoughts
and acts; and
(ii) A counsellor who is comfortable with himself will communicate
sincerity to his client. A client will trust the person who wishes to help
him if he feels the sincerity of that person. Hence, the client will be
more open to discuss his problems and this enables the counsellor to
understand how his client perceives his problems.
In short, counsellors should have the following characteristics (Figure 1.3):
Figure 1.3: Characteristics of a counsellor
ACTIVITY 1.4
In your opinion, what else would be the characteristics of a counsellor?

Why must a counsellor have these characteristics? Explain.

SELF-CHECK 1.6
1." Having learnt about counselling aims and roles of a counsellor,

what are the characteristics that a counsellor should have to enable
him to achieve the aims and fulfil his role as a counsellor? Why?
2." Do you have the characteristics that have been explained earlier?
Give an example of a situation that you have experienced which
highlights these characteristics. If not, how can you train yourself to
have these characteristics?
1.7 COUNSELLING AND GUIDANCE SERVICES

Traditionally, the counselling and guidance services at schools or higher
education institutions consist of three types of services (refer to Figure 1.4).
"
Figure 1.4: Types of counselling and guidance services at educational institutions

"
Let us read further on each type of a counsellor's service:
(a) Teaching and Training Services

The service of teaching and training is for those in need of certain skills and
practice. For instance, when it is important for students to get general
information about smoking or drug addiction and also the danger of certain
contagious diseases e.g. HIV or AIDS, a guest speaker will be invited to
deliver a talk. This service is meant to spread information.
In other situations like career choice problems, the counsellor will invite
people of specific posts to deliver a talk about current and future career
opportunities. It is common among students at school to lack information
and exposure about job opportunities as well as necessary academic
preparation. Information such as this will serve as an eye-opener for school
students and more importantly will trigger their interest to learn subjects
related to their dream jobs.
Other activities that can be held by the counsellor in the component of

teaching and training are:
(i)" Effective revision strategies;
(ii)" Preparation for an important exam;
(iii)" Time management;
(iv)" Tips for attending an interview;
(v)" Ways to prepare a good resume (curriculum vitae);
(vi)" Practices to overcome nervousness and shyness; and
(vii)" Practices to be assertive and to deliver a speech in public.
The counsellorÊs effort to spread information and provide teaching and

training can be held in a big group according to the suitability of the
condition. However, to train certain behaviours such as to reduce shyness
or to train someone to be assertive, it is best if it is held in a smaller group of
less than 10 individuals.
(b) Counselling Services

The counselling service is meant for those who need a counsellorÊs service
to solve a problem. For instance, in order to choose a career, a counsellor
can play a role in helping clients brainstorm and discuss their interests and
preferences and also their ambitions. The counsellor can also show various
options for the clients so as to choose a perfect career for them.

(c) Examination Services

This service is provided to those who need it or those who simply wish to
understand their real self in a more thorough way. For example in choosing
a career, the counsellor can prepare the clients with exams such as the IQ
test, personality and preference test so that the clients can match their job
with their respective personalities and preferences.
1.8 GROUP COUNSELLING

Other than the individual counselling, a counsellor may also use his counselling
skills to handle a small group. Those who wish to get psychological help or help
in a crisis situation have the choice of receiving counselling services in a small
group. Group counselling is implemented to develop self-awareness and to
improve interpersonal skills.
When can you say a small group is a group? A group contains three or more
individuals (normally not more than ten members) who mutually influence each
other. If the group has more members, this will influence the interaction of the
group members as they will be threatened by the presence of such a large number
of people to share something private.
What is group counselling? By definition, it is an application of group interaction

to facilitate self-comprehension and facilitate individual behavioural changes.
1.8.1 Types of Group

Generally there are two major types of groups which would seek help from a
counsellor. They are:
(a) Guidance Groups

Normally, the guidance groups are used to spread information, particularly
for the students at schools or higher educational institutions. The topic
delivered is the topic chosen by the counsellor. One of the characteristics of
the information is the information of prevention such as the danger of
drugs, free sex that may lead to AIDS or other sexually-transmitted diseases
and elements that precipitate moral deterioration. Some of the popular
topics discussed in guidance groups are:
(i)" Time management;
(ii)" Attending interviews;
(iii)" Study skills;

"
(iv)" Career selection; and

(v)" Exam preparation.
(b) Counselling Groups

The focus of counselling groups is on the individual, unlike the guidance
groups where the focus is on the topic to be delivered. Counselling groups
consist of five to 10 members with no specific structure. The counsellor
serves to create a conducive condition for the members to discuss their
problems without them feeling depressed or threatened. Things to be
shared with the other members are things that they feel comfortable to talk
about in public such as family problems, interpersonal relationships,
problems regarding self-concept and personal problems faced. The content
of discussion involves the expression of feelings and each member has a
chance to be heard by everyone including the person facilitating the group –
the counsellor.
Students who are interested to find out further about other types of groups
may refer to the textbooks which will state the features and advantages of
certain groups. For the purpose of this course, it will suffice to understand
the two groups to help teachers in their tasks in helping school students.
Other types of groups include:
(i)" Therapy groups;
(ii)" Sensitivity groups; and
(iii)" T-Groups.
ACTIVITY 1.5
Discuss with your coursemates the advantages and disadvantages of

group counselling.
1.8.2 Advantages of Cluster Counselling

Group counselling has many advantages. However, bear in mind that not all
clients may benefit from group counselling. Some individuals may feel depressed
having to confront other people and some may have difficulty in talking about
something considered private in the presence of others.

The main advantage of group counselling is its practicality. A counsellor usually

has a lot of work and, additionally, has the burden of facing many clients. This
will not allow the counsellor to meet all clients in the same day. Therefore, group
counselling enables the counsellor to meet more clients in a short time. In a
group, a counsellor can meet seven to eight individuals within the similar time
duration he uses to meet them individually.
Another benefit of group counselling is related to the type of problems faced by

the clients. Most studentsÊ problems are relationship or interpersonal problems.
In a group, clients are given the chance to explore their interpersonal problems
and feelings within a social context. For instance, the feedback collected from the
other members will give a stronger influence than the counsellorÊs since the
feedback comes from peers. The client will experience psychological growth
through the process of getting genuine feedback from peers. Group counselling
will turn into a „micro society‰ where the client is able to feel peer pressure,
social influence and approval as part of the counselling experience.
In a small group, clients also stand a chance to experiment new behaviours with
the support from other team members through the given feedback. Say, if a client
consistently feels embarrassed to talk in public, for example in front of the class,
the client can practice talking in the counselling group with encouragement from
the other members.
Normally, the client faces his problems alone and it is hard for him to view them
in the right perspective. In a smaller group and with the help of the counsellor, he
will feel less intimidated as he discovers that other people have their problems
too. Group counselling provides the clients with chances to explore their
problems and at the same time share them with others.
When the members of a team share their problems with each other, it leads to the
feeling of trust and respect for each other as they exchange the information about
the related problems. The group experience will create a support system for the
members. This will uplift the group and enable them to develop a sense of
security among the members.
Another advantage of group counselling is that the client will not only benefit
from the feedback from the others, but also be able to offer feedback to help other
team members. This will help enhance the clientÊs self-concept.
Other elements that provide therapeutic value through group counselling are:
(a)" Promising hope to the clients;
(b)" Feeling safe and getting support;

"
(c)" Solidarity among the members;

(d)" Learning something from other members; and
(e)" Interpersonal learning.
A counsellor who really understands the therapeutic elements explained will be

able to conduct the group counselling more efficiently and effectively.
1.9 CONFIDENTIALITY IN COUNSELLING

Counselling, whether it is done individually or in a small group, involves self-
disclosure of the client which may not be expressed outside a counselling session.
The more the trust of the client toward the counsellor is, the easier it would be for
the client to discuss his or her problems with the counsellor. In theory, this helps
the counsellor understand the way the client perceives his or her problems. The
client would also feel understood and secure as he or she gets the counsellorÊs
support. This makes the counsellor the most trusted person to the client and one
who will not leak the clientÊs secrets to anyone.
From the aspect of professional ethics, it is the counsellorÊs responsibilities to

preserve the confidentiality so that the good rapport built is not wasted. If the
client no longer trusts his or her counsellor, the good relationship will be at stake
and most likely he or she would refuse to meet the counsellor.
Here are some principles of confidentiality that may help the counsellor:
(a)" The burden of maintaining the confidentiality is not definitive as there are
some situations that allow the counsellor to repeat the secrets;
(b)" Confidentiality is maintained if it does not threaten other individualÊs
rights or the public; and
(c)" Confidentiality depends on the matters being kept confidential. If the issue
which is said to be confidential has been made public, the counsellor is no
longer attached to the question of confidentiality.
The counsellor also needs to think about the safety of the client and avoid
misusing the problems confided to him. To avoid the counsellor from being
charged in court for fraudulence, the confidentiality of the client is crucial.
However, the counsellor is subject to making a shrewd judgment and thinking
rationally as to when is the time confidentiality may be exempt.

The situations in which confidentiality may be violated are as follows:

(i)" The client is harming himself, herself or others;
(ii)" The client demands that his or her particulars be revealed;
(iii)" The court demands that the clientsÊ particulars be repeated; and
(iv)" The counsellor suspects that there has been a child abuse case involved.
"
ACTIVITY 1.6
1. What do you understand by the expression „the counsellor

understands the way the client perceives herself‰? Is the problem
perceived by the client accurate?
2. In the effort of the counsellor to search for the causes that disturb
the clientÊs mind, he will try to understand and look for a link
among the clientÊs cognition, emotion and behaviour. State the
relationship between someoneÊs cognition, emotion and behaviour
by giving reasonable examples.
•" Counselling can be defined as a discussion between a trained counsellor and

an individual or a small group that experiences confusion and needs help,
and together they think and analyse a few alternatives to overcome the
chaotic situation and implement the chosen alternative.
•" The differences between counselling and psychotherapy are in the objective
and the period in which it is conducted. The counselling objective is to help
an individual overcome his or her personal growth problem at any time
towards achieving the optimum strength development that is in him or her.
Besides solving growth problems of an individual, psychotherapy also solves
reconstructive change problems. Psychotherapy is carried out for a long
period (one month to two years) as an outpatient or inpatient. Counselling is
usually for a short period (less than six months) as an outpatient only.
•" The five main aims of counselling are to:

–" Make behaviour change easier;
–" Increase clients' ability to start and continue relationships;

"
–" Help clients cope with problems and issues effectively;

–" Encourage effective decision-making process; and
–" Help clients' development and achievement potential.
•" The characteristics of an effective counsellor include being knowledgeable

and skilful in helping individuals; willing to be involved; and knowing one's
self.
•" The components of counselling and guidance services are teaching and
training services; counselling services; and examination services.
"
Confrontation Problem-solving
Counselling Psychotherapy
Discussion
"

Topic
" "
"
" X The Process
"
2
"
"
"
of
"
"
"
"
Counselling
"
" LEARNING OUTCOMES
"
1. Explain the five stages of counselling;
2. Identify some obvious characteristics that occur in each stage;
3. List some solutions to handle uncooperative clients; and
4. Identify the sources where the counsellor can collect some
information about the client.
X" INTRODUCTION
Topic 2 will discuss five counselling stages that must be experienced and
understood by each and every counsellor. You will be exposed to types of
activities that occur in each stage of counselling. Then, this topic will explain the
characteristics of stubborn clients. Ways on how to handle this problem will also
be discussed so that the counsellor will be ready and will not hesitate when
facing such a situation. Lastly, students will be given selective sources of
information to get information about clients.
2.1 STAGES IN COUNSELLING

In your opinion, what does the process of counselling mean?
Counselling is a process that develops and changes from one stage to another.
There must be a start, a change to another stage and also an ending. Figure 2.1
shows the development of the process through five stages.

28 X TOPIC 2 THE PROCESS OF COUNSELLING
"
Figure 2.1: Five stages in counselling
Let us discuss this further.

(a)" Building a relationship – The stage to develop a strong basis to create
cooperative sharing between a trained counsellor and a client.
(b)" Starting an exploration – The stage to understand how clients perceive their
problems or to understand their frame of reference.
(c)" Making a decision – The stage to develop an aim for the client which means
the direction that the counsellor plans to guide the client. At this stage, the
counsellor tries to think of the strategies to help his clients.
(d)" Taking an action – The stage where a counsellor attempts to reduce the
level of anxiety or solve the clientÊs problems.
(e)" Ending a session – The stage where the counsellor sums up what has gone
on in the counselling session and its effects.
According to theorists in the field of counselling and psychotherapy, there has

been no consensus on the stages to be gone through in a counselling process or
the distinctive behaviour for each stage. What remains definite among them is
the fact that the process of counselling moves according to the orderly sequence
at each stage. They also feel that the aspect of building relationships is constantly
present throughout the process at each stage.
The stages in the process of counselling are not exclusive, but rather continuous
and sometimes overlap with each other. When a counsellor reaches a stage and
starts to handle the theme of discussion for that specific stage, several elements
from different stages are also present. For example, after welcoming a new

TOPIC 2 THE PROCESS OF COUNSELLING W 29
member (first stage), the counsellor may have many questions such as: „who is
this person? Can we work together? Can we help this person solve her problem?
How long will it take to spend time discussing with this client?‰
At this level, emphasis is given to the various questions that should be discussed
in a certain stage. However, this is not supposed to happen since the issue that
needs attention is related to the first stage – about getting to know the client. The
time factor should also be considered in handling each stage according to
whether the counsellor thinks he should move on to the next stage or not.
Since these stages must develop from the beginning to an end, the theme of
discussion at each level needs to be perfected before moving on to the next
round. If the theme is not met satisfactorily at the early level, it will put the
process of counselling at risk. In other words, the more succinct and complete the
discussion based on the theme is, the more productive the result of the
counselling.
Another important matter to be remembered by the counsellor regarding the

thematic discussion at certain stages is the fact that the counsellor may divert the
focus of discussion to any stage to help stimulate the ongoing discussion. In
addition, the counsellor may also check the clientÊs feelings and thinking, that is,
whether or not the client is consistent.
Other benefits that the counsellor may get by changing the focus of discussion to
certain stages:
(a)" Increasing the counsellorÊs comprehension;
(b)" Avoiding dead-ends;
(c)" Improving relationship;
(d)" Studying clientÊs problems more comprehensively;
(e)" Possibility to change strategies; and
(f)" Changing the topic of discussion.
As a general rule, the process of counselling will not flow as smoothly and
rapidly as expected. Even determining the time range from the start until the end
of the counselling is difficult. There are differences in terms of handling the
process of counselling from one stage to another.

"
The time taken to focus at a certain stage also varies. Some may take longer. In
some cases, you may need a longer time for each stage in order to get a
significant ending; while in others, all the five stages may be covered in just one
session. Anyway, in essence it will last up to several sessions at the very least.
There are also cases where a longer time is given to one or two stages and the
remaining stages take less time.
The counsellor is responsible for handling specific tasks according to the stages
he faces. He is expected to master the skills to surmount the clientÊs problem
according to the needs of stages undergone and eventually produce a significant
counselling process. Some specific counselling tasks related to the stages in the
process of counselling will be elaborated in the next section.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
1." Give some examples of situations to divert the focus of discussion

to certain stages.
2." What are the five important stages that a counsellor needs to
know? List.
2.1.1 Building a Relationship

At the beginning of the counselling process, the counsellor normally does not
know the client. Thus, to seek cooperation from the client, there is a need to form
a good client-counsellor relationship so that the two individuals can build
mutual trust. This task of building a special bond is the first theme and becomes
the focus of discussion. The counsellor is considered successful at this level if he
manages to complete four correlated tasks:
(a) Creating a Conducive Ambience for Interactions

At the start of the counselling process, the client usually doubts himself, the
counsellor as well as the effectiveness of counselling. To make matters
worse, some clients are not even sure what their problem really is. This
state of carefulness can only mean that the client will not be able to openly
respond to the counsellor. The client needs a sense of security, a sense of
trust in other people (counsellor) with the presence of sincerity and respect.
As a counsellor, you are responsible to create a situation that will encourage
openness, sincerity and the feeling that promotes communication. The
client normally needs to feel that he can easily communicate with the
counsellor, to feel that he is accepted and understood in the right way. The

counsellor has to communicate with interest with the client, understand

and respect his feelings, attitudes and problems. This can be achieved by:
(i)" Showing that you are always there to give your full attention and treat
him as someone worth to be respected and appreciated;
(ii)" Listening attentively and trying to feel what he is feeling and to think
of his problem; and
(iii)" Responding to the client thoroughly.
(b) Deciding on the Early Aim

Clients meet counsellors for various reasons. Part of it is to seek assistance
to be enlightened with ways to become a person who can function more
effectively. There are clients who are aware of their problems, but for some
this is not the case. They are confused with the problem, unsure of the
reasons for their feelings and even of their motives of seeing a counsellor.
Clients may express an early problem to the counsellor which is not the
actual problem playing around their mind. The tendency to solve their
problems may vary from being at the poor, moderate or high level.
Whatever it is, the counsellor together with the client need to decide the
actual aim to be achieved by the end of the session.
An early aim may be on agreeing to solve the problem stated at the time.
Apart from that, the counsellor has to listen to the problem and help the
client understand himself and make him aware of the aim of counselling.
(c) Structuring the Relationship

All client-counsellor relationships must be structured so that the client will
have a better view of the way he is going and understand the process of
counselling. At first, it is hard for the client to picture what has happened,
how changes can happen and he may doubt that all of this may actually be
able to help him. As a counsellor, you and the client must both agree on
several things before the session:
(i)" The Counselling Process

To give some comprehension to the client about the process of
counselling, the counsellor needs to know how counselling can help
by explaining the ways of interaction in each session. The counsellor
must also explain their roles of being a counsellor and a client. For
example the counsellor can say, „My role as a counsellor is to help
you think through the relevant issues to make a decision. You can get
as much information as you wish then study and consider it by taking
into account your background and values that you hold‰.

"
(ii)" Explanation on the Things Involved

The counsellor has to provide some explanations so that the client and
counsellor mutually agree on several things that need not be repeated,
such as time and duration of meeting, frequency of meeting and the
accumulated time the entire process would take. Other things include
venue of meeting, indication of the appointment cancellation due to
emergency etc. As an example: „Mr. Sam, weÊll be meeting every
Thursday, 3.00p.m. to 4.50p.m. at Room 2, Student Support Centre,
OUM. If anything comes up, call my office to send a message so that
we can change the session to another time.‰
(iii)" Confidentiality
The aspect of confidentiality must be stated for example „What do
you say within the session will not be repeated. The recording of this
session is only for me to refer this case to my mentor‰.
The application of the counselling structuring must be handled in an

appropriate way. Everything depends on the current situation, clientsÊ
needs and types of problems to be projected. Normally a counsellor will do
the structuring in general and then add information during the session. If
the counsellor is so focused on the aspect of structuring, chances are, the
client might be more worried. However, if there is a lack of structuring,
most likely the client will have a false perception about the entire process of
counselling.
(d) Building Trust

A counsellor needs to show a highly ethical set of behaviours throughout
the counselling process. At the beginning of the counselling, the counsellor
should have explained all the confidentiality claims and his level of
expertise. All these can be explained by the time structuring is explained.
As a matter of fact, the counsellor must think about behaving ethically as he
handles the client during the counselling session and also in other sessions.
This serves to gain the clientÊs trust.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Why is confidentiality important in counselling? What is the effect on

the client if there is no confidentiality?

2.1.2 Exploration
At this stage, the counsellor needs to help his or her client focus on exploring,
understanding and analysing his or her self-perception and perception of the
problem. To understand the client and his or her internal frame of reference, the
counsellor needs to scrutinise several elements as follows:
(a)" Exploring the scope of the clientÊs problem as widely as possible;
(b)" Analysing the clientÊs function in his daily life;
(c)" Understanding the clientÊs way of thinking and way of changing and the
extent of difficulty to change (stubbornness); and
(d)" Recognising the clientÊs inner strength and how he can gain outer strength.
During this stage, the counsellor may help the client change his shallow
consciousness regarding his problem to a deeper awareness that demands the
help of counselling.
(a) Scope of the Problem

The main task of the counsellor at this level is to understand why the client
has come to see him. To ensure the smooth flow of the process of exploring,
the counsellor and client need to:
(i)" Recognise if the problem faced now is the actual problem;
(ii)" Recognise the context and environment of the time and place as the
problem occurred;
(iii)" Evaluate the condition, the level of seriousness and how long the
problem has taken place;
(iv)" Evaluate how far the problem has involved other people especially
those close to him; and
(v)" Estimate how a small change towards improvement in the clientÊs life
can affect those close to him.
The process of exploring will be more effective if the counsellor listens

actively, gives explanations to the issues shared with him, supports and
encourages the client and treats him as an individual worthy to be
respected. The questions meant for the client also need to be open-ended in
nature and the counsellor has to be careful to make sure that the client does
not show a sense of dependency on him. It is also good if the counsellor
avoids interrogative-like styles.

"
(b) ClientÊs Level of Functioning

To understand the clientÊs internal frame of reference, the way he functions
and has handled problems in his life previously may be considered. When a
client shares his stories during his self-exploration, the counsellor can make
a professional conclusion whether his client has:
(i)" Undergone progress in life with minimum problem;
(ii)" Successfully met physiological, psychological and social needs;
(iii)" Functioned at the appropriate cognitive level;
(iv)" Had positive relationships with the people close to him;
(v)" Maintained a good self-adaptation when dealing with conflict,
disappointment and challenges in life; and
(vi)" Constantly projected proper behavioural patterns.
Looking at the clientÊs behaviour from several aspects will provide the
counsellor and also the client with an insight on how the client functions in
several dimensions in life.
(c) ClientÊs Life Pattern

A counsellor may want to help a client to explore while understanding the
clientÊs way of solving previous problems with the problems faced
currently. For example, the counsellor may obtain some information from
the client on how he managed to resolve his previous problems – whether
he discussed them with those close to him, looked for more detailed
information to explain several issues, tried new experiences or played new
roles, changed his surrounding or whether he took chances when facing
something vague in the future.
This exploration process may express the clientÊs refusal to handle his
problem or his trouble in going through the problem-solving process. At
this stage, the counsellor temporarily thinks up or prepares a plan or
strategy to help client at the other stages.
(d) Strength and Sources of Strength

The internal strength that a person possesses and the sources where he
could gain this strength need to be explored. To understand the clientÊs
scope of strength, he needs to accept the fact that he is having a problem
and he is responsible to solve it apart from being aware of his strengths and
weaknesses and getting to know his external sources of strength and
inspiration.

Helping the client to be aware that he has the responsibility to overcome his
problem is crucial in counselling. The way the counsellor treats and
responds to the client greatly influences his acceptance of thinking, emotion
and behaviour. If the client accepts that the counsellor is someone who
cares and is a trustworthy person, he will gradually become less defensive
and will be more open towards self-exploration and understanding.
ACTIVITY 2.2
How can the clientÊs history pattern play a role in helping the
counsellor handle him?
2.1.3 Decision making

At this level, there are two correlated tasks that have to be done; the counselling
aim has to be mutually agreed by both the counsellor and the client and the
counsellor needs to decide on the approach and strategies that will be
implemented.
The aim made at the first and second level may need some restructuring and
refinement. It is crucial for the counsellor and client to have concurred with each
other on the aim to be achieved by the end of the session. If no agreement is
reached, the movement toward achieving the aims will be put at risk since you as
a counsellor will focus more on solving a certain matter while at the same time
the client feels a certain other matter needs to be prioritised.
Deciding on a specific aim is not easy. There are clients who propose various
issues that thwart them to function effectively. In a situation as such, the
counsellor is recommended to divert his attention to the problem stopping the
clients from being comfortable. You may turn this situation into an aim which is
to achieve comfort after undergoing the counselling process. At the very least, it
helps the client create an achievable aim and the counselling process can be done
within a short period.
Achieving the aim of counselling can only be made possible if tasks in the earlier
stages have been well-performed. There are several variables pertaining to the
client, counsellor and the environment that can influence the aim of counselling
and the specific strategies applied.
(a) Variables of the Client

The characteristics of a client that really influence the aim of counselling
and the selection of counselling approach cover:
"
(i)" Type of Problem

For instance, does the client possess low interpersonal skills or is he
incapable of making a decision?
(ii)" The IndividualÊs Problem Solving Pattern
For instance, is it common for the client to let other people solve his
problem or is he thinking about his problem too much that he is too
numb to react?
(iii)" Demographic Factor
For example, is age, sex or socio-economic background related to the
clientÊs qualification to enrol in a college or to obtain a scholarship?
(iv)" Personality Factor
For example, the client who is dependent differs in the way of
handling problems as compared to the one who is independent.
(v)" Cultural Background
For instance, the application of certain counselling techniques for an
ethnic group may not be suitable for the others and may even create a
conflict, for instance, the self-disclosure technique.
(b) Variables of the Counsellor

The variables of the counsellor that influence the choice of techniques or
approaches include:
(i)" Knowledge in Cognition
For example, this includes theories and research regarding
motivation, cognition, relationship, adaptation, behaviour and
personality.
(ii)" Knowledge and Experience of Using Various Counselling Approaches
For instance, this involves behaviourism, person-centred approach
and existentialism.
(iii)" High Level of Responding and Communication Skills
These include guiding skills, responding orally and communication
skills in a specific role.
(c) Variables of the Environment

The setting or the counsellorÊs workplace (school, university, rehabilitation
centres or hospital) may more or less influence counselling in terms of its
aims and strategies. A counsellor of a certain institution will be limited to
applying only a few aims as he is subject to achieving the counselling aim
demanded by the institution. For example, a school counsellor with a client
who has difficulty in studying because his father is an alcoholic applies the
aim to help him study more effectively at home.

ACTIVITY 2.3
A client is always suffering from workplace stress. As a counsellor, you

want to help your client reduce the stress. Which variable do you think is
the most influential toward the aim and strategies used in the decision-
making process?
2.1.4 Enforcement
Enforcement within this context refers to applying the suitable counselling
approach. The main task at this stage is to help the client solve his problem and
guide him so that he can function more effectively. The client needs emotional
support, encouragement and reinforcement to something that is newly learned.
The counsellor may use a certain approach or several approaches that he has
mastered.
Nevertheless, the approach to be chosen must be based on certain strategies that

emphasise on improving the clientÊs mental functions, his welfare, emotions or
improving his ability to behave more appropriately. Thus, the counselling
strategies used will focus on cognition, affection or behaviour.
If the counsellor feels that his client needs help to get factual information or the
client needs help to make a decision or if the client shows an unreasonable way
of thinking, the emphasis should be given on the cognitive aspect.
If the client shows lack of self-belief, feels that he is being neglected or has
problems in attitude, belief, emotion and values of life, emphasis should be given
on the aspect of affections. Problems that start from the clientÊs behaviour such as
having a sharp tongue may be helped by focusing on the behaviour. In essence,
the counsellor will be using all three human domains: cognition, affection and
behaviour throughout the counselling session.
Apart from that, there are several things that influence the enforcement stage
namely the influence of close parties, other sources of help and brochure
preparation as shown in Figure 2.2.

"
Figure 2.2: Factors influencing the effectiveness of counselling
(a) Influence of Close Parties

This phrase is commonly found in this topic. Normally, it is the close
parties or companions who have a great impact on the client and it is
important for him to remember them in the session. Those close to the client
include his parents, spouse, siblings, lover, children and many other
important people.
The process of counselling often involves questions regarding those close to

the client. If it is suspected that the current problem is connected to the
clientÊs interaction with those close to him, the client should be asked to
interact differently with them as a strategy. There are times when the
counsellor may involve those close to the client in the counselling.
(b) Additional Sources of Help

Though this method is not widely practised in Malaysia, the public should
consider the potential that can be garnered by increasing the involvement
of other institutions as additional sources of help. This may bring positive
effects in counselling. The client may be referred to other institutions in the
community such as hospitals, dentists, religious departments and others to
get specific help if it has been identified that the client may need it. Local
universities with experts and counselling professionals or special education
professionals can also play a role as additional sources of help. Moreover,
this extra help may benefit the client to gather important information to
help the process of counselling. Examples of reference are as follows:
(i)" You are a school counsellor and your client wants to get some
information about a specific job selection. You can ask the client to
interview a specific someone with the post of her preference such as
an architect, pilot and other suitable career. This will not only fulfil
the need for information by the client, but will also develop research
habits if guided according to the right way.
(ii)" A confused client who does not know how to choose a major at the
university can be referred to a lecturer to discuss courses of her
interest.
(iii)" A student who suffers from headache when writing or reading a
signboard may be referred to an eye specialist or a hospital to confirm
the possibility of visual problems.
Within these three examples, it is hoped that the counsellor can encourage
the passion for information-seeking behaviour. If this habit can be
encouraged, other sources of reference in the community may benefit.
(c) Brochure Preparation

Reading materials and references may serve to help the counsellor in the
process of counselling. Newspaper cuttings, magazines and books
regarding certain topics can be used to help the client search for
information regarding the problem faced. The counsellor must be a keen
reader and must be able to prepare the brochures that may be helpful to the
client one day.
2.1.5 Ending a Counselling Session

The fifth and last stage is very important as this is where the focus on three
elements needs to be achieved:
(a) The progress that has been achieved throughout the counselling must be
summed up and the effects be evaluated;
(b) Other issues that need to be solved around this time must be stated; and
(c) Ways of maintaining the clientÊs growth after the end of the counselling
need to be considered.
All the three tasks, if done successfully, may lead to sheer satisfaction to the
client and it signals the ending of the counselling. If the tasks are not completed,
there will be a halt in the growth which has been developed along the process.

"
Evaluating whether the aim of the counselling has actually been achieved will
not be determined by the client and counsellor. The main responsibility to
achieve this task is held by the client. She may be requested to prepare a progress
report that shows the extent and how the aim has been achieved. One way is for
the client to state how she has been going through new behavioural changes, the
behavioural modification she is experiencing now or how far she has been able to
control herself within the context of those close and dear to her. Finally, the
counsellor has to orally sum up what has happened and why it happened. This
summing up session also enhances the achieving of the counselling aim.
In order to determine the clientÊs readiness to end counselling, an evaluation on

the functionality of the client in general is needed. Are there any other issues that
need to be stated now? Another different matter that calls for attention by the
counsellor is the dependency of the client toward him. What happens too often is
the dependency of the client on the counsellor that goes over the limit and where
the client expects that the relationship will be maintained.
The clientÊs feelings and behaviours that indicate dependency on the counsellor
must be treated before the session ends. This clearly shows that not all problems
can actually be solved. The client needs to be reminded that he will have
problems functioning to the maximum in his life. However, if all the objectives of
the counselling have been agreed by the counsellor and the client, the process of
ending the counselling may begin.
The final task of the counsellor at this stage is to prepare a method whereby the
growth and changes that occur may be continued by the client herself. Among
the methods are:
(a)" Organising a follow-up session; and
(b)" Forming a self-observable plan and practising together on how the plan can
be self-observed.
These two methods can enhance the clientÊs confidence and may serve as a
support system.
The level of ending the counselling is usually not easy, but when all assignments
have been taken at this stage, the client will be ready to stop. Within this stage, the
client needs to be informed that the relationship has not ended, but just slowed
down. The client should be encouraged to return whenever he needs help.
All in all, the counsellor should be able to handle a client according to the stages
discussed. To produce a successful counselling session, the counsellor may not
necessarily handle the client for a long period.There are cases which are quite
simple to handle and bring forward satisfactory results. However, at times the

counsellor may have to endure uncooperative and difficult clients. This type of
clients need time and strategy or an appropriate approach. They are a challenge
for any counsellor, however, the experience may help to polish his skills in
becoming a professional counsellor.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
When is the right time to end a session? Who should determine it, the
client or counsellor? Is there any sign that we can use to find out if we
can end the counselling session?
2.2 UNCOOPERATIVE CLIENTS

As a rule, clients come to see a counsellor voluntarily. They realise the fact that
they are going through a discomforting period in their life. Thus, they are
motivated to get professional help and experience the counselling process as well
as to make a commitment to change. However, at certain times, clients are
referred to a counsellor without their consent.
Those forced to attend a counselling session by an authority may express

stubbornness and unwillingness to commit. Most clients in this category are
those admitted into certain public institutions such as the rehabilitation centres,
detention centres, schools for problem students and so on. There are several
issues that the counsellor faces with clients who come to meet up voluntarily and
involuntarily.
SELF-CHECK 2.3
30" Briefly state the features of each stage of counselling."

2." What are the characteristics of uncooperative clients?
2.2.1 Difficult and Uncommitted Clients

Difficult clients are unmotivated clients who refuse to seek help from anyone. If
left unattended, these individuals will not ask for or talk to a counsellor. This
group of clients does not believe that counselling is a logical and realistic approach.
At schools or any other institutions, the unwilling clients are students who have
been referred due to their low academic performance, disciplinary issues or
"
unacceptable behaviours. At the rehabilitation centres and other community

agencies, difficult clients are those sent by parents who have given up in their
attempt to change the clientsÊ behaviours. In some cases, the clients are sent by
other agencies, such as courts, due to some crimes committed by them.
Uncommitted clients will not cooperate in the process of counselling due to

several reasons. Most clients assume that the counselling session invades their
self-concept which they hold comfortably enough for the moment. They believe
that they are functioning properly. Whatever moves portrayed that show their
willingness to change or get help picture a failure or weakness. Some even
assume that a counsellor is a part of an incompatible system which they feel must
be avoided.
There are some from this group who refuse to make changes to their problem
behaviours as this would involve the change of status in their group and this is
certainly unfavourable. Some, on the other hand, think that the counsellor wants
to change their lifestyles and dominate them; hence the manifestation of the
feeling that their freedom is being threatened. At times, there are clients who
come from a culture that does not encourage private discussion about oneÊs self
with other people let alone with a counsellor.
The clientÊs refusal to cooperate with the counsellor can be expressed in a few
ways. A difficult client may end up being quiet, not answering the questions or
showing indifference to a discussion. When he tries to cooperate, it may be as far
as nodding or talking indifferently. A novice counsellor who is not quite ready to
deal with this type of clients may fall into the trap of asking uncontrolled
questions or making the session look like an interrogation or an investigation.
This is certainly unproductive and will lead to a state of hostility.
Another group of uncooperative clients is the group that avoids meeting a

counsellor. Physically they seem to be cooperative, but are always late or miss an
appointment and even pretend to forget that they have an appointment. They are
ready to discuss any issue other than the actual problem they are facing.
The way they avoid discussing important issues is evident from how they
answer questions i.e. focusing on trivial things that they exaggerate, and all of a
sudden changing the topic of discussion to something irrelevant. Some may
deliberately forget to complete the task given and keep the counsellor waiting for
their presence. Refusal of discussion is also shown by giving excuses for their
actions – for such clients, everything that goes wrong has its reasons. Some other
indications are as the following:

(a)" Being irresponsible for their actions;

(b)" Always complaining about everything;
(c)" Showing the tendency of dependence;
(d)" Employing the self-defense mechanism;
(e)" Rebellious streak;
(f)" Tendency to criticise;
(g)" Tendency to talk with a sharp tongue; and
(h)" Intolerance.
Carrying out counselling sessions with difficult or unwilling and uncommitted

clients is tough for a counsellor and may be burdensome for the novice. Often
when dealing with such a situation, the counsellor may blame himself for the
failure, or even worse, would question his qualifications and credentials as a
counsellor.
When there seems to be no progress in the counselling session, the counsellor

may once again fall into the trap as he becomes impatient; ignoring any signs
from the clients and eventually stopping the interaction with the clients. This will
certainly add on to the clientsÊ refusal to meet and talk to their counsellor.
To handle these clients, there are some guidelines recommended for the
counsellor:
(a)" Accept the Fact about the Level of Achievement in the Counselling
Firstly, the counsellor has to be ready to accept the truth that there is not
much progress that can be achieved with this type of client and you must
not be let down when meeting dead-ends in the session. It may help if you
ask yourselves these questions:
(i)" Did the client come voluntarily or was he referred by an authority?
(ii)" Do you expect this counselling session to be productive or do you
expect it to be slow?
(iii)" Do you look forward to working together with this client or will
you have trouble with him defending his self-concept?
(iv)" Is there any connection between the clientÊs refusal to cooperate
with his socio-cultural background?

"
(b)" Put Realistic Expectation

The expectation to succeed in handling the counselling session has to be
realistic so that the counsellor will not feel stressed out. Here, the process of
communication may be of help. The clients need to feel respected and safe.
It is worth noting that if the clients feel that the counsellor is on their side, it
is easy for them to come clean. Whatever techniques or approaches planned
to be implemented, the counsellor needs to give more attention to the
clientÊs self-comprehension. The main thing that whirls around the
uncooperative clientÊs head is the issue of oneÊs self.
(c)" Understand ClientÊs Refusal

The predisposition of the clientÊs refusal needs to be handled when the
element is detected within a discussion. You, as a counsellor, need to
understand the reason this refusal arises while trying to make the client
aware that this behaviour is really unproductive for him and to take action
to reduce this behaviour. You have to show your presence in their every
aspect of communication, approving their feelings and every now and then
and interpreting the portrayed behaviour.
Interpretation of the behaviour can be done in many ways. For example,

you may say, „Indeed, weÊll be more comfortable if we keep it a secret and
if we talk about something personal it may leave us feeling awkward and
sometimes might even be painful; I take it, your refusal to talk about this
important issue is a sign that you donÊt want this problem to be resolved‰;
and use other reasonable methods.
(d)" The CounsellorÊs Responses need to be Right

Finally, it is hoped that the counsellor does not express his intolerance
dealing with this kind of client as it will just add more to his anxiety.
Remember that the clients who come to meet the counsellor voluntarily or
involuntarily are facing problems.
To the clients, the problem they face is a fact for them. A committed
counsellor will try to see how his clients perceive their problem and this is
closely connected to the process of exploration in counselling. The
counsellor who is able to communicate his qualities as someone who is
willing to accept the other and genuinely wants to help and understand,
will sooner or later invade the boundary of the difficult clientÊs mind.
"
SELF-CHECK 2.4
Who are difficult clients? List their characteristics.

2.2.2 Difficult but Committed Clients

Difficult but committed clients usually come to meet the counsellor voluntarily
and they are willing to develop good relationship with the counsellor apart from
being involved in the counselling process, but they will never change their
feelings, thinking and behaviours which have led them to problems previously.
The stubbornness of the clients in making decisions, being aware of signs of
problems and refusing to get rid off the unproductive behaviour will disappoint
the counsellor.
Some may think that this stubbornness occurs in all types of counselling and each
client more or less will show stubbornness to a certain extent. A novice
counsellor has to be careful in dealing with this situation and should always try
to understand the underlying reason for the clientsÊ responses, imagine it to
happen and seek solutions when it happens.
Sometimes clients who have attended the counselling session may not indicate
any change. Some of the contributory factors suggested by experts in the field of
counselling are as follows:
(a)" Many clients are afraid of checking on themselves and issues related to the
problems they face;
(b)" Learning about oneÊs weaknesses and having to change course of actions,
expressing oneÊs feelings and changing the way of thinking are simply too
terrifying;
(c)" They are not really confident with themselves and do not easily trust
others, particularly a counsellor;
(d)" Some of them are afraid of changes. They are happy with where they are
now and are not willing to change their lifestyles; and
(e)" Some may not be able to expect what may happen in counselling and
expect for some spontaneous solutions to come.
A counsellor dealing with uncooperative clients who refuse to develop their self-
potential must be acquainted with strategies of self-control. Otherwise, the
counsellor may react against the actual intention which is to help other people
with their problems. As a result, the counsellor himself becomes a new problem!
How do we identify moments when the client expresses some behaviours that
reflect their stubbornness and refusal to cooperate? Normally, the clients are not
aware that they are sabotaging the counsellor. It happens subconsciously.
ClientsÊ stubbornness can be seen if the request to hear them talk is met with a
deafening silence or if the clients pretend to look tired and weak or forget to

"
complete their task. Some clients also try to avoid talking about themselves and
express defensiveness and some might even argue with the counsellor. Thus, a
counsellor needs to learn to handle such clients.
ACTIVITY 2.4
Your client is constantly complaining and giving countless reasons every

time she needs to see you for an appointment. What do you as a
counsellor have to do to attract the client to cooperate?
2.2.3 Dealing with Difficult Clients

It is crucial for a counsellor to learn ways in handling difficult clients. Some
recommendations are to:
(a) Avoid Negative Reactions

The counsellor must be able to anticipate such a situation and avoid
showing anger and hostility when it does happen. Try to avoid being
defensive and bombard the client with baseless accusations. The counsellor
has to be able to perceive the stubbornness as a sign that the client is ready
to express something slowly and is just not ready to explore deeper matters.
(b) Accept the Client

The counsellor has to show that he accepts the client by respecting, taking
care and really looking forward to help the client. Give it some time to win
her heart and develop a non-threatening environment.
(c) Never Give Up

The counsellor must be very patient and must not get carried away when
faced with an anxious situation. It is also crucial for a counsellor not to lose
hope and feel down about anything that affects him.
(d) Understand the Reasons for Failure

The counsellor has to understand the actual reason that turns the client into
a difficult and uncooperative person.
(i)" Is there anything that would benefit the client if she does not change?
(ii)" Would there be any loss if the client does change?
(e) Overcome Stubbornness Positively

When facing an uncooperative client, the counsellor needs to handle her in
a constructive and favourable manner.

Some views suggest that if the stubbornness is not too serious, the counsellor
simply needs to ignore that matter; but if it is serious, the counsellor may need to
change the flow of the discussion to another issue that will not promote hostility.
If the client is experiencing a high-level of anxiety and is hesitant to talk further,
the counsellor is recommended to shift the theme of the discussion to something
more interesting and humorous. This is to ensure that the client continues to
interact with the counsellor.
The counsellor has to help the client understand her stubbornness and state the
conflict and contradiction present as part of the way to handle the counselling
process. With that, the client may cooperate even if it takes a longer time and this
will help the counsellor obtain information needed to get on with the counselling.
ACTIVITY 2.5
State the reasons why clients who turn out to be stubborn yet
committed with counselling refuse to change.
2.3 SEEKING INFORMATION ABOUT CLIENT

This section serves to suggest several ways that a counsellor can make use of in
obtaining important information about his client. Though general information of
the client can be deduced from the oral question-and-answer session along with
the interaction, it is common to get some details before and during counselling
session with other methods. Some common methods are:
(a) Knowing the Client Personally Before the Counselling Session

Sometimes the counsellor knows the background of the client even before
the session. Counsellors who serve at schools, colleges or any other
institutions with counselling services may have encountered the clients in
many situations. Information such as this may also quicken discussion at
the stage of developing relationship and may even help at the stage of
exploration. As a counsellor, you need to tell her what you know about her
in the beginning of the session to confirm the validity of the observation.
(b) Statements from People Close to the Client

Statements about the client can be in the form of written or oral report
either briefly or elaborately from a professional or those who know her
personally. Many kinds of report can be used as reference. Medical reports,
for instance, can provide information about the types of difficulties faced by
the client like asthma, headache or injury from accidents. Reports from the

"
teachers are also helpful. For example: „Amin is a quiet student in the class
and he rarely mixes with the other kids‰, „Lilian is weak in all her subjects
but shows exceptional performance in English‰.
(c) Investigating the ClientÊs Life Background

Normally before the counselling session starts, the client is required to fill
in some personal particulars to get an overview about her background. The
purpose is to obtain a comprehensive description of the client that can be
used at the stage of exploration.
Questions in the form are usually helpful statements like:
(i)" Details of age, sex, height and weight;

(ii)" Address and contact number;
(iii)" Details of the family, marital status, children, parents and siblings;
(iv)" Education background, school, college and highest qualifications;
(v)" Previous and current job, previous and current employers;
(vi)" Hobbies and interests;
(vii)" Medical history if there is any disease to be put under special concern; and
(viii)"Problems faced now, the reasons and the actions taken so far, whether
the client has ever received any counselling services before this.
(d) Observation within Specific Situation

To better understand the client, it is suggested that the counsellor
investigate the environment where the clientÊs problem starts. This is done
especially by counsellors with clients in specific institutions such as at
school or at a workplace. For example, the counsellor can visit the
classroom and observe how the client interacts with her peers. The
counsellor can also observe her playing at the playground during recess
and watch her function during frolics.
(e) Observation on Non-oral Behaviours

Part of observing the client is by looking at the way she acts. Her body
language can give you meaningful information if watched closely. You may
have experienced it before. SomeoneÊs body language may be expressing
validity, approval, denial, anger, indifference, passion etc. The facial
expression portrayed and the physiological responses such as sweating can
express someoneÊs emotion when discussing a sensitive topic. Several non-
verbal communication reactions from the client that can be observed are as
follows:

(i)" Sudden changes of facial expression (paleness or blushing),

breathlessness;
(ii)" Body movement, eye contact, smile, pulling faces, hand gesture; and
(iii)" Personal look such as the style of dressing, adorning oneÊs self,
putting on perfume.
The counsellor needs to be alert in regards to these non-verbal behaviours

and try to deduce their meaning in the context of speech and the
environment that it is taking place in.
•" The five stages in counselling are building a relationship; starting an

exploration; making a decision; taking an action; and ending a session.
•" Several key concepts are also explained for a counsellor to use in order to
handle uncooperative, difficult clients. Some recommendations are to avoid
negative reaction; accept the client; never give up; understand reasons for
failure; and overcome stubbornness positively.
•" As a counsellor, the five methods to obtain information regarding the client
so as to make interaction simpler are:
–" Knowing the client personally before the counselling session;
–" Statements from people close to the client;
–" Investigating the clientÊs life background;
–" Observation within specific situation; and
–" Observation on non-oral behaviours.
Decision making Problem solving

Difficult clients Relationship structure
Enforcement Stages in counselling
Exploration

Topic X Communication
" " "
"
"
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3
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" Skills
"
"
"
"
" LEARNING OUTCOMES
1." Describe the early preparations required prior to counselling;
2." Explain the procedures of a counselling consultation session;
3." Describe the types of non-verbal behaviour and how to interpret
them;
4." Explain how non-verbal behaviour can influence counselling and the
client; and
" 5." Describe the seven basic communication skills required to be an
" expert counsellor.
"
X" INTRODUCTION
This topic will explain the scenario that takes place in the counselling process, to
make it easier for the counsellor to comprehend how to initiate counselling as
well as to prepare the environment and the basic skills which must be acquired at
the initial stage of counselling. Before beginning counselling, the counsellor must
make early preparations on the procedures of providing a suitable place, the
clientÊs recruitment procedure (problematic students) and giving assurance and
guarantee to client that the conversation during counselling sessions is highly
confidential. Moreover, there will be an explanation on the specific skills which
are the basis in all counselling approaches to produce the therapeutic effect.

TOPIC 3 COMMUNICATION SKILLS W 51
3.1 LEARNING THE COUNSELLING SKILLS

A counsellor shapes his counselling skills through learning and applying them.
The learning process focuses on cognitive learning, where the counsellor reads
books, attends lectures, attends seminars and joins in discussions with other
people who are interested in fields related to counselling and psychology. The
counsellor needs to take the opportunity to observe demonstrations on how
specific approaches in counselling are implemented. Nowadays, there are many
video and audio tapes which are produced specifically to train counsellors.
The application process focuses on direct practice. A counsellor has the chance to
carry out the actions of another counsellor who is his role model. Through this
process also, the client shapes his skills by practising to give appropriate
responses and acquiring feedback from classmates on the pattern of his
behaviour. The counsellor will get feedback from his supervisor on the
counselling practice conducted whether in the form of acting (role play), or
counselling with the real client.
It is normal for a counsellor to feel bewildered at the initial stage of the

counselling application practice. The counsellor might possess the knowledge of
various counselling theories which was read or learnt during lectures. The
counsellor might also be able to discuss intellectually the differences between one
theory and another. However, to be an effective counsellor, he must develop his
communication skill, a highly important skill in counselling. This skill cannot be
inculcated merely through reading and lectures. It must be practised and trained.
Counselling involves the dynamic communication process between two

individuals who interact with each other as shown in Figure 3.1. The interaction
process is a joint effort. The counsellor and client carry specific responsibilities,
roles and behaviours. The counsellor is responsible for providing the appropriate
environment and atmosphere, so as to motivate the client to change.
Figure 3.1: The dynamic communication process between the counsellor and client

52 X TOPIC 3 COMMUNICATION SKILLS
"
When the counselling session starts, the main aim of the counsellor is to build an
intimate relationship to create a calm environment, or an environment which is
regarded as having therapeutic characteristics. The existence of this environment
depends on the counsellorÊs personality, which is how far a counsellor can
communicate the characteristics as discussed in the Topics 1 and 2.
Nevertheless, there are several important skills a counsellor must be able to

perform so that the counsellor-client interaction is prolific. The skills discussed
here are observing non-verbal behaviour, using attending behaviours, open
questioning and „listening‰ to the unexpressed utterances and summarisations.
These skills will be elaborated in the next section.
3.2 EARLY PREPARATIONS

Early preparation is important before a counsellor meets his client. This early
preparation will assist the counsellor in running a smooth session.
3.2.1 Meeting Environment

One of the things that must be taken into consideration is the meeting place. One
study conducted on room size, reported that the size of the room can influence
the counselling process. For example, a smaller room effectuates clients to make
less positive statements referring to the client himself.
In another study, it was found that the client felt more at ease in pouring his
heart out to the counsellor if the room décor showed tenderness (such as the use
of pastel colours) if compared to the room which seems taut (such as using vivid
colours like red). Studies on the arrangement of seating shows that the client who
is dependent and easily gives up will choose a farther seat from the counsellor
compared to the client who is confident, dominant and free-spirited. Please look
at Figure 3.2 for examples of a counsellorÊs room.
Even though these studies show the relationship between the environment and
the effectiveness of counselling, however, a counsellor usually does not have any
power in getting an ideal room. In certain schools for instance, counsellors are
not equipped with a special counselling room. Meetings for counselling purposes
are conducted in any unused room.

(a)" (b)
Figure 3.2: (a) Individual counselling room;
(b) Group counselling room.
A counsellor must realise that the meeting between the counsellor and client
might cause strain and fear. A client must be provided with an atmosphere
which makes the client feels safe and comfortable. The conversation between the
client and counsellor must not be heard by people who pass by the room.
Usually, the counsellor will prepare a place which is modest, cheerful, with no
barriers between the clientÊs seating and the counsellorÊs seating, such as a table
or other furniture. We should also remember that too many decorations in a
room could shift the clientÊs focus away from his or her counsellor.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Since many schools do not have special counselling rooms, what are the
appropriate places to conduct counselling session in school? How can a
counsellor make these places safe and comfortable for his or her clients?
3.2.2 Client Recruitment Procedure

Normally, a client starts the counselling session by filling out a form on his
background. Some counsellors make it compulsory for the client to fill out certain
forms first, such as a career or personality test if the counsellor feels that it will
help the client. In several higher educational institutes, the process of client
recruitment, apart from the above tests, also involves a short interview which is
usually conducted by the counsellorÊs assistant. The counsellor in school does not
have to execute these formal procedures as there is insufficient time.
The recruitment procedure is necessary in acquiring the clientÊs case history. A

client case history includes factual information on past and present experiences
SELF CHECK 3.3
"
related to the clientÊs career and might also be related to early childhood
experiences.
3.2.3 Counsellor and Confidentiality

Everything which is discussed in the counselling session is confidential. A
counsellor is responsible to respect and keep the clientÊs secrets, unless there is
written consent to do the opposite. The relationship between the counsellor and
the client is unique. The clients should feel at ease discussing with the counsellor
things which are emotional as well as things that causes fear and anxiety, which
have usually been kept to the client himself or herself all this while.
As long as the client puts his trust and hope in the counsellor and the counsellor
respects the client by keeping his secrets, there will be faith. In conclusion,
because there exists a close connection between trust and confidentiality, the
counsellor must always respect the clientÊs rights, and not spread his confidential
information to other people, unless with the clientÊs consent.
A counsellor must also appear as a person who can be counted on in building the
clientÊs trust, and by adhering to the promises to meet or by being courteous. A
counsellor who is not on time for the consultation session will be perceived by
the client as an unreliable counsellor.
ACTIVITY 3.2
Provide examples of your own on how a counsellor can appear as
someone who is trustworthy and dependable.
3.3 FIRST COUNSELLING CONSULTATION

To conduct a counselling session, there are specific means and procedures which
must be followed. The process moves from one phase to another in an expected
sequence. There is the beginning, the middle and the ending. Thus, a counsellor
needs to know the appropriate procedure, which is how to begin, continue and
end the session. Figure 3.3 shows the procedures of a counselling consultation:

Figure 3.3: Consultation procedure
3.3.1 Beginning a Session

In this section, we will discuss on how to begin a counselling session, either as a
trainee counsellor or an expert counsellor. After the counsellor is introduced to
the client, it is best for the counsellor to address the client using his name at least
once. The counsellor can take some time (a few minutes) to have small talk with
the client to lessen his anxiety and worry. However, do not spend a lot of time in
small talk, as it could shift the clientÊs focus away from the real issue.
A counsellor might want to begin the counselling session by making statements

as below:
(a)" „We have about 30 minutes. Would you please tell me what you want to
talk about with me which I might be able to help you with?‰
(b)" „We are given about one hour of time. If there is anything that you want to
share with me, just tell me about it.‰
(c)" „Would you please tell me what you expect from a counsellor? We have
about 45 minutes.‰
(d)" „Please tell me how I can help you. We have 30 minutes.‰

"
If you look at it, the examples given are actually establishing structure. First, the
client is given the idea of the time limit. Second, the counsellor makes a statement
which shows that the responsibility of directing the consultation is the clientÊs
duty and it is up to the client to use the time given appropriately.
Clients who are sent by a third party, such as parents or the court, are usually
more anxious and most of the time they are less cooperative in the counselling
session. A situation like this requires the counsellor to make extra preparations.
What is most vital is that the counsellor is able to convey his understanding and
regard towards the client. In this case, the counsellor might try to retrieve
information from the client, which is what caused him to be referred to the
counsellor in the first place. After that, the counsellor lets the client choose the
topic of conversation which is not stressful to him.
The counsellor must be careful to avoid prejudice towards the problems faced by
the client. This will prevent the counsellor from giving unpleasant remarks to the
client. For example, if the client is referred to the counsellor because he was
involved in a fight at the school field, a counsellor must not let his prejudice (a
student who fights is often malevolent, a cheater, aggressive, etc.) influence the
way he communicates with the client such as reprimanding or pestering him and
showing lack of interest.
ACTIVITY 3.3
A student, Amin has threatened his teacher, Siti. En. Baharum, the
principal has ordered Amin to go through a counselling session with
you. This is his first session. Imagine how you are going to conduct the
session. Do the role-play with your classmate. Get feedback from other
classmates or the tutor.
3.3.2 Structuring the Consultation Session

A counsellor must be careful of the aspects of structuring the consultation session
and on the long term counselling relationship. Structuring the consultation is
important to the client, because it will show the client what happens in a
counselling session. Clients often have wrong impressions towards counselling.
Some clients assume that counselling can heal illnesses, solve problems quickly,
and some people consider a counsellor as someone who gives advice. Many
people presume that the success of counselling depends solely on the counsellor.
All these unrealistic beliefs need to be justified at the initial stage, before the
counselling session is continued further.

During the first meeting, the counsellor must clarify these matters to the client:
(a)" Role of a counsellor;
(b)" Role of a client;
(c)" ClientÊs purpose of meeting the counsellor; and
(d)" Confidentiality in counselling.
These statements must be made as simple as possible. The counsellor can start
the inquiry as what is proposed, such as what urged the client to seek help from
the counsellor, and what is expected to be achieved as the counselling goal.
After listening attentively to the clientÊs rationalisation, then only can the
counsellor react to the clientÊs expectations. After that, the consultation can be
carried on with the topic or subject that the client has chosen.
During this first meeting, the counsellor must use the time given to the client,
and set up the time according to what has been agreed so that it will be a part of
the structuring process. The duration of consultation normally depends on the
age of the client and the atmosphere in which the counselling service is
conducted. As a guideline, for students between eight to 12 years old, the time
duration for counselling is between 30 to 45 minutes. For students twelve years
and above, it might take about 45 minutes to an hour.
The counsellor must inform the client that the consultation will take about 30
minutes, for instance, at the initial stage of the counselling session. This
information is important. This is because the client needs to understand that
there is a time limit to express his problems and the client needs to use the time
wisely by discussing the relevant matters only. Counsellors who do not explain
the time limit to the clients often encounter clients who try to express their
problems at length which make the clients angry when the session ends. This is
considered as unproductive for both parties.
To prevent this from happening, the counsellor must inform his client, during the
middle of the consultation session, the remaining time so that the client has the
chance to explore matters which are more relevant before the time ends. Clients
always get carried away with their problems until they are unaware of the time.
For instance, you might remind the clients like this: „Alright, Madiha, we have
another ten minutes. What else do you want to talk about?‰ By doing this, the
clients will be aware and will focus on the discussion by taking into account the
time left.

"
3.3.3 Explaining Session Objective

The first meeting is very important because the client will start to build trust in
the counsellor. Everything the client does during the consultation will be
observed by the counsellor. The main goal of the first session is to build a good
relationship with the client, so that the future consultations will be easier and
more comfortable.
Other appropriate goals for this stage are:

(a)" Stimulate initial discussion with client so that the client can express
problems openly and sincerely, touch on important matters and discuss the
background related to the problem.
(b)" Counsellor tries to observe the clientÊs problem, demonstrating openness,
respect and conveying trust that the counsellor is honestly trying to help
the client.
(c)" Convincing the client that throughout the counselling discussion,
something beneficial might be achieved.
(d)" Identify the specific problems to be explored in the future sessions.
(e)" Finding information on clients about the problem and thinking of ways to
overcome it.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
What is the goal that the counsellor wishes to achieve during the first
session?
"
3.3.4 Ending the First Session

At the end of the first session, the counsellor and the client must decide on
whether it is necessary to plan the next meeting. If both of them have decided to
meet again in another session, the counsellor must take note of the appointment
and set the day and time which is appropriate for both the client and the
counsellor. At the end of the first session the counsellor must determine whether
the client needs to be referred to another counsellor or agency to achieve better
counselling.

3.3.5 Making References

At certain times, a counsellor cannot continue counselling because his ability to
overcome the problem is limited. Therefore, the counsellor needs to refer the
client to other more suitable counsellors or another agency. The counsellor
should not consider himself as incompetent simply because he needs to send the
client to other people. In reality, the counsellor must have the skills to recognise
situations where can he conduct the counselling and when to refer the client to
another counsellor. It is unrealistic if the counsellor believes that he has the
ability to conduct counselling session to all clients and solve every problem.
It is a must for a client to be referred to other counsellors or to be sent to other

agencies when:
(a)" The client poses a problematic situation which is beyond the counsellorÊs
ability to help him.
(b)" Counsellor feels that the clientÊs personality is similar to the counsellorÊs
personality and intrudes in the counselling process because it is hard to
achieve a solution.
(c)" Client is either a friend, a relative or family member. It is hard, and even
discouraging, to continue the counselling relationship in the long-term with
a friend or a relative.
(d)" Client refuses to explain his problem to the counsellor because of unknown
reasons.
(e)" After a few sessions with the counsellor, the counsellor finds that the
relationship with the client is ineffective.
ACTIVITY 3.4
What are the early preparations that the counsellor should make when
meeting the client for the first time?
3.4 SPECIFIC SKILLS

This section will explain the specific skills which must be applied in order for the
counselling process to run smoothly. It does not matter which approach is used,
these skills are important and practical. The definitions, the ways to use these
skills and the estimation of clientÊs acceptance of each skill will be explained.

"
3.4.1 Non-verbal Behaviour

According to psychological research, each individual conveys information about
himself through his expression, gestures and the way he distances himself from
other people. In this context, without us realising it, we cannot avoid communicating
with other people. We often send messages about ourselves: about our current
feelings, what we are thinking and how we react towards other people and certain
situations by not uttering any words at all. Therefore, non-verbal behaviour plays a
very important role in the communication process. Normally, the meaning acquired
from non-verbal language is more accurate than what is being said.
Counselling theorists and practitioners acknowledge the importance of non-

verbal behaviour in the counselling process, that is, complicated non-verbal and
verbal messages which comes from the client is a part of the counselling process.
The counsellor must be skilled in making observations and giving responses to
the client who sends non-verbal messages. In this matter also, the counsellor
must realise the impact of the non-verbal messages from the counsellor himself
on the client when conversing.
For non-verbal behaviour, the counsellor needs to know:

(a)" Types of non-verbal behaviour; and
(b)" How to interpret non-verbal behaviour.
Now let us read on to know more about this.
(a) Types of Non-verbal Behaviour

During this stage, the counsellor must recognise at least three types of non-
verbal behaviour. The behaviour can be recognised through (refer Figure 3.4):
Figure 3.4: Three types of non-verbal behaviour

Examples of non-verbal behaviour included in all three types are as in

Table 3.1 (You are asked to make an interpretation for each non-verbal
behaviour, so that it will be easier for you to recognise the behaviour and
the meaning when meeting the client).
Table 3.1: Examples of Non-verbal Behaviour
Behaviour Types Behaviour Parts Examples of Behaviour

Body parts Eye focus • Staring at an object in a room.
• Looking down.
• Looking at the counsellor but turning away
when the counsellor looks at the client.
• Covering eyes with hands.
• Frequently looking at other people.
• Staring at the counsellor.
Eyes • Gleaming.
• Tears streaming down.
• Eyes wide open.
• Blinking eyes.
Sitting position • Showing eagerness of giving response.
(shows whether a • Sitting in an exhausted condition.
person is active or • Sitting and looking down.
tired)
• Swaying the leg
Facial expression • Nonchalant.
(usually suggests • Frowning.
the feelings) • Smiling or chuckling.
• Biting the lip.
• Pouting.
Hand and arm • Gestures showing size.
gestures. • Showing how to do something.
• Nail-biting.
• Head-scratching.
• Hair-pulling.
Voice tone Speed of talking • Fast
• Average
• Slow
Voice pitch • High
• Average
• Low

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Language • Harsh
• Soft
• Cynical
• Teasing
Atmosphere Spacing • Withdraw when other people reach forward
• Reach forward when other people withdraw
• Lessening the space
Physical condition • Tidy and neat place.
and position • Untidy and messy
• Cheerful
• Lavish
Appearance • Lewd
(Usually depicts • Neat
the personality) • Fashionable
• Casual
SELF-CHECK 3.2
State the types of non-verbal behaviours. For each type, provide the
the examples.
"
(b) Interpreting Non-verbal Behaviour
It must be remembered that non-verbal behaviour is interpreted to give us
the impression of the feelings and motives of a client at the time, but it does
not act as evidence of the clientÊs feelings and motives. The counsellor must
interpret the behaviour and make tentative interpretations. Counsellors
must also remember that a certain non-verbal behaviour could bring two
contradictory meanings, especially if the clients come from different
cultures. The non-verbal behaviour shown by clients in counselling
consultations, for certain, is very useful to the counsellor. It can give more
information about the client on his feelings and thoughts, apart from what
the client has already told the counsellor. Noticeably, clients usually send a
message through their speech, but the message carries a different meaning
which is evident through their voice tone, facial expression and posture.
One of the goals of the counselling process which the counsellor normally wants
to achieve is to encourage the client to express his feelings openly. The counsellor
must always be sensitive and quick to realise when what the client is saying is
not relevant with what the client really feels. The ability of the counsellor to feel
what the client feels shows his empathy towards the client. Usually, this can be
done by observing non-verbal behaviour during the consultation session. By
being alert on the cues given in non-verbal form, the counsellor stimulates the
client to be more open in making personal explanations of his or her feelings
(refer to Figure 3.5).
Figure 3.5: Posture can convey messages

Source: www.sing.co.jp/manabi/eigo/gestures.htm
3.4.2 Counsellor’s Non-verbal Behaviour: Focusing

Skill
When conducting counselling sessions, non-verbal behaviour from the counsellor
also communicates unstated feelings, which also has an impact on the client. In
fact, the counsellorÊs voice tone, facial expression and behaviour when talking
also influences the clientÊs perception towards the counsellor. Such as, „Is this
counsellor concerned with helping me?‰; „Does he believe what IÊve said just
now?‰; and „Is this counsellor looking down on me?‰.
The answers to these questions are interpreted by clients by observing the

counsellorÊs behaviour during consultation. Therefore, the counsellor must not
only have the skills to interpret the clientÊs non-verbal behaviour, but he as a
counsellor must also be careful in communicating, not only through what is said,
but also through his actions. These skills are called „focusing skills‰, which
means, giving full attention physically to oneself as a counsellor.
Try to imagine these situations:

(a)" „You werenÊt listening just now, were you?‰
(b)" The father reads the newspaper while the teenage son is trying to tell
something to the father.

"
(c)" The employee tells something important to the employer, but the employer
keeps writing, or does something which does not require him to look
straight at the employee.
(d)" A mother giving advice to her child who is reading.
You might have listened to someone complaining of what he has experienced

through the situations given above. The principles of focusing are very basic in a
relationship, but when interacting with other people during our daily lives, we
often fail to use them.
So what are focusing skills really? They are as follows:
(a) Eye Contact

It is very important for a counsellor to have eye contact with the client.
However, this is not the same as gawking! Looking straight into the eyes of
someone could cause anxiousness. Certain cultures regard looking straight
into the eye of someone as very impolite. Eye contact with the client means
that the counsellor can observe the clientÊs reaction when he or she makes a
statement. Through eye contact, it can be observed whether the statement
made is honest, anxious or fearful. Eye contact must be done in a casual
manner.
(b) Open Posture

An open posture implies that the counsellor is concerned about the way he
sits which, in turn, implies that his attention is on the client, and that he is
not communicating uninterested behaviour.
(c) Facing the Individual

The counsellor must ensure that there is no barrier between the client and
the counsellor, such as a table or other furniture. Facing towards the client
shows full participation in the discussion.
(d) Leaning Forward

A close proximity with the client can also demonstrate participation. Some
counsellors initially lean on the chair but as the client continues expressing
himslef, the counsellor leans forward a little. This means that the counsellor
is eager to listen to further explanations from the client.
(e) Calm and Relaxed

Because the client normally comes in a worried and anxious condition, it is
important for the counsellor to demonstrate a calm and relaxed manner. By
doing this the client will feel at ease when complaining about something,
and will not add more burden to himself or herself.

ACTIVITY 3.5
1." When talking with a friend, try to observe his reaction when you
use the non-verbal behaviours of a counsellor.
2." One of the counselling skills is to be observant of our own
non-verbal behaviour. State the behaviour.
3.5
" BASIC COMMUNICATION SKILLS
The basics of communication which must be practised during the counselling
process consists of seven skills. An expert counsellor will easily implement these
skills without thinking much about it. We can say that the mastery of these skills
is what distinguishes an expert counsellor from an inexpert one.
The seven basic communication skills are:

(a)" Using open-ended questions;
(b)" Keeping silent;
(c)" Listening;
(d)" Restating;
(e)" Reflecting feelings;
(f)" Summarising content of discussion; and
(g)" Summarising feelings.

"
Let us read further on each skill.
(a) Asking Open-ended Question

To get more information about the client, the counsellor can use
questioning which can stimulate the client to explain further on the topic,
such as, „After the fight, what happened next?‰ Open questions invite the
client to answer more than just a „yes‰ or „no‰. Other examples:
Open-ended Question
„What are we going to discuss today?‰
„How do you feel after what he did?‰
„Why donÊt you tell me what are the things that always make you
worry?‰
Close-ended Question
„What time did you go home last night?‰
„How long has this been happening?‰
„Where did you go after that? Was he mad at you?‰
Open-ended questions encourage the client to share information with the

counsellor. Through this line of questioning, the responsibility to answer is
put on the client and the client has the freedom of giving answers without
having to adhere to the counsellorÊs opinion or view. Through this method
also, the client is free to explore his feelings, life values and attitudes
towards the problem he is facing. On the contrary, close-ended questions
only produce responses which are merely factual and are not relevant to the
problem. They do no more than just satisfy curiosity.
Open-ended questions are used during specific situations. They can be used in:
(i) The beginning of a consultation session

Example : „Explain how we are going to start our consultation
today.‰
: „What has happened since we met last week?‰
(ii) Helping client to give elaboration on certain matters

Example : „Can you elaborate more on that? „How do you feel when
that happens?‰

(iii) Helping the counsellor to acquire more specific examples on certain

behaviour
Example : „Can you give me an example?‰ „What do you mean when
you said ÂIÊm exasperatedÊ?‰
(iv) Helping the client to focus on the feeling

Example : „How do you feel now, after discussing this issue?‰ „How
did you feel back then?‰
Even though the use of the open-ended question is highly valuable in the
counselling process, most counsellors rely too much on posing questions to
stimulate the counselling process. This might happen due to the counsellor
not having mastered other ways to respond yet. The risk of relying too
much on questioning is:
(i)" It becomes a boring investigation or interrogation process.
(ii)" The consultation process shifts from focusing on feelings to cognition.
(iii)" The flow of discussion becomes uncontrollable.
(b) Keeping Silent

Silence here means the counsellor does not give any comment or question
as a response to the clientÊs statement, but stays quiet and lets the client
keep on talking. Clients usually need a chance to see in himself certain
feelings, attitudes, values and behaviours. At the initial stage, clients do
want someone to listen without giving any comment.
The counsellor might feel strange when there is time gap which is not filled
with discussion, even for awhile. However, if the counsellor is sensitive
towards the value of silence and can utilise the „timing‰ of when to be
quiet, and when to ask for further explanation, the counsellor will benefit
immensely from it. First, silence reminds the client that the responsibility of
talking in a counselling consultation is his. Second, silence allows the client
to verify what he is thinking, what is felt, and gives him time to make
conclusions on the implication of the discussion during the session. The
client needs time to reflect and process what happens without any pressure
to answer the counsellorÊs question, about his feelings and thoughts.
"
At the same time, silence during interviewing the client can also have other
meanings. It can also mean that the client feels uneasy because he was
referred to a counsellor. It might also imply that he refuses to cooperate
with the counsellor, as what has been stated before.

"
Silence also means that both the client and the counsellor have arrived at a
dead end of the discussion, where both of them try to find a way to
continue the discussion. In this situation, the question that arises is whether
the counsellor should play his role, which is to start talking and end the
silence. If the silence is started by the client, it is best for the counsellor to
make response such as, „You seem to be thinking of something really deep,
let us see together what you were thinking about just now.‰ Or „You seem
quiet, could it be that you are angry because you were sent here or maybe
there is something else?‰
As a conclusion, silence, in the context of conducting counselling is

beneficial. Remaining silent for awhile shows that the counsellor cares
about the client and demonstrates his acceptance towards the client. It
shows the willingness of the counsellor to give opportunities to the client to
filter his thoughts first before talking and by not putting any pressure on
the client to respond.
SELF-CHECK 3.3
Is silence in an interaction a good thing? Why and when should you be

silent?
(c) Listening
Listening, in the context of counselling, is about receiving messages
cautiously and giving accurate responses to the messages heard. It is a
higher level of hearing as compared to istening to a speech in normal
conversation. The listening skills of a counsellor are very important as it is
the basis of counselling effectiveness. By listening to the statements made
by the client, the counsellor would be able to give feedback on the clientÊs
feelings and thoughts.
At another level, what is heard by the counsellor is interpreted with other

meanings, a more accurate meaning according to the message sent. The
interpretation is a must as commonly, and generally, human beings do not
communicate accurately. Normally, when we speak, we have the tendency
to talk evasively. What we say does not convey what we think and what we
feel.
Therefore, the process of listening needs the integration of restating and

reflection skills. Listening actually has a therapeutic value where the client
perceives he is understood and heard by another person.

Ordinarily, when we speak with other people during a social meeting, we

rarely take the time to observe attentively what is being said. However, at
specific times, when someone listens attentively and understands what we
are trying to convey, we will feel better. This might be the reason why the
client feels „nurtured‰, that is, because there is someone who really listens
to his dissatisfaction, tries to understand him and his thoughts and gives
accurate responses, which he has never experienced before.
ACTIVITY 3.6
What is the impact to an individual if he is truly listened to and

understood by others? Provide explanations based on your experience.
Try to listen with this technique and observe the result.
(d) Restating
Restating is related to the skill of listening. The ability of the counsellor to
restate the gist of the message being conveyed by the client shows that the
counsellor has listened attentively. This skill is also known as paraphrasing
a statement. The counsellor gives feedback on what has been said by the
client to him by using the counsellorÊs own words.
"
There are three purposes of paraphrasing the clientÊs statements:
(i)" Tells the client that the counsellor is trying to understand him;
(ii)" Summarises more clearly what has been said by the client; and
(iii)" Checks whether what is understood by the client is similar to what the
client wants to convey.
Sometimes what is being said by the client revolves around his feelings, but
the counsellorÊs response when paraphrasing is based on the meaning of
the statement. For example:
Example 1
Client : „IÊm fed up of studying, sometimes when I wake up in
the morning I feel like skipping school.‰ (feeling)
Counsellor : „Studying is no longer a challenge for you.‰ (meaning)
Example 2
Client : „I donÊt know what to do anymore. At times I feel like I
want to work first, get some experience, and after that
continue my studies after a year or two.‰

"
Counsellor : „You feel it is hard to make a convincing decision, either

stop studying for a while and work, or continue your
studies.‰ (meaning)
In each example, the counsellor gives responses on the meaning of the

message from the client by paraphrasing the statements but by using other
words.
Paraphrasing the clientÊs statement is suitable at the initial stage of

consultation because it encourages the client to talk more openly and
explain his or her problem more elaborately. However, we must remember
that paraphrasing does not result in deeper exploration of the problem; the
discussion can even be boring if it is not aided by other skills.
(e) Reflecting Feeling

The difference between restating what has been said by the client and
reflection of feelings is from the aspect of its emphasis. Restating is giving
an explanation by using the counsellorÊs own words to check whether what
the client said is exactly what the counsellor perceives. Reflecting feelings
suggest a feeling felt by the client when making a statement and checking
the accuracy of the clientÊs feelings at the time.
"
For example:
Client : „When I found out that my PTPTN application was
approved, only then I felt better, because at least I donÊt
have to worry about my expenses‰.
Counsellor : „You feel satisfied and relieved because your financial
burden has lessened.‰
In this instance, the counsellor reflects the condition of the clientÊs feelings
at the current time and by doing so, he communicates acceptance towards
the client. If you recall the previous explanation, the client who feels that he
is listened to and understood by the counsellor will be more open and will
focus better on the problem.
"
(f) Summarising Content of Discussion
The skills of summarising a subject which is discussed refers to the ability
of the counsellor to summarise important matters discussed with the client
during the consultation session to ascertain that both client and counsellor
agreed on what has been discussed. Ascertaining the gist of discussion is
not similar to paraphrasing. The gist of a discussion might be made based
on the statements from the client in one consultation session or one which
was made during last few sessions. The main purpose is to verify. Second,

it is to give assurance to the client that his problem is given full attention by
the counsellor.
"
Summarising the content of counselling is usually applied during these
situations:
(i)" When the counsellor structures the beginning of the counselling
session by reflecting on the important matters discussed during
previous sessions;
(ii)" When client starts to make confusing statements which does not have
any relevance to the current problem;
(iii)" When the client feels that he has expressed everything which is
important to him on a specific topic;
(iv)" When taking a future action, the counsellor and the client make
evaluations of what has been learnt from the previous consultation;
and
(v)" At the end of the session, when the counsellor tells the client what has
been learnt from the session.
(g) Summarising Feeling

The skill of summarising the clientÊs feelings, resulting from the
consultation, is quite difficult because of several reasons. First, it is due to
our Eastern culture, where expressing deep, profound feelings is not easy.
When the counsellor tries to summarise the clientÊs feelings, there might be
a possibility that the client denies his own feelings. This is because
admitting something which is contradictory to our own culture is a very
heavy burden that the client has to carry, even though the client himself has
feelings, such as, hating parents, being angry and others.
Therefore, the counsellor must use his mastery of communication skills so

that the counsellor and the client do not have contrasting opinions. If the
client denies what is perceived as true by the counsellor, the counsellor
must change the topic of discussion. There might be a chance that the
counsellor wrongly perceives the feelings exhibited by the client.
The aim of summarising the clientÊs feelings observed by the counsellor in

consultation sessions is to recognise and respond to the feelings which were
expressed by the client, or those that were perceived by the counsellor.
These kind of responses invite the client to observe and verify whether the
response given is accurate and is exactly what is felt by the client. The next
purpose is to demonstrate to the client that the counsellor is sincerely
listening to the problems and is by his side to help the client.

"
ACTIVITY 3.7
1." In what situation do you have to summarise the gist of a discussion?

2." Explain the basic communication skills which the counsellor needs
to know. Provide simple explanations.
3." Explain briefly how the first counselling session is conducted.
•" Several important matters for conducting counselling consultations where

basic communication skills to facilitate communication with clients were
discussed.
•" The counsellor needs to think of an appropriate place to conduct counselling

consultations.
•" Other than that, the confidentiality of the client needs to be upheld to build
trust.
•" The counselling process moves from one level to another level and each level
requires certain procedures and skills. Thus, the counsellor must be ready to
start the consultation with the client, build a good rapport, structure the
session and inform the client of the roles of the client and the counsellor.
•" Verbal and non-verbal behaviours play a very important role during
consultation sessions.
•" The seven basic communications skills are using open-ended questions;
keeping silent; listening; restating; reflecting feelings; summarising content of
discussion; and summarising feelings.
Confidentiality Meeting environment

Consultation session Non-verbal behaviour
Counselling skills

Topic X Listening
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4 Skills
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" LEARNING OUTCOMES
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" By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
" 1." Explain the four approaches to listening;
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2." Describe the four purposes of listening;
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" 3." Explain the four stages of the listening process;
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4." Describe the obstacles to listening;
"
" 5." Explain the five techniques for emphatic listening;
" 6." Explain how to control listeners; and
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" 7." Discuss the two major traps for listeners.
"
X" INTRODUCTION
In the previous topic, you studied about the specialties in the practice of
counselling. In this topic, you will study about the listening skills which are
mandatory for every counselor so as to provide effective counselling to the client.
A part of the reason why we do not listen to people at a high level of
effectiveness is that we take listening for granted. Most people assume that they
already understand what listening is all about, and therefore, there is no need to
learn anything more. We also assume it is easy to be a good listener. In fact,
many of us probably assume that we already have effective listening skills. Both
of these assumptions are unwarranted. We cannot assume that our listening
skills are already at the maximum level and we certainly cannot assume that
effective listening is simple or easy.
According to research, the average listening efficiency rate in the business world
is only 25 per cent. Immediately after a ten-minute presentation, a normal listener
can recall only 50 per cent of the information conveyed.

74 X TOPIC 4 LISTENING SKILLS
"
After 24 hours the recall level is only 25 per cent. Does this bode well for
organisations? No. Why? Let us see why listening is so very important in a
modern organisation.
4.1 WHAT IS LISTENING?

When we hear, we only perceive sounds, but when we listen, our hearing is
accompanied by a deliberate and purposeful act of the mind. To listen means to
get meaning from what is heard. One may hear the words uttered by another
person without really understanding them.
The primary reason why listening is so important is the amount of time people
spend doing just that – listening. Listening is the most frequent, and perhaps the
most important type of on-the-job communication. Studies indicate that adults
spend about 29.5 per cent of their waking hours listening. Recent studies that
focus on the workplace show that, on an average, personnel at all levels spend
about 32.7 per cent of their time listening while speaking takes up 25.8 per cent of
their time and writing 22.6 per cent. Top executives spend even more time
listening than other employees.
Listening on the job is not only frequent, it is very important as well. In fact, most
managers agree that „active listening‰ is the most crucial skill for becoming a
successful manager. Stephen Covey identifies listening as one of the „seven
habits of highly effective people‰. Listening can improve work quality and boost
productivity. Poor listening skills lead to innumerable mistakes where letters
have to be re-typed, meetings rescheduled and shipments re-routed. All these
affect productivity and profits. Apart from the obvious benefits, good listening
helps employees to update and revise their collection of facts, skills and attitudes.
Good listening also helps them to improve their speaking abilities.
Despite all these benefits, good listening skills are quite rare in the business
world today. As pointed out earlier, a number of studies have revealed that
people listen poorly despite the advantages of doing just the opposite.
However, there is hope. Listening is a skill that is a result of learning – it is not

„inborn‰. We learn to attend to, analyse, and comprehend messages directed
towards us, just as we learn other skills. What this means is that anyone can
become an effective listener. Further, if the foundations of listening skills are
understood, people can improve their ability to sort out fully the meanings of
what people are saying to them.

TOPIC 4 LISTENING SKILLS W 75
4.1.1 Approaches to Listening

In this subtopic, we are going to discuss four approaches to listening:
(a)" Discriminative Listening

Discriminative listening involves an attempt to distinguish one sound from
all the others. Stopping work to determine whether the phone is ringing is
an example. We learn how to discriminate among sounds at an early age.
Eventually, we come to recognise not only the sounds that make up our
language, we also learn to identify vocal cues such as tone of voice, volume,
pitch and rate, all of which contribute to the total meaning of a message.
(b)" Comprehensive Listening

A person trying to understand a speakerÊs message in totality, to interpret
the meaning as precisely as possible, is engaged in comprehensive listening.
This kind of listening is generally practised in the classroom when we must
remember what we have heard in a lecture and rely upon it for future use.
(c)" Critical Listening

When a person wants to sift through what he has heard and come to a
decision, he must listen critically. This involves judging the clarity, accuracy
and reliability of the evidence that is presented and being alert to the effects
of emotional appeals.
(d)" Active Listening

Active listening is also called empathic listening. This kind of listening goes
beyond just paying attention or listening critically. It entails supportive
behaviour that tells the speaker, „I understand. Please go on.‰ When you
listen actively, you encourage the speaker to express himself or herself
fully. Sometimes active listeners provide the speakers with neutral
summaries of what they have heard in order to affirm that they have
understood what they have said. Active listening involves responding to
the emotional content as well, apart from the bare verbal message. An
active listener is alert to all cues, and carefully observes the non-verbal
behaviour of the speaker to get the total picture.
ACTIVITY 4.1
1. Explain what is listening.

2. Explain the different approaches to listening.

"
4.1.2 Listening as Behaviour

Listening can be viewed as a form of behaviour that is a part of the
communication process – an active effort of attention and perception on the part
of the person towards whom the message has been directed. In other words, it is
part of the transaction that takes place between people as they communicate.
More formally, listening is an active form of behaviour in which individuals

attempt to maximise their attention to, and comprehension of, what is being
communicated to them through use of words, actions and things by one or more
people in their immediate environment.
Most people think of listening mainly in terms of using the ears, attending closely
to verbal messages. Listening also refers to monitoring the non-verbal and
contextual aspects of messages. Thus, in the simultaneous transactions view of
communication, listening includes attending to and interpreting all of the ways
in which people use words, actions, and things intended to arouse meanings in
their receivers. Thus, it is more than just hearing spoken words.
Note also that in the definition the concept of „immediate environment‰ is

included. This refers to the meanings that are included in the source message due
to the context in which the transmission takes place. Effective listening requires
attention to those aspects of a message as well, because they can be both complex
and diverse as influences on interpretation. For example, what we interpret can
be very different as we listen to people in familiar and unfamiliar places, to
people we know very well versus people we have just met, in-group situations
versus one-on-one. Another kind of context is provided by different media that
may be part of the communication process – telephone, radio, TV and so on. Each
of this set of conditions constitutes a different context, a different „environment,‰
that has its own influence on the listening experience.
What something „means‰ to us is based on the accumulation of both direct and

indirect experiences we have had during our lifetime. This provides for a set of
personal internal meaning responses for each of the huge number of symbols,
gestures, rules, etc., that make up our language and non-verbal signs. Only when
the senderÊs and receiverÊs bases of experience are sufficiently similar, can
meanings of the parties involved be parallel, permitting individuals to share the
same interpretations. Therefore, comprehension depends immediately and
directly on the existence of parallel meaning experiences, which can accurately be
produced only by effective listening.
The preceding discussion implies that effective listening is no accident – that it is

not an „automatic‰ form of behaviour. While it is true that some aspects of

listening are habitual or reflexive, others are certainly not. Therefore, we cannot
simply stand around talking to people and expect that high quality listening is
just going to „happen.‰ To provide accurate communication, both parties in the
transaction need to be actively and consciously involved in attending to and
comprehending what is being transmitted by the other by all of the means we
have discussed.
To be done well, listening is something that we must deliberately and

consciously manage. In other words, successfully attending to and
comprehending what is communicated to us will be achieved only if it is
deliberately set as a key objective – an objective we can achieve if we work hard
and systematically. Furthermore, it is not a part-time pursuit. We must set this
objective whenever we communicate with other people.
At the same time, it is possible to listen too intently! It would be impulsive,

unreasonable, and even impossible to give our total attention to what is being
communicated to us at all times, in all situations, and via all media. That would
be a tidal wave of information with which no normal person could cope.
Furthermore, much of it would be either a ghastly bore or a total waste of time.
We can all think of a number of circumstances where we would not want to
involve ourselves intensely in the task of attending to and comprehending
whatever information was sent our way. Stated more simply, an important
prerequisite to effective listening is the acquisition of skills in discriminating
between what we should pay attention to and what we can safely ignore. The
importance of being able to listen selectively but well is closely linked to the
essential objectives or goals of the process.
4.1.3 Purposes of Listening

Listening serves at least four primary purposes in our lives. One reason we listen
is to acquire information. Another is for the purpose of evaluating and screening
information as it is being presented to us. Finally, we often listen just for
recreation.
(a) Acquiring Needed Information

Obviously, some information may be important and central to our well-
being, whereas other kinds may be insignificant. Most information that we
seek fits somewhere between these extremes. Much of it has some
importance to us. We must be able to sort through and evaluate quickly
both the relevance and the accuracy of the information we receive when
interacting with others. As indicated earlier, we must be able to
discriminate efficiently between the flood of information we receive, and

"
select for more intense listening that information which is trustworthy and
important to us.
In order to select information effectively, we need a set of criteria according

to which appropriate judgments can be made. These will permit us to
evaluate the source of incoming information and the characteristics of what
is being said against whatever we have selected as standards for judgment.
Such criteria are quite personal, but they are based on common sense and
past experience and are not difficult to formulate. Such criteria would
normally include ways of deciding whether a source is credible, whether
what the person is saying is believable and whether the message is
important to us in any way.
Such criteria for selective listening provide grounds for judging the degree
to which what is being heard is accurate or inaccurate, reliable or
unreliable, and even honest or dishonest. At a low level of importance are
all those daily messages that make up minor news and gossip about people,
situations, conditions, or events of only limited significance to us. The key
here is not to attend with bug-eyed intensity to all such information, but to
develop the ability to monitor the ongoing information flow to which we
are exposed. In that way, we can sort out that which has true significance in
our lives.
(b) Evaluating and Screening Messages

The second reason people listen is to evaluate information. This purpose is
inseparably linked to that of information seeking. We seldom just listen
aimlessly or randomly, with the same level of attention to whatever is
coming our way. Rather, we are usually on the lookout for specific forms of
information that are important to us, at least to some degree.
Effective listening for acquiring and evaluating information, then, does not
occur in a passive manner. It takes place as we actively receive, interpret,
and evaluate both the source and the message against those criteria that we
believe to be adequate guides for accepting or rejecting what is said.
(c) Listening as Recreation

Of the three main reasons people listen, recreation is the easiest to discuss.
A great deal of our listening comes under the heading of amusement, fun,
or diversion. We engage in this form of listening when we socialise with
relatives or friends, attend concerts, turn on our stereo, or view television.
In fact, we listen recreationally in most interpersonal situations that are not
defined specifically by our need to acquire accurate information.

Recreational listening allows us to interact with people we like for the sole
purpose of enjoying each otherÊs company.
At the same time, all recreational listening may not be fun and games (so to
speak). It all depends on how we define what we are doing. The way we
classify a particular listening experience can have a significant influence on
what we perceive and how we interpret the incoming information. It may
be perfectly harmless just to enjoy much of the listening that we do.
However, when we define certain types of listening as „simply recreation‰,
it changes our conception of the importance and quality of the information
we are receiving.
In fact, classifying certain kinds of listening as recreational can be

damaging, that is, when we use the term recreation we normally think of
synonyms like amusement, diversion, entertainment, leisure and relaxation.
If we are listening in this mode, it is unlikely that we will be alert to certain
kinds of information that might have real importance to us. For example, if
a professor regularly provides a lot of entertaining jokes and interesting
illustrations during the lecture, the important points of the presentation
probably will be lost for students who have defined it as recreation. They
will be able to remember the jokes and the amusing examples, but not the
essential principles and concepts that were being illustrated. In fact, a great
deal of poor listening that goes on in the world results from the tendency to
think of the process as recreational. Consequently, students fail tests and
cannot figure out why. After all, they came to every class and „listened
carefully‰.
(d) Listening as a Requirement for Social Efficacy

The term social efficacy means being competent as a social person – being
able to form, manage and maintain all kinds of social relationships in a
positive manner. Success or failure in the vast majority of such human
encounters will depend on how well we are able to listen to what people
are communicating by verbal, non-verbal and contextual means.
Learning to listen skilfully, then, is no trivial matter. It can spell the

difference between a successful experience in the workplace with
promotions and rewards for effective performance, and stagnation in a
dead-end job. Good listening skills are practical tools for developing
smooth and comfortable social relationships on which professional success
depends. In fact, an important aspect of any form of work is just „getting
along with the people you work with‰.

"
Outside the workplace, effective listening contributes to successfully

meeting people, enjoying the company of friends, maintaining family ties,
initiating and maintaining a love relationship, and many other similar
experiences. All of these activities depend largely on our ability to hear
what people are telling us, to sort out the true meanings of their messages,
and to respond in ways that meet their needs.
4.1.4 Actions Required for Effective Listening

The degree to which we actively listen directly influences our effectiveness. The
followings are factors to be considered when you effectively listen:
(a) Active versus Passive Reception

Passive listening i.e. the passive reception of messages, occurs when little or
no effort is exerted by a receiver. The kind of effort we are concerned with
is that which contributes to our close attention to and careful
comprehension of what is being communicated. Depending on the
circumstances, there are a number of reasons people are passive listeners.
Obviously, the causes of passiveness can include complex problems
associated with mental and physical illness, but these need not concern us
here. Usually, passiveness stems from conditions as basic as boredom,
hunger, disinterest and apathy. Of the four, the simple lack of interest is
probably the most frequent.
Some people take great pride in their ability to avoid making an effort to
listen. Some of these individuals can avoid listening, while successfully
remaining unnoticed for the lack of effort. This is not to say that it is always
bad to act like we are listening when we are not. In fact, we sometimes need
to appear as if we are not listening when we really are, or vice versa.
Ironically, most people to whose messages we are exposed to are absolutely

sure that what they have to say is both profound and critical to our
survival. They expect and even demand that we appear highly attentive.
Typically, we give them what they want – we look and act like we are
listening, even though, we are not. We look observant, and perhaps nod
wisely from time to time, but our mind is miles away. In some cases, this
listening mode is totally justified. The problem is that it can become
habitual. If it is used when information important to us is being
transmitted, such passive message reception can result in a singularly
unsuccessful listening experience.
Active listening, or the active reception of messages, occurs when the

receiver makes a substantial effort to maximise attention to, and
comprehension of, what is being communicated. When the receiver

exercises such effort, the likely result is not only greater attention and
comprehension on the part of the receiver but greater enthusiasm and
appreciation on the part of the source. There is simply no better prerequisite
to high-quality communication than the active reception of messages. It is
almost impossible to listen attentively without being actively involved in
what is being communicated. That kind of feedback motivates the speaker
and can make the entire transaction a far better experience than that
occuring when listeners are in a passive mode.
Our „activity imperative‰ applies even when a particular encounter ends in

disagreement. Whatever the situation, if individuals listen actively, there is
a very good chance of listening carefully to others. Once understood, it may
be that the difference between points of view are not as great as initially
perceived. Effective listening, then, can be a beginning point for conflict
resolution.
It is common sense that the degree to which we find a person interesting

will dictate how much effort we exert to listen to what that person has to
say. We have a tendency to disregard individuals who, at first glance,
appear to be dull or uninteresting. A major problem is that there are very
few people who truly appear or look interesting. Fortunately, however,
almost every person is interesting in some way. One key to becoming an
effective listener is to try to look for and identify at least one interesting
thing about each individual with whom we interact. In this way,
individuals who initially appear terminally boring or totally uninteresting
can be redefined as worth listening to.
(b) Listening as Observable Action

Effort and activity when listening are internal or motivational
characteristics. They are factors that operate „in our head‰ to influence us
as good listeners. Such internal factors are not observable by others.
However, the characteristics of an effective listener can also be discussed as
observable actions that make us „look the part‰. For example, what are the
external and recognisable actions, expressions, and other behavioural signs
that enable someone to identify and classify a person as a „good listener‰?
This is a very important consideration for understanding the relationship
between a sender and a receiver.
People easily recognise those who are actively listening to them in contrast
to those who are „tuning them out‰. They do this by noticing a variety of
signs or cues. It is not easy to describe what it is they look for or see, but the
factors are real enough. If you think about what we are saying and close

"
your eyes, you can see someone you know who is a good listener. He has a
certain way of reacting as you talk.
It is not enough to say that good listeners „look and act like good listeners‰.
Yet, as vague as this may sound, they do stand out from poor listeners. For
one thing, good listeners focus their full concentration on individuals to
whom they are attending, and their bodies communicate receptivity to
what is being said. This is a very subtle non-verbal skill, but people who are
concentrating on anotherÊs message tend to lean forward slightly, with eyes
fixed on the speaker, and perhaps almost imperceptibly, they nod in
agreement from time to time. The opposite is to stare off in the distance,
with eyelids partially closed, perhaps arms crossed, leaning backward, and
with a bored look or a slight frown.
Even a brief examination of the face of a person engaged in active listening

illustrates a variety of distinctive cues. Observable eye contact, an alert and
amiable expression, an obvious focus on the source person are all typical of
the „look‰ of a good listener. In this way, a necessary (but not sufficient)
condition for effective listening is being perceived and a person is classified
by others as a good listener on the basis of observable signs and behaviours.
Looking like a good listener contributes to effective listening in at least two

important ways. First, when someone is perceived to be a good listener, the
person communicating is likely to feel sympathetic toward that individual.
Accordingly, the sender makes more of an effort to ensure that his or her
message will be understood clearly. This is not easy. Making an effort to
maximise understanding for the listener involves a great deal of what we
call role taking. Role taking is accomplished by means of adaptation on the
part of the sender.
Adaptation is a central feature of our explanation of listening. As the term

is used here, adaptation refers to various ways in which both senders and
receivers independently modify how they think and behave toward each
other. The results of this modification or adaptation include a type of joint
posturing that contributes to the sharing of meaning. A good listener can
influence significantly the amount of effort exerted by persons sending
messages simply by „looking like‰ a good listener.
The second way is when a listener initiates a characteristic pattern of

responses that others can identify. Conducting oneself in ways necessary to
be perceived by others as a good listener requires that certain standards of
good listening conduct are met. To be perceived as a good listener, a person
must exhibit a combination of activities that taken together are easily

identified and associated with high effort and motivation. What is

interesting about doing so is that performing these actions can actually
change the personÊs habitual behaviour.
A below-average listener would find it very difficult to behave so as to be

regarded by others as a good listener. In effect, it would involve changing
deep-seated or habitual behaviour patterns that have minimised this
personÊs listening effectiveness. However, such deliberate attempts are
important keys to improvement. If a poor listener takes the appropriate
kind of actions, a real transformation can take place. New listening
behaviours can displace the habitual ones.
The underlying principle is that over a short time, people who work hard to
try to create an impression of self, tend to become what others perceive
them to be. This means that if an ineffective listener successfully exhibits
the required „look‰, two conditions will likely result. First, he will appear
to be a good listener in work situations. Second, if his efforts toward change
continue successfully in situations outside of work, the result will be a true
transformation.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
1. How would you differentiate between hearing and listening?

2. Make a list of actions required to be an effective listener.
ACTIVITY 4.2
While pursuing your daily activities, try to observe the listening
skills of any five people near you and comment on them. Write the
details in the table below and analyse the information.
Listening Listening Listening

No. Age Skills Skills Skills Comments
(Low) (Medium) (Effective)
1."
2."
3."
4."
5."

"
4.2 STAGES OF LISTENING

Effective listening involves four stages as shown in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1: Four stages of listening

Source: http://willscullypower.files.wordpress.com/2009/11/listening.jpg
Let us learn more about each stage:
(a) Sensing
The sense of hearing is required to take in the message. Human minds have
the ability to listen four times faster than a person can talk. The major
challenge to effective listening would be concentrating your mind on
hearing what is said rather than the numerous other things going on in
your lives at any given situation. To improve this skill, look directly at the
person talking. As you hear the words said, also start reading the body
language. Listen for tone and intonation. With advancement in the art, you
will be able to notice even more subtle body language such as pupil
movement. On the flip side, if you are taking part in public speaking, your
audience will face the same challenge you do with the art of listening.
Understanding this will be an aid to developing and improving your public
speaking skills.
(b) Understanding
It refers to the processing and interpreting of the message. Instead of
thinking what you are going to say next, you should try to concentrate on
thinking of what is being said from the standpoint of the communicator.

Imagine yourself as their advocate and your objective is to help everyone

understand what the speaker is trying to communicate.
(c) Evaluating
Now after understanding the message, the next stage is of appraising the
message. You should first sort and classify what you are hearing. Then, try
to analyse the implications, the applications, benefit or damage of the
information.
(d) Responding
This refers to acting on the message. After evaluating, when you have
analysed the message, you should then respond based on your
understanding. Responses may be positive, negative or neutral. Look at
Figure 4.2 which depicts receptive listening skill development and
expressive skill development.
Figure 4.2: Receptive and expressive listening skills

Source: http://clerccenter.gallaudet.edu/Images/Clerc/receptive-expressive.gif

"
SELF-CHECK 4.2
Explain the four stages of the listening process.
ACTIVITY 4.3
Think of an incident that led to an unwanted response from your side

due to ineffective listening skills. Discuss with your coursemates
about how you can avoid such response from happening.
4.3 OBSTACLES TO LISTENING

A number of factors can reduce our listening effectiveness and subsequently the
fidelity of our communication. These include several inaccurate assumptions that
many people make about the process. They also include a variety of physical,
cultural and psychological barriers that need to be understood and taken into
account.
4.3.1 Inaccurate Assumptions about Listening

Ineffective listening may result from inaccurate assumptions. There are at least
four common misconceptions made by poor listeners and they are as follows:
(a)" „Listening is Easy‰

In our discussion about recreational listening, we indicated that thinking
about listening as „fun‰ or „relaxation‰ changes the way we attend to and
understand what is being communicated. A common misconception related
to this idea is that „all listening is easy‰. Certainly, some of the listening we
do is easy but most of it definitely is not, as we have emphasised, effective
listening is a complex activity that requires effort. Moreover, good listeners
are not „born‰; they are made – through hard work. Approaching listening
with the assumption that it is effortless, amusement, play, or in other way
just „easy‰ is certain to lead to difficulties in interactions with others.
(b)" „ItÊs Just a Matter of Intelligence‰

A second common misconception about listening is that all smart people
listen well. The conclusion that seems to follow from such an assumption is

that „I am smart, therefore I am already a good listener.‰ Unfortunately,

this is a non sequitur (not a logical conclusion). Smart people, dumb people,
or those in between can be either good or bad listeners.
(c)" „Listening Requires No Planning‰

A popular belief is that because we engage in a great deal of listening every
day, we need not plan in order to do it more effectively. Some may think
that the large amount of listening we do routinely automatically makes us
good listeners. This is a totally inaccurate assumption. It is true that all of us
engage in numerous communication interactions every day, and that
whenever we assume the role of a receiver in an interaction we do
something that resembles listening. Unfortunately, most of us neither
practice good listening skills nor have the ability to assess the effectiveness
of our own listening behaviour.
What do we actually learn, then, from most of the listening we routinely do

on a day-to-day basis? We learn almost nothing. Effective listening follows
from careful planning, not just from sheer frequency of doing it.
(d)" „Read Better, Listen Better‰

A rather curious but misguided assumption is that by improving our
reading ability, we will also improve our ability to listen. This idea is
founded on the belief that there is a transfer to what is acquired in learning
one skill to another, even though what is learnt is different. This is an
interesting idea, but no educational research has shown that this transfer
actually occurs. There are certain skills that can generalise across a variety
of activities, such as being able to run fast, which probably would help in
making a touchdown at a football game. However, listening and reading
are not based on enough common skills to allow for the same kind of
transfer.
4.3.2 Barriers to Listening

Let us now explore the barriers to listening.
(a) Physiological Barriers

(i) Hearing impairment: Sometimes poor listening can be traced to
hearing deficiencies. However, once these deficiencies are detected,
they can usually be treated.
(ii) Speaking-Thinking rate: According to an estimate, we speak at an
average of 125 to 150 words a minute. Our mind, however, can
process nearly 500 words per minute. This gives listeners a good deal
"
of spare time, which is often used for mental excursions ranging from
daydreaming to thinking about the speakerÊs hairstyle. Spending this
time in analysing the message would make for better listening.
(iii) Physical conditions: Although this may be obvious, it is surprising
how often physical noise can interfere with effective listening. Not so
obvious is the fact that many people tend to ignore such obstacles and
assume that they make no impact on their communication. Nothing
could be further from the truth.
Noise interference can come from any number of causes external to
listeners, and often these are beyond their control. They include
sounds caused by printers, typewriters, lawn mowers, dishes, aircraft,
or any other source such as uncomfortable seating arrangements that
physically interferes with our ability to hear. Other types of external
barriers are loud voices in the background that either distract us or
limit our ability to receive messages. If a speaker cannot be asked to
move to a quieter location, listening effort and concentration should
be especially high.
(b) Personal Problems

The most obvious personal conditions that can pose barriers to good
listening are those that affect us physically. Sickness, exhaustion and
discomfort caused by illness, all influence our ability to listen effectively.
Overindulgence in alcohol, or even food, can leave an individual with a
reduced listening capacity. Another set of conditions that can reduce
personal well-being includes things we have on our mind that distract us –
financial problems, a sick child, a stressful relationship with a loved one, a
preoccupation with a future event and so on. We can also be so
overextended at work or study that we are unable to concentrate effectively
on other matters.
(c) Cultural Differences

Many of the problems of ineffective listening are brought about by cultural
differences between the communicating parties. Women in the workplace
often find that men „just do not get it‰ when they repeatedly tell them that
sexual advances are inappropriate in that setting. This is a classic case of a
cultural barrier to effective listening. We say that, in part, this
communication failure is brought about because of major differences in the
cultural worlds of traditional males versus contemporary working women.
Many men do not feel they have to listen because they already „know‰ how
women feel and what they want, namely the very attentions women find
objectionable.

Differences in cultural beliefs of this kind occur widely. Individuals from

low-income backgrounds can have difficulty in listening to the affluent,
management may not listen carefully to the complaints of labour, those
from dominant groups in society do not always hear what minority people
are saying. In all of these situations, pre-existing systems of beliefs are
shared within a particular group. Those beliefs define various features of
reality and make it difficult to listen to what is being said by persons who
have different interpretations of those same features.
(d) Prejudices
A fourth set of barriers to effective listening, personal prejudices, come
from certain cultural differences found among various kinds of people in
society. Thus, individuals may share with others like themselves negative
attitudes based on unrealistic beliefs regarding a particular category of
people (e.g. stereotypes). The personal behaviour resulting from such
shared beliefs is a tendency to be „prejudiced‰ against any member of the
negatively defined category, regardless of that personÊs individual merits.
Such prejudices can pose significant barriers to effective listening. They

prevent us from perceiving and understanding the actual characteristics,
abilities, or intentions of an individual simply because he or she is a
member of the negatively defined category. Thus, it does not matter what
that individual is actually saying, the message is perceived within the
framework of the stereotypes and other negative beliefs that are the basis of
the shared prejudice.
Prejudices can truly mislead us because, like the traditional males in our
discussion of sexual harassment, we may not even know that we hold a
particular bias. Thus, such an unaware predisposition can influence how
we listen, or fail to listen, without our actually realising it. We are not
referring here just to well-documented prejudices, such as those focusing
on race or ethnicity. These are obviously important. Beyond those, we may
have a difficult time listening objectively to someone of virtually any kind
of category if we are convinced that such people usually lack judgment or
cannot perform effectively in some areas. For example, we may „tune out‰
individuals who do not have a college education, who have limited income,
who are older, or younger, assuming that they could not possibly
appreciate the concerns and viewpoints of someone like ourselves.
Particularly subtle are prejudices concerning physical attractiveness. Many
people tend to overrate the competence and capacities of males or females
who are unusually handsome or beautiful, while seriously underestimating
the abilities of those who are unattractive or disabled.

"
Generally, then, prejudice against categories of people is an especially

difficult problem in listening. In all acts of perception we use labeled
categories as „concepts‰ to „make sense‰ out of the world around us. We
have to do that to achieve efficiency in coping with aspects of reality we
encounter repetitively. However, if we have prejudices toward a labelled
category of people, listening to what one of them is actually saying is
influenced by the schemata of beliefs we have constructed for that entire
category. Like the mirrors in amusement parks that distort images, such
prejudicial schemata causes misleading interpretations that contort the
meanings we construct as we process their messages. That is, our beliefs
about the entire category in which that person can be classified become part
of her or his incoming message. In this way, we construct meanings and
interpretations that were never intended by the source of the message, and
the index of fidelity is reduced as accuracy is eroded.
(e) Connotative Meanings

A final category of barriers to effective listening is represented by the
connotative meanings we read into messages. Connotative meanings are
those personal, subjective and unshared interpretations we have for verbal
and non-verbal symbols and signs. Obviously, these are not part of the
meanings intended by the source, and when we build them into our
interpretations of an incoming message, listening is impaired and accuracy
in the communication is reduced.
The influence of connotative meanings on accuracy is a difficult one. It

stems from the fact that both senders and receivers have connotative
meanings associated with the symbols used in a message. The former
unknowingly uses them in encoding messages; the latter in decoding and
interpretation. It is a difficult problem because it is hard to detect. We have
all come away from certain encounters feeling that we completely
understood and totally agreed with someone. Later, we discover that the
other person recalls a completely different version of what took place and
what we thought the agreements were. Often, we conclude that the person
either has a faulty memory or is deliberately misinterpreting what was said.
What we may be experiencing in this situation is an erosion of accuracy in
communication due to the very different connotative meanings in the
encoding or decoding process of sender and receiver.
What can be done about this influence on listening? Very little. Usually,
neither party realises their inability to separate connotative and denotative
meanings. However, as listeners, we can be aware of the problems. If we
find ourselves in that stressful situation of recalling a communication

differently than the other person, we can then search for sources of
connotative confusion brought into the transaction by each individual.
(f) Poor Listening Habits

Listening, like much of human behaviour, tends to follow consistent
patterns. Most of us develop certain bad listening habits that eventually
create a pattern.
Four of the most common bad habits are:
(i)" Faking attention: Many of us fake attention so as not to appear

discourteous. However, this can become habitual and turn out to be a
barrier to effective listening.
(ii)" Listening only for facts: In looking only for the facts, we often forget
to locate the main idea.
(iii)" Message overload: When you are forced to listen to a quick succession
of messages, then after a point, your receptivity dulls. You find it
impossible to listen attentively. Coping with an overflow of
information is like juggling – you can keep only a few things going at
a time.
(iv)" Egocentrism: Many people are poor listeners because they are overly
concerned with themselves. Three personal concerns dominate their
listening behaviour. These can be summed up in three sentences:
•" I must defend my position.
•" I already know what you have to say.
•" How am I coming through?
These concerns set up effective barriers that destroy the critical link
between speaker and listener.
SELF-CHECK 4.3
„Ineffective listening may result from inaccurate assumptions‰. Do

you agree ? Why or why not?

"
4.4 EMPATHIC LISTENING

Empathic „listening‰ is entirely from the listenerÊs perspective. However, the
speaker too, to a certain extent, influences the way in which others listen to the
message. Of course, this is not to suggest the entire onus of communicating a
message is on the speaker – a notion that is alarmingly popular among most poor
listeners. However, the speaker can use certain techniques to encourage more
effective listening.
Here are five of the techniques to encourage emphatic listening:

(a) Try to Empathise
Speak to your listeners. To do this you must understand them – understand
how they will respond to your ideas. The best way to do this is to imagine
yourself in their position. This will help you to remove uninteresting and
difficult parts that may be irrelevant or could be made more easily
understandable by putting it in a different way.
(b) Adjust Your Delivery
Make sure the listeners have no difficulty hearing you. You can retain
listenersÊ interest by modulating your voice and making your speech as
lively as you can without sounding ridiculous. A dull monotone often
induces mental lethargy and turns listeners off.
(c) Utilise Feedback
As the listener can use feedback to improve the communication, so can the
speaker. Be sensitive to listener responses. Ask yourself: Are they paying
attention? Do they look interested? Do they look confused? Are they bored?
Answering these questions will help you to make the necessary
adjustments and tailor your message to the needs of the audience.
(d) Be Clear
Know your purpose. What is the main point that you are trying to make? If
you are not clear about what you want to say and why you want to say it,
you are likely to ramble aimlessly and it is very difficult to pay attention to
disconnected and disjointed wanderings.
(e) Be Interesting
To be interesting you must first of all be interested in what you have to say.
Lack of interest on the speakerÊs part communicates itself immediately to
the listeners and dulls their own responses. Lively, stimulating and relevant
speech always has a better chance of capturing the audienceÊs attention.

SELF-CHECK 4.4
What is the unique feature of empathic listening? Explain.
4.5 LISTENERS IN CONTROL

Although it is difficult to control listeners, they can be controlled to some extent
by realising the importance of planning. We have presented in a systematic
manner the principal factors that can provide the basis of an effective plan for
improving personal listening skills. Clearly, the details of such a plan will
depend greatly on the personal characteristics and circumstances of individuals,
the kinds of communication situations they frequently encounter, the degree of
their determination to learn and improve, and their current level of skills.
However, before discussing the general features of such a plan, it seems fair to
ask: Is it really necessary, or even realistic, to work out a systematic personal plan
for effective listening? The answer is that it depends upon each individual. The
decision will depend on some combination of oneÊs goals and aspirations, plus
oneÊs motivations and self-discipline. However, one thing is certain – ineffective
listeners with low motivation are not likely to formulate such a plan, and they are
most likely to be unable to improve their skills. If that is the case, as we have
shown, the consequences will be bleak.
Those who really want to improve their listening skills need to recognise at the
outset that it will have costs. No one claims that it is easy and enjoyable, and it
may seem like more trouble than it is worth. In todayÊs complex world, social
skills are far more important than manual or even technical ones. It is those
individuals with high competency in relating to and influencing people of all
kinds of background and cultural origins who become executives,
administrators, successful professionals, and (generally) leaders in their fields.
Those social skills depend heavily on being able to communicate effectively,
which as our simultaneous transactions model shows, includes being a first-rate
receiver and listener.
4.5.1 Features of a Sound Plan

Developing a strategy for effective listening involves incorporating all of the
factors we have discussed in this topic. Such a plan can be viewed as a series of
steps we can take to make use of those features that will improve both our
listening skills and our ability to interpret messages more accurately.

"
Listed below are seven specific activities that provide the broad outlines for
improving competence in listening:
(a) Understanding Your Current Listening Skills
All of us are unique individuals who perform the task of listening in
characteristic ways. The individual attributes that influence how well you
listen are called your receiver eccentricities. You need to understand your
own eccentricities as a beginning point for an effective listening plan.
(b) Preparing Yourself for Listening
Begin to prepare yourself by understanding the concept of sender or
receiver reciprocity. This requires you to be open and sensitive to all kinds
of source persons and to the content of what they are saying.
(c) Control and Concentration
This requires learning to concentrate actively on what a person is saying.
Such concentration rests on the distinction between active and passive
listening. Such concentration must be selective, of course, with the greatest
effort directed toward important messages and screening out irrelevant
ones.
(d) Show Alertness and Interest
It is important to appear to be listening, even if your attention sometimes
wanders from what a speaker is saying. The act of trying to show interest
actually does result in more effective attention to and understanding of a
senderÊs message.
(e) Search Actively for Meaning
Search actively for the essential meanings in messages being sent by a
source, and summarise them on an ongoing basis in your own terms. Seek
every clue to take into account how the senderÊs special background may
influence what is being said.
(f) Keep Active While Listening
This can be difficult, but it pays off. Avoid slipping into a passive manner
of receiving, with accompanying daydreaming and distraction. Keeping
active may require changes in behaviour such as adjusting posture, more
active breathing, or other shifts away from a relaxed mode.
(g) Suspend Judgment about Message and Source
Premature judgments about a personÊs intentions, qualifications or actual
positions can interfere with what is being said. Therefore, it is essential to
withhold early closure about the real meanings being transmitted and wait
until after the entire message has been heard.

4.6 TRAPS FOR LISTENERS

Ineffective feedback and not understanding the difference between good and bad
listeners are two major traps for listeners. In this subtopic, we are going to
differentiate good listeners from the bad ones and we also look at the steps to be
a good listener. On top of that, we will also discuss the importance of feedback in
listening.
4.6.1 Good Listeners and Bad Listeners

Regardless of whether the situation calls for appreciative and active listening,
listening skills can be improved with critical discrimination or conscious effort.
Table 4.2 shows the differences between good listeners and bad listeners.
Table 4.2: Distinguishing Good Listeners from Bad Listeners
To Listen Effectively The Bad Listener The Good Listener

1." Find area of interest Tunes out dry subjects Opportunises; asks, „what is
in it for me?‰
2." Judge contents, not Tunes out if delivery is Judges content; skips over
delivery poor delivery errors
3." Hold your fire Tends to enter into DoesnÊt judge until
arguments comprehension is complete;
interrupts only to clarify
4." Listen for ideas Listens for facts Listens for central themes
5." Be flexible Takes extensive notes using Takes fewer notes, uses five
only one system different systems, depending
on speaker.
6." Works at listening Shows no energy output; Works hard; exhibits active
fakes attention body state
7." Resist distractions Is distracted easily Fights or avoids distractions;
tolerates bad habits; knows
how to concentrate
8." Exercise your mind Resists difficult expository Uses heavier material as
material, seeks light, exercise for the mind
recreational material
9." Keep your mind open Reacts to emotional words Interprets emotional words,
does not get hung up on
them
Adapted from C. L. Bovee & J. V. Thil. (1995). Business Communication. New York:
McGraw. p. 571

"
Here are the steps to enable you to be a good listener:

"
(a) Be Motivated to Listen
When you resolve that you will listen, an improvement in your listening
skills will become immediately noticeable. Researchers have concluded that
the more motivated a listener is, the more active and alert he becomes as a
receiver. Though motivation alone cannot solve all problems in listening, it
is the first prerequisite to becoming a good listener.
"
(b) Be Prepared to Listen
Sometimes you need to make some preparation beforehand in order to
listen effectively to a particular piece of communication. It is helpful to
gather as much relevant information as you can about the subject, the
speaker, and the situation. This will help you to better understand and
appraise what the speaker is saying. Preparations could also include
attempts to minimise physical barriers between yourself and the speaker
and to eliminate all distractions in the environment.
"
(c) Be Objective
From your own experiences, you would have noticed that you are more
receptive to a message when you approach it with an open mind.
"
To be objective, one must avoid jumping to conclusions. Keep your critical
faculties on the alert but do not make a judgment until all points are fully
developed. If you make a judgment too fast, there is always the danger that
you may fail to register things the speaker says that may not exactly tie in
with your judgment. Objective listening entails a conscious effort to keep
our emotions and prejudices at bay.
"
(d) Be Alert to All Cues
Look for the speakerÊs main ideas. The speakerÊs voice quality, inflection,
emphasis and body movement can all offer vital clues to what the speaker
feels is most important. Besides, these cues also give you insights into the
emotional content of the speakerÊs message, which must be taken into
consideration if the message is to be fully understood.
"
(e) Make Good Use of the Thinking-speaking Time Difference
As mentioned earlier, we normally think much faster than we speak. If you
are a listener you can use this gap to your advantage by mentally
summarising and reviewing what the speaker has said. Focus on what the
speaker is saying, rather than on what would be appropriate response to
the message.
"
(f) Use Feedback
Using feedback is one way we can get more from our communication
encounters. Sometimes this feedback may be as simple as telling the

speaker that you do not understand. This lets you hear the message again.
While using feedback, make sure the speaker receives the message, that
there is no ambiguity about your feedback and that your feedback is related
to what is going on.
"
(g) Practise Listening
Proficiency in listening, like in any other skill, is the result of conscious
effort. Many of the barriers to effective listening can be successfully
overcome through practice. Force yourself to listen to speeches and lectures
that seem to hold no obvious interest value. Doing this will help you
overcome the temptation to „switch off‰ when the messages seem dull or
difficult.
"
(h) Use Verbal and Non-verbal Cues to Encourage the Speaker
The listener can use a number of verbal and non-verbal cues to aid the
speaker in communicating. Establishing eye contact with the speaker can go
a long way in reassuring him. Looking out of window while somebody is
speaking does little for the morale of the speaker. Sometimes nodding the
head slightly or casual remarks like „I see‰ can tell the speaker that you are
actively involved in the communication process. Even an act as simple as
smiling can offer warmth and support to the speaker and help him to get
over his nervousness.
"
SELF-CHECK 4.5
What are the major traps for listeners?
ACTIVITY 4.4
Write the characteristics of good and bad listeners in the space given
below:

"
4.6.2 Feedback
Communication is a two-way process through the use of feedback. It is easy to
give positive feedback to people doing well, or in general to give information
that people want to hear. Most of us do this pretty well. It is giving negative
feedback or information people do not want to hear that is far more problematic,
of course. Feedback taps basic human needs – to improve, to compete, to be
accurate. Feedback can be reinforcing, if given properly, feedback is almost
always appreciated and motivates people to improve.
Active listening provides important feedback to the speaker. It can show

acceptance or rejection of the message or ideas. It can indicate the accuracy of
understanding, with or without a judgment being made. Questions can be asked.
The degree of open-mindedness of the listener can be shown. Support for a
position or an idea can be demonstrated. Interest in, empathy with, and
sympathy for the speaker can be expressed. In addition, it may encourage the
speaker to provide more information, to disclose more about the issue or himself
or herself, or to make midcourse adjustments in what he or she is saying in order
to achieve the desired objectives. During this process, prejudgment and selecting
out of unpleasant, difficult, or undesirable messages may occur and may be
evident. Silence and motionlessness are terribly annoying to a speaker.
Let us discuss several aspects related to feedback.
(a) Characteristics of Feedback

Feedback from the listener is essential for effective interpersonal
communication and there must be several vital components to the
feedback:
(i)" Empathy
The ability of a person to imagine or perceive themselves in another
personÊs situation, to see things as they see them. At times,
understanding the feelings of the speaker may be more important
than the message itself.
When empathy is expressed, the listener indicates a deeper level of

understanding and closeness with the speaker. On the other hand,
objectivity and detachment, the opposite of empathy, may at times
be appropriate.
(ii)" Paraphrasing
It is a valuable technique for learning the process of active listening.
Here the listener uses his or her own words to express

understanding of the message. In the process, the speaker has the

opportunity to expand, deemphasise, modify or correct the message
or paraphrased statement.
(iii)" Immediacy
Verbal, one-to-one, direct, interpersonal communication has the
tremendous advantage of permitting immediate responses.
Immediacy gives feedback greater impact. Its influence and
importance are of benefit to both the speaker and listener. Telephone
communication is not as effective as direct communication because
non-verbal transmitters are sharply limited to sound, but it is much
better than written communication.
(iv)" Clarity
If feedback is immediate, it is usually clear that it is in response to
the message that was just given by the speaker, be it in verbal or
non-verbal form. These responses should clearly and accurately
represent the message the listener wants to send e.g. understanding,
agreement, disagreement, empathy, support, etc.
(v)" Appropriateness
Feedback must be appropriate to the situation. It must make a clear
distinction between a response to the message and a response to the
speaker, as an individual. Because appropriateness is a culturally
learned concept, the situation will determine what is considered to
be appropriate.
(vi)" Informative
Effective feedback involves the sharing of information and
observations. It does not include advice unless you have permission
or advice was requested. The provision of information is the essence
of feedback.
(vii)" Honesty
The best feedback is sincere and honest. We want feedback to
honestly represent the message the receiver wants to send back to
the speaker. If you do not understand a message, indicate that you
do not understand. In spite of the need for honesty in oneÊs
responses, honesty has to be balanced with discretion. Being frankly
honest may communicate insensitivity, cruelty, or even hostility.
This is likely to result in defensiveness, signaling the end of effective
communication. It is important to recognise that feedback is not
always direct; some involves subtlety and implication. This may be

"
quite appropriate at times. Just as sending feedback is important,

effective reception of interpersonal feedback is also important and
has at least five characteristics: sensitivity, specificity, open-
mindedness, supportiveness, and helpfulness.
(viii)" Sensitivity
The speaker must look at the receiver of a message and establish
eye-to-eye contact, or most of the feedback message will be lost
because most of it is transmitted through non-verbal channels.
Sensitivity to the various channels (parts of the body) through which
non-verbal messages can be sent is essential. Restless motion,
perspiration, crossed arms, and frowning may be just a few of the
messages being transmitted. Caution is suggested in regard to the
interpretation of non-verbal messages. Errors in interpretation are
likely to occur if they are not interpreted in clusters.
(ix)" Open-mindedness
If oneÊs mind is closed or if an evaluation or judgment is made too
early, feedback may stop coming and the speaker will be short-
changed.
(x)" Supportiveness
Supporting is an essential component of active listening. However,
support must be given at appropriate times or it can be interpreted
as being superficial, disinteresting, lacking in understanding,
confusing or may make the speaker feel worse than he or she did.
(xi)" Helpfulness
The giving of support and information to the sender of feedback are
means of being helpful to that person. It encourages more feedback,
which can be directed in such a way that it is specific and
meaningful.
(xii)" Problem Oriented, Not People Oriented

Effective feedback always focuses on a specific behaviour, not on a
person or their intentions. It is important that we refer to what a
person does rather than to what we think he is.
(xiii)" Specific
Effective feedback is specific, not general. For example, „The report
you turned in yesterday was well-written, understandable, and you
made your points about the budget very effectively.‰ Do not say,
„Good report.‰

(xiv)" Descriptive, Not Evaluative

People more readily receive information if the sender describes what
happened and communicates the personal effect it had, as opposed
to evaluating its goodness or badness, rightness or wrongness.
(xv)" Validating, Not invalidating

It is important to acknowledge the other personÊs uniqueness and
importance.
(xvi)" Owned, Not Disowned

Use „I have a problem with your work‰, not „others have been
complaining‰.
(xvii)" Matches Words with Deeds

Make sure your body language and tone do not contradict the
words; communicate directly and with real feeling.
(b) Techniques of Feedback

Here are some of the techniques:
(i)" Focus the Discussion on the Information Needed

For example, „Judy, I have noticed in the past month that youÊve
fallen behind on keeping the project schedule current. I would like to
figure out with you what we both can do to get it back on track.‰
(ii)" Use Open-ended Questions to Expand the Discussion

For example, „You have always kept the schedule up to the minute,
until about a month ago. Why the change?‰
(iii)" Use Closed-Ended Questions to Prompt for Specifics

For example, „What projects are you working on that take time away
from your work on this project?‰
(Warning: Closed-ended questions are often disguised as open-ended

as in „Are you going to have trouble finishing this project?)
(iv)" Encourage Dialogue through Eye Contact and Expression

This involves nodding in agreement, smiling, leaning toward the speaker,
making statements that acknowledge the speaker is being heard.
(v)" State Your Understanding of What You are Hearing

This can be done by restating briefly what the other person is saying
but do not make fun of it.

"
For example: ‰So it sounds like these phone calls have ended up
taking a lot more time than you or Jay expected; you think the three of
us should talk about priorities; is this your position?‰
(vi)" Summarise the Key Points

Try to get some agreement on the next steps and show appreciation
for the effort made so far.
For example, „So let us call Jay right now and set up a time when we
can meet and iron this out; keeping the schedule updated is a high
priority and I would like to get this settled by Wednesday.‰
In giving feedback, it is important to use the following techniques:
(i)" State the constructive purpose of the feedback

(For example, „Charlie, I am upset about some things you say about
production control in scheduling meetings; it is important to me that
we talk about it.‰)
(ii)" Give the other person an opportunity to respond: try „what do you
think‰.
(iii)" Focus on what is said and done, not why. The „why‰ involves
assumptions regarding motive or intent and this tends to alienate the
person, generate resentment, suspicion, and distrust. If we are
uncertain of his or her motives or intent, this uncertainty itself is
feedback, however, and should be revealed.
(iv)" Check to ensure clear communication. One way of doing this is to

have the receiver try to rephrase the feedback. No matter what the
intent, feedback is often threatening and thus subject to considerable
distortion or misinterpretation.
(v)" Check to determine degree of agreement from others. Such

„consensual validation‰ is of value to both the sender and receiver.
(vi)" Pay a lot of attention to the consequences of the feedback. The

supervisor needs to become acutely aware of the effects of his
feedback.
(vii)" Be ready to receive feedback yourself while avoiding defensiveness.

The information may be valuable, so ask for clarification, summarise,

check for accuracy, listen carefully; mentally note questions;

paraphrase what you have heard.
(viii)"It is an important step toward authenticity. Constructive feedback

opens the way to a relationship which is built on trust, honesty,
genuine concern and mutual growth.
(ix)" Offer specific suggestions.
(c) Guidelines for Effective Feedback

Following the guidelines to effective feedback can go a long way to limit
negative reactions but we need to be conscious of them nonetheless and be
ready to react appropriately.
When we are on the receiving end of feedback, we should be careful to

avoid these pitfalls. Try to keep these points in mind:
(i)" Try not to be defensive;
(ii)" Check on possible misunderstanding („Let me restate what I am

hearing‰);
(iii)" Gather information from other sources;
(iv)" Do not overreact; and
(v)" Ask for clarification.
(d) Why are Managers Often Reluctant to Provide Feedback?

As important as feedback is, this critical managerial task remains one of the
most problematic. Many managers would rather have root canal work than
provide feedback to another- especially feedback that might be viewed as
critical. Why are managers so reluctant to provide feedback?
The reasons are many:
(i)" Fear of the other personÊs reaction; people can get very defensive and
emotional when confronted with feedback and many managers are
very fearful of the reaction;
(ii)" The feedback may be based on subjective feeling and the manager
may be unable to give concrete information if the other person
questions the basis for the feedback;

"
(iii)" The information on which the feedback is based (e.g., performance

appraisal) may be a very flawed process.
(iv)" Coach vs. Judge

Many managers would prefer being a supportive coach than judge;
feedback often forces a change in the relationship from friend to
friend to parent-child. Some have called this „playing God.‰
ACTIVITY 4.5
There is checklist for evaluating your feedback effectiveness as given

below. Try to conduct a feedback session using it.
Before engaging in a feedback session, it might be helpful to answer these

questions:
(a) What is your purpose in giving the feedback?
(b) What specific actions do you want to reinforce or correct? What are
the consequences of the action?
(c) What suggestions might be helpful?
(d) What pitfalls might occur during this interview?
(e) How do you plan to overcome the pitfalls?
After the interview you might address these issues:

(a) Did the feedback accomplish your purposes?
(b) What specifically did you do?
(c) What specifically were his or her reactions and your reactions?
(d) Did you follow the principles of supportive communication?
(e) Where did you fall short?
(f) How well did you focus on the situation, issue, behaviour and not the
person?
(g) How well did you maintain the self-esteem of the other?
(h) How well did you lead by example?

"
•" Effective listening is one of the most important communication skills required
in the counselling process. Fortunately, it is one that we acquire as a result of
learning. This means it can be analysed, understood and improved.
•" Listening can be defined as a process in which individuals make the

necessary effort to maximise their attention to, and comprehension of, what is
being communicated to them by one or more people in their immediate
environment.
•" People listen to acquire information they need, to evaluate incoming

messages and for recreation.
•" Learning to listen well is an important part of getting along with others,
influencing people and getting them to think of us in positive terms. This skill
helps us to understand the requirements of a wide variety of social situations.
•" Listening effectiveness is reduced to the extent that people assume listening is
easy; that it is just a matter of intelligence and that it requires no planning.
•" Barriers to effective listening arise from five major sources: physical
conditions, personal problems that are distracting, cultural differences that
exist between sender and receiver, personal prejudices that lead to distorted
perceptions of senders, and connotative meanings that make it difficult to
reconstruct what another person is trying to say.
•" A systematic plan to improve listening skills includes understanding your

own current skills, preparing to listen, controlling levels of concentration,
showing alertness and interest, searching for full meaning of a message,
maintaining a high level of effort, and suspending judgments that can be
influenced by biases and prejudices.
Connotative meanings Receiver eccentricities

Criteria (in listening) Social efficacy
Prejudice

"
1." Why do counsellors rate listening as one of the top skills they are expected
to have?
2." Distinguish between good listeners and bad listeners.
3." Discuss the gains from effective listening.
4." What are the misconceptions and barriers that impair listening?

Topic
" " "
"
"
"
X Role Skills
5
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
" LEARNING OUTCOMES
"
"
" 1. Discuss the purpose of focusing, clarifying and supporting roles;
"
2. Discuss the characteristics that differentiate higher-level responses
and lower-level responses on each of the roles;
3. State the examples of types of responses for each role being played;
and
4. Practise the skills in the appropriate situation.
X" INTRODUCTION
In the previous topics, you have been introduced to several basic communication
skills which are necessary for each counsellor. In this topic, we will look at how
those communication skills can be used in communicating with clients.
Topic 5 will explain how you, as a counsellor, should play the three basic
counsellor roles by using all communication skills mentioned before. First,
focusing role; second, explaining role; and third; supporting role. Several
examples on how these roles can be played effectively will be provided. At the
end of the topic, there are exercises provided for counsellors to practise and
eventually, differentiate the three different roles.
5.1 FOCUSING ROLE

Before we can help other people, we must pay full attention to the person that we
are trying to help and listen attentively to what he has to say. Focusing is the
process of giving full attention to the client with the intention of understanding

108 X TOPIC 5 ROLE SKILLS
"
and by not having any doubts towards the client. This can only be achieved if the
counsellor actively listens to the message that the client wants to convey.
Listening actively means the counsellor listens attentively to the client, accepting
and respecting the client and his thoughts without any condition. Other than
that, the counsellor uses appropriate words and gestures, as a signal that the
counsellor understands what the client says. More importantly, a counsellor
should be able to comprehend the implicit meaning hidden behind the lengthy
conversation of the client. Other characteristics that imply the counsellor is
listening actively are:
(a)" Being patient and open;
(b)" Focusing on the content of the conversation and the phrases being used;
and
(c)" Focusing on the implicit and explicit feelings, and non-verbal movements.
The most common way to do this regardless of the counselling approach used is by
giving focus on eye contact between counsellor and client, maintaining an open
posture and making the counsellorÊs presence felt by the client. Responses given to
the client must communicate its understanding through many ways, such as
nodding as a sign of agreeing, giving simple answer such as „Yes, go on⁄‰ until it
reaches the appropriate verbal responses. It is best to give answers that reflect the
clientÊs feelings, give the gist of the discussion up until the responses reflect the
counsellorÊs deeper level of comprehension of the clientÊs feelings.
The focusing role, which is the role of giving full attention to the client, involves
the acceptance and involvement process with other individuals. Thus, it is a must
for a counsellor to recognise and practise the focusing role skills. The focusing
role, if it is done accordingly, will be able to give signals to the client that the
counsellor is concerned and has interest in listening to the problems expressed by
the client.
There are four ways on how we can facilitate the attention focusing role skills:
(i)" Give some time to reflect before giving response to the client – think
thoroughly about the whole message that the client intends to give, and
then think of the appropriate response.
(ii)" Use simple and short responses, avoid elaborate ones.
(iii)" Use the appropriate words, phrases and terms which the client is familiar
with based on his age and background.
(iv)" Do not take too much time when making a response, because this can make
the client shift his attention to other things.

TOPIC 5 ROLE SKILLS W 109
SELF-CHECK 5.1
"
Explain the meaning of focusing role.
ACTIVITY 5.1
How does a counsellor show the client that he is interested in listening to

the clientÊs problems, can accept and respect the client?
5.1.1 Types of Focusing Response

Counsellors must be able to differentiate between types of verbal focusing
responses. There are four types of verbal responses used by counsellors. Each of
the response can give specific meaning to the client, if it is used accordingly.
(a)" Simple Response

These responses are short responses, such as „Yes‰ or „Uh huh‰ or „Mm-
hmm‰, which carries the same meaning as nodding in agreement. These
simple responses also show that the counsellor is listening and following
through the clientÊs story. The simple responses encourage the client to
continue his story.
(b)" Reflection of Content and Feeling

This kind of response reflects what the client said, which is what the
counsellor heard from the client. Counsellor makes responses on what has
been said, how it was said, including the hidden feelings and the body
language sent by client. The counsellor needs to understand and realise the
clientÊs feelings and attitudes which may not be expressed through his
words.
(c)" Emphasising
This simple response is taken from the clientÊs final words, and emphasis is
given on the words or sentences which stand out the most, by repeating
those words or sentences. It is done by emphasising it slowly and gently.
This is done to encourage the client to elaborate deeper on the matter that
the client is discussing.

"
(d)" Paraphrasing
This response is done by restating the important message which the client
wants to express by using other words or phrases. Because the counsellor
uses different words or phrases, the counsellor will not only show his
comprehension, but simultaneously, he gives the client an opportunity to
„view‰ the clientÊs actions, thoughts and feelings from other peopleÊs
perspectives.
Let us look at the following examples of responses:
(i) Client 1: A 20-year Old Female College Student

„Recently, I had a feeling that I was being isolated by my own friends. I do
not know the reason. Things were going well for the last three months. I
have many friends and they were all very close to me prior to this.‰
•" Simple response: Yes, go on.
•" Reflection of content and feeling: You feel worried because it seems like
your friends are spacing away from you.
•" Emphasising: You are being disfavoured.
•" Paraphrasing: You used to have many friends, but now it feels like they
do not want to be your friends anymore. You feel hurt.
(ii) Client 2: A Teenage Girl

„My mother always nags at me. Once I finish a chore, sheÊll ask me to do
other things. She never stops nagging, never stops giving too much advice
which sometimes has got nothing to do with me. IÊm sick of it!‰
•" Simple response: I see, go on.
•" Reflection of content and feeling: You feel mad because your mother
always asks you to do homework and continues giving you advice.
•" Emphasising: YouÊre tired of it.
•" Paraphrasing: You donÊt like to be told always to do homework. You
feel that it is unnecessary for your mother to give too much advice
because itÊs boring.
(iii) Client 3: A 25-year Old Man

„I am now working part-time at a factory, while waiting for a better job
opportunity. ItÊs been more than a year. I have a diploma in administration,
but nowadays it is very hard to get a job in the office because I do not have
experience. I already feel bored with the job IÊm doing right now.‰
•" Simple response: Uh- huh.
•" Reflection of content and feeling: You feel disappointed because you
could not get the job in the same field of your study.
•" Emphasising: You are frustrated.
•" Paraphrasing: You feel unsuccessful because you are unable to get the
job that you want. Now you feel bored with the job at the factory.
5.1.2 Focusing Response Level

The focusing role, if it is carried out appropriately, can produce very good results.
When it is done in the correct way, it means that the counsellor has managed to
show his profound understanding of what the clients have expressed including the
content and his feelings. If the focusing response is shown at a higher level, it gives
the message to the client that the counsellor is sincere in helping his client and the
client can trust the counsellor without feeling threatened.
On the contrary, if the only thing that the counsellor does is to repeat what the
client said, with no purpose at all, it will make the client uneasy. The focusing
response given can be categorised in the lower level focusing response, which is
the most ineffective response level. Lower level of focusing gives the client the
message that his thoughts, feelings and actions were not supported and
acknowledged. These examples use the focusing response effectiveness, where:
(a) Level One: Does Not Play the Role Well

The counsellor is ineffective if he gives little or no attention to his client.
(b) Level Two: Moderately Playing the Role

Counsellor plays his role moderately if he pays attention to only some part
of the clientÊs content and feelings. Even this is done in pretense.
(c) Level Three: Playing the Role Well

Counsellor plays the role well when he shows full attention to the clientÊs
feelings and content. He is able to interpret correctly the message sent by
client and the message is communicated back to the client precisely.
(d) Level Four: Playing the Role Best

The counsellor is at the best level when he shows a very high interest in
client, able to interpret the clientÊs messages correctly; gives response to the
implicit feelings and content of message expressed by the client; uses
suitable eye contact and voice.

"
Let us look at several examples of focusing response level.
These are three statements made by clients, in which each statement will be
followed by four responses given by four different counsellors. Each response
will be given marks based on the Response Level Scale (1 – 4), and explanation
will be given on why such marks are given to the responses.
You are asked to examine carefully the examples given, and to do your own
evaluation, whether you agree or disagree to the marks given and the
explanation that follows.
You might disagree with the markings. This is not wrong, because the verbal and
non-verbal statements made by the clients and the responses shown by the
counsellor could not be fully portrayed by the written statements. There are
possibilities that you might read it differently from the person who has given the
marks. Each response from the counsellor could be given different marks, based
on what he has heard. When giving marks on each response, it is important for
you to give the rationality of the marks given so that it will be a base for
discussion of the differences with your tutor and other course mates.
(i) Client 1: A Form Five Male Student

„I am worried about what am I going to do after I finish schooling. Sir, do
you know whether it will be easy to get a job if I continue my studies in
Accounting?‰
Responses:
•" It seems like you are looking for a future career and accounting is your
option right now.
•" You havenÊt even finished your SPM, and you already worrying over
your future job?
•" If you want to know more about the job opportunity, why donÊt you ask
Mrs. Shanthi the accounting teacher?
•" Exams are near, and you feel worried about what you are going to do
once you finish your examination. You might want to further your
studies in accounting.
Markings (1 – 4) and rationales:

•" 2.5 – Give focus on the content and feelings. Provide support on the
problem that arises. Give opportunity for further discussion.
•" 1.0 – The counsellor underestimates and pays little attention to the
clientÊs problem, and does not accept clientÊs problem.
•" 2.0 – Giving advice without understanding the real situation, does not
try to comprehend the clientÊs feelings, does not do anything to be
involved with the clientÊs problem.
•" 3.5 – Give response to the implicit message, the counsellor understands
the client more than what the client stated. The counsellor encourages
the client to take action.
"
(ii) Client 2: A 27-year-old man
„I feel so exhausted. My work piled up during the last few weeks. The
harder I try to finish all the work, the more work I get. Plus, IÊm studying
part-time. I get easily angry at my wife and my baby daughter. I donÊt
know what to do anymore.‰
Responses:
•" Your work load is increasing, and you are worried about its effect on
your family.
•" DonÊt worry, this will all pass when your employer hires some part-
time workers.
•" You feel really frustrated. You work hard and still there is no end to it;
you love your family, but you always lash out your anger at them.
Surely you donÊt want this to go on?
•" What do you want me to do? Everyone has their own problems.

•" 2.5 – Paraphrasing the clientÊs statement and shows there is focusing.
•" Give invalid advice.
•" 4.0 – Able to read the implicit meaning and give ways for client to be
more open in discussion.
•" Shows no acceptance at all, ridicules the client, and is insensitive
towards other peopleÊs problems.
(iii) Client 3: First year student of a public university

„Lately I feel like everything is going wrong. My task grade has worsened,
and my mother never stops grumbling. Quite recently, my girlfriend has
threatened to leave me.‰

"
Responses:
•" You know, I used to have that problem when I was your age. DonÊt
worry too much. It will all pass some day.
•" You are having problems in increasing your grade, problems in your
relationship with your mother and your girlfriend.
•" You feel uneasy because all problems – which are problems with your
studies, mother and girlfriend – happened at the same time and it needs
an immediate solution at the same time too.
•" You feel distressed and have tried to find ways on how to lessen these
problems.

•" Giving advice without knowing the clientÊs real problem. Inappropriate
self-discovery.
•" 2.5 – Focusing on the content and reflecting on the important matters.
•" 3.5 – Focusing on the content and feelings. Encourage the client to
choose the most critical matter between the three problems he stated.
•" 4.0 – Understand the implicit message. Encourage the client to express
his concerns deeper.
"

ACTIVITY 5.2
The following exercises are designed to increase your focusing skills.

These differentiating skills give you the opportunity to recognise the
clientÊs implicit meaning, to identify various kinds of focusing responses
and to gain experience in distinguishing effective responses from the
ineffective ones.
"
(a) Client 1: A Form Five student
„I have just received the result from the last examination, and I
found out that I have failed in the biology paper. I donÊt know how
to tell my parents about this. They have planned to spend the
coming holidays by travelling overseas but I have to go to extra
classes during the holiday.‰
Implicit meaning:___________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
______________________________________
"
Responses:
1. It is hard when you disappoint your parents, but things will
be worse if you disappoint yourself.
2. How to tell your parents⁄
3. You seem frustrated because of three reasons: firstly, because
you have failed in school; secondly because you have
disappointed your parents; and third, because you might not
be able to go to holiday oversea.
4. My, oh my!
"
Type and Level of Response:
1. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
"
"
"
(b) Client 2: A 30-year-old Man
„I am thinking of divorcing my wife. All we do nowadays is fight. It
seems like any love that we ever had between us went a long time
ago.‰
Implicit meaning:______________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
___________________________________
"
Responses:
1. Your once beautiful relationship has now turned sour and
troublesome, so much so that you think there is only one
solution.
2. Ah, yes.
3. Fighting, it is hard.
4. You seem to be having hard times with your wife. Your love for
each other has gone away and you are thinking whether divorce
is the best thing to do to solve this problem.

1. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

"
(c) Client 3: A 30-year-old Housewife
„I donÊt know what I should do with my life.‰
Implicit meaning:______________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
___________________________________
"
Responses:
1. You seem disoriented because you want to make some changes
but you donÊt know where to go or what to do.
2. You feel confused, you feel like you want to do something with
your life.
3. Thinking about your future is frightening.
4. I understand.

1. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
5.2 CLARIFYING ROLE

This role is used when a counsellor needs clarification on issues that are still
unclear, or when the counsellor wants to avoid confusion. As a counsellor, you
might not be really sure of what the client said if the statement is confusing; or
you may feel that there is a need for client to give additional information in order
to understand how your client perceives his problems. It is important for a
counsellor to understand what the client is trying to convey in his statements. A
counsellor must also avoid pretending that he understands what the client is
saying. The clarifying role is usually used simultaneously with the focusing role
because both roles facilitate comprehension of clientÊs feelings and thoughts.

"
When using the clarifying role with the client, you are actually encouraging
clients to recall what has been said before and restate what has been said about
certain issues or problems. The request for client to explain further can be
communicated by body movement signals, such as nodding, eye contact or
posting open questions which requires answers more than just saying „yes‰ or
„no‰.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
What do you understand about the role of clarifying? Explain.
5.2.1 Types of Clarifying Response

The clarifying role usually consists of responses as below:
(a)" Perception Checking

With this response, the counsellor aims to check the accuracy of his
perception towards the message which is being conveyed by the client. The
counsellor asks the clients whether the client agrees or disagrees with the
counsellorÊs perception, or whether there is a need for correction by the
client himself or herself. Example: „Just now you have stated that⁄‰
(b)" Alternative Explanation

This response is used when the counsellor is unsure of which alternative
option is more important to the client. Example of response: „You mean
that this matter is more important⁄‰
(c)" Asking for Elaboration

This response is used when the counsellor asks the client to make
elaboration; that is when the counsellor feels that there is some kind of
confusion, either from the client or from the counsellor himself or herself.
Example: „I am not very sure of what you mean. Would you please
elaborate?‰
SELF-CHECK 5.3
State three types of clarifying responses. What are the purposes when
making those responses?

Let us look at the examples of clarifying responses. These examples show how to
carry out the clarifying role:
(i) Client 1: A 20-year-old Female College Student

„Recently, I had a feeling that I was being isolated by my own friends. I do
not know the reason. Things have been going well for the last three months.
I have many friends and they were all very close with me before this.‰
•" Perception checking
From my understanding, you want to find out what have you done that
has caused your friends to distance themselves from you.
•" Alternative explanation
I am not certain which of these two matters worry you more. Are you
angry because you lost many friends for something you did, or maybe
because you didnÊt do anything to cause something like this to happen
and you are confused why this is happening?
•" Asking for elaboration
I am not quite sure what your problem is. Would you please elaborate?
(ii) Client 2: A Teenage Girl

„My mother always nags at me. Once I finish a chore, sheÊll ask me to do
other things. She never stops nagging, never stops giving too much advice
which sometimes have got nothing to do with me. IÊm sick of it!‰
Does this mean that your mother controls everything in your life?
Would you please explain to me, do you feel that your mother is
troubling you, or do you feel that you lack skills to communicate with
your worrisome mother?
I am not quite certain of your relationship with your mother and other
family members. Would you please tell me more about it?
(iii) Client 3: A 25-year-old Man

„I am now working part-time at a factory, while waiting for a better job
opportunity. ItÊs been more than a year. I have a diploma in administration,
but nowadays it is very hard to get a job in the office because I do not have
experience. I already feel bored with the job I have right now.‰
You feel like you need to find other job, if possible, a job in an office.

"

You are worried because you current job is disappointing, or are you
mad because you werenÊt given any chance to work in office because
you lack experience?
It seems like you are angry at something. I wonder what, or who it is?
Go on.
5.2.2 Level of Clarifying Responses

The counsellorÊs clarifying responses is usually applied at the initial level of the
counselling process. Responses at a higher level, either verbally or non-verbally,
conveys to the client that the counsellor has interest and is sincere in helping the
client, and with that in mind, the counsellor focuses on critical issues or
situations to clarify.
"
If the clarifying role is practiced appropriately, it will simplify things for clients.
Even more, it will make it easier for the counsellor to understand and
comprehend the clientÊs feelings and thoughts.
"
Conversely, if this is done excessively, that is, if the counsellor makes or asks for
clarification on trivial matters, all the effort will be ineffective or even worse,
counterproductive. It can interfere with the smoothness of the clientÊs thinking
process.
"
Below are the uses of clarifying roles, based on a four-mark grading scale
(one to four), for you to distinguish which one is effective and which one is not.
"
(a) Level One: Less Effective Role
The counsellor is considered as ineffective when he shows little or no
interest at all towards the clientÊs problem, exhibits judgmental attitude
(e.g. thatÊs wrong; isnÊt that stupid?). Making responses at a lower level
means that the counsellor refuses to be involved with the clientÊs feelings
and content which are expressed by client, or, the counsellor is thinking of
other things which have got no relation at all with the clientÊs problem.
"
(b) Level Two: Moderately Playing the Role
The counsellor is less effective when he gives an explanation only on some
parts of the clientÊs implicit message, and even that is done
unenthusiastically.
"
"
"

(c) Level Three: Playing the Role Well

The counsellor focuses on what is stated by the client, from the aspect of the
content and the feelings. He will try to clarify things that might cause
confusion, or will ask clarifications from client on the matters that are
doubtful or questionable. The counsellor also shows high interest in helping
the client.
"
(d) Level Four: Playing the Role Best
The counsellor plays his role at the best level when he is able to grasp the
meaning and can clarify what is stated verbally and what is felt by the
client; able to help client to look at an issue with a clearer vision; help the
client to focus deeper on his problem; is non-judgmental and shows very
high interest in his client.
Let us look at the examples of clarifying response levels. To practise and learn to
differentiate between effective and ineffective counsellor responses, three clientÊs
statements are studied in the following:
"
(i) Client 1: A Form Five Male Student
„I am worried about what am I going to do after I finish schooling. Sir, do
you know whether it will be easy to get a job if I continue my studies in
accounting?‰
Responses:
•" I am not quite clear on what the real problem is. Are you unsure of your
future in general, or your career option?
•" Your worry seems to be whether you should or should not continue
your study at higher learning institute in the field of accounting.
•" Is the worry about your future coming from within yourself, or is there
any pressure from you parents?
•" Are your exam results good enough to enable you to take up an
accounting programme?

•" 3.0 – Able to read beyond the real statement, and try to clearly
differentiate the two statements expressed by the client.
•" 2.8 – The counsellor checks whether his perception towards the clientÊs
statement is true or not.
•" 2.8 – The counsellor ascertains whether there is another alternative
which contributes to the clientÊs problem.

"
•" 1.5 – Try to encourage the client to clarify his situation, but at the same
time conveys his personal value in his responses. (You must be
qualified).
"
(ii) Client 2: A 27-year-old Man
„I feel so exhausted. My work has piled up in the last few weeks. The
harder I try to finish all the work, the more work I get. Plus, IÊm studying
part-time. I get easily angry at my wife and my baby daughter. I donÊt
know what to do anymore.‰
Responses:
•" You are saying that your work pressure causes problems to your health
and your family.
•" I am not quite clear about your relationship with your boss and your job
in general, would you please elaborate on that?
•" I am not sure with what you said. Is your health causing problems with
your job or is it the other way around?
•" You seem frustrated and you think it is because of your job, but youÊre
actually not certain whether it really is the cause.

•" 2.5 – The counsellor evaluates his perception towards the clientÊs
statement. Does not go far from the expressed statement.
•" 2.8 – Asks for clarification of the clientÊs statement. Focus is given to the
clientÊs main statement.
•" 3.0 – The counsellor ensures the differences between the two important
alternatives from the original statement.
•" 3.5 – Go beyond the original statement to clarify the cause of clientÊs
feelings.
"
(iii) Client 3: First Year Student of a Public University
„Lately I feel like everything has been going wrong. My task grade has
worsened, and my mother never stops grumbling. Quite recently, my
girlfriend threatened to leave me.‰
Responses:
•" You wish that you could forget everything, and it would be good if you
can start everything over again.
•" You feel like everyone is turning their back on you.

•" I am not sure what troubles you more, your grade, or the relationship
problem with your mother or your girlfriend?
•" You are thinking whether you should stop studying, move out of your
house or find another girlfriend?

•" 2.5 – The counsellor checks his perception on the seriousness of the
problem.
•" 3.0 – Checks perception and goes beyond what is said by the client.
•" 2.5 – CounsellorÊs clarification of the alternatives can be conceived as
phony by the client.
•" 3.0 – By injecting humour into the clarifications of the alternatives, the
counsellor tries to interpret beyond the clientÊs original statement.
"

"
ACTIVITY 5.3
The following exercises are prepared to help you to gain skills in

making clarifications. The differentiating exercises give you the
opportunity to help you: identify clientÊs implicit meaning, recognise
various types of ways to make clarification of clientÊs statement and to
distinguish the effective responses from the ineffective ones.
(a) Client 1: A Form Five student

„I have just received the results from the last examination, and I
found out that I have failed in the Biology paper. I donÊt know
how to tell my parents about this. They have planned to spend the
coming holidays by traveling overseas but I have to go to extra
classes during the holiday.‰
___________________________________________________________
______________________________________
Responses:
1. I am not certain what makes you feel frustrated. Is it because
you have failed your exam, you might not be able to go on
holidays, or you have disappointed your parents?
2. Are you worried that your parents might punish you for
ruining their holiday plans?
3. Please explain more. I am not sure what disappoints you the
most.
1. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________


„I am thinking of divorcing my wife. All we do nowadays is fight.
It seems like any love that we ever had between us went a long
time ago.‰
___________________________________________________________
______________________________________
Responses:
1. I am not quite sure of what you just said. Do you mean „ItÊs
already too late to save this relationship?‰ or „I really want
this relationship to return to its better condition‰?
2. What hurts you the most – the fights, the disappointments or
your deteriorating relationship?
3. I think there is some confusion in your story. Would you
please explain more?
1. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
(c) Client 3: A 30-year-old Housewife

„I donÊt know what I should do with my life.‰
___________________________________________________________
______________________________________
Responses:
1. It seems to me that you want to make some changes in your
daily life. There might be a possibility that you may want to
work again.

"
2. IÊm not sure with what youÊre saying, are you unsure of what
your life choices are, or are you not sure which life path you
want to choose?
3. You seem concerned with your feelings, and I donÊt really
understand this. Would you care to elaborate more on
yourself and your situation right now?
1. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
5.3 SUPPORTING ROLE

Communicating support is one of the most important relationship skills.
Everything that the counsellor does to build good relationship base with the
client is a form of support and confidence. Your attitude and the application of
effective focusing and clarification show your interest in the clientÊs problem. The
specific skills discussed in these roles are used when you want to convey
stronger support and confidence. The roles include giving positive feedback,
communicating secure feelings, confidence, encouragement and creating a
harmonious environment. Effectively, it is like you are saying „You are OK‰ or „I
like helping you‰ to your client. These roles are very important in counselling
relationships, because the client normally would want to feel accepted and they
often fail in gathering enough energy to start a change, or to find solution to the
problem without the support from the counsellor.
This supporting and convincing role is used when you want to strengthen the
clientÊs statement, to make the client feel like he or she is apprehended, and
accepted as a human with moral values, even though some of his or her
behaviour and nature are not easily accepted by you and other people. Responses
that give confidence will help the client to overcome obstacles and to cope with
complicated problems and situations. Several counselling experts have also
stated that the supportive responses are suitable to be used with clients who have
gone through unfortunate situations or are in the state of crisis.

Supporting and confidence responses emphasise that you have trust in your
client and you are confident that your client is capable of solving his issues, you
understand human nature and respect the clientÊs self-esteem. By using
supporting responses, you have to avoid making comparisons between the client
and other people and focus on what you are doing or thinking at the moment.
This role is implemented at several stages of the counselling process.
The following are types of supporting responses:
(a)" Valued/Appreciated Person Responses

This type of response is used to show unconditional respect. This response
communicates to the client that they are individuals who have high values,
no matter what their conducts or actions are. This type of response also
focuses on the uniqueness of each individual. Statements like, „You have
handled the problem well,‰ and „Seems like you are enjoying yourself!‰
encourage and give firm support to the client from the aspect of humanity.
(b)" Acceptance Responses

This response is used to help client to have positive feelings towards
himself. This response is shown by demonstrating acceptance, agreement or
confidence on certain opinions, feelings or behaviours exhibited by client.
(c)" Coaxing Responses

This response demonstrates concern towards client and displays support
for them, whenever they feel dissatisfied towards something. The response
is useful when a client just went through a tragedy, is going through hard
times, or is going to face problems in the future. By saying „ItÊs a tough
problem youÊre going through,‰ and „You seem to be having a really
complicated problem‰, it shows your understanding towards the clientÊs
problem and your support for him.
(d)" Calming Responses

This response helps a lot when the client is stressful, nervous and in a
restless condition. It is used to calm clients, and to control his emotions.
Saying something like „Take a deep breath‰, „Close your eyes for a few
minutes, and try to imagine a pleasant situation‰, will communicate sincere
interest towards the client.

"
Let us look at the examples of supporting responses.
(a) Client 1: A 20-year Old Woman

„My father and I always argue, especially about my male friends. In fact, he
doesnÊt even let my male friends to come over to my house. According to
him, theyÊre all jerks. I think he doesnÊt trust me.‰
(i)" Valued or appreciated person responses: You are a woman with your
own values, and you are assertive in standing up for your own beliefs.
(ii)" Acceptance responses: It is hard to accept that your own father does
not have trust in you.
(iii)" Coaxing response: I understand why you are mad. It is tough when
your father refuses to understand your situation and scolds you like
that.
(iv)" Calming Responses: Whoa, your situation is really complex. You are
still trembling. Before we can start, calm yourself down first. Take a
deep breath, and let go.
(b) Client 2: A 45-year Old Woman

„My mother passed away a few months ago, and my life has changed ever
since. I cannot go on living as usual. I think about death too much.‰
(i)" Valued or appreciated person responses: Your reaction shows that
you are missing your mother. After her death, it is normal for you to
be sorrowful.
(ii)" Acceptance responses: Even though it is hard, if you canÊt seem to
think right or to act right, your mourning for your mother is a healthy
and natural response. Take some time to mourn.
(iii)" Coaxing response: My condolence for your loss. A motherÊs death is
difficult to accept and it certainly is a big loss.
(iv)" Calming Responses: Mourning takes time, and unfortunately, this
feeling can never be removed or hurried. When you think about
death, the feeling is a reminder of how deep your love is towards your
mother, and to appreciate those who are still alive. Take some time to
think through this matter.
SELF-CHECK 5.4
How will the supporting role help to create good relationship between
the client and the counsellor?

5.3.1 Supporting Role Level

An expert counsellor uses supporting roles to show respect to his client,
comprehends the nature of human strengths and weaknesses, possesses a
calming voice tone, uses effective gestures and always gives full attention. Using
the role effectively can help clients to lessen the intensity of their feelings, to feel
less worried when doing certain activities, have trust in the counselling
relationship and possess high level of confidence. These responses help clients to
use their strength by letting go of the past and to find other alternatives in order
to face the future positively. Supporting responses facilitate client in
strengthening the desired positive attitude.
This role will turn out to be ineffective and unproductive if the counsellor fails in
admitting the seriousness of clientÊs problem when expressed in an appropriate
manner. This can happen if the counsellor pretends to be honest and serious, for
instance, in the overuse of role, giving useless advice and uttering words which
are not regarded as supportive. Saying something like „DonÊt worry, everything
will be alright‰ expresses the counsellorÊs lack of understanding and interest in
the clientÊs problem. This should be avoided at all cost.
The examples below use the effectiveness of supporting responses, Level 1 shows
the lowest level, Level 2 for moderate use of role, Level 3 for good role and Level
4 for most effective use of role.
(a) Level 1: Does Not Play the Role Well
The counsellor is not effective in using the role when he fails to give
confidence, communicates in a vapid voice, is insincere or fails to show
meaningful support.
(b) Level 2: Moderately Play the Role
The counsellor is less effective when support is given in a frivolous way,
through weak expressions or when using the role at the wrong place or
time.
(c) Level 3: Play the Role Well
The counsellor is considered as effective when he gives good responses and
fulfils the clientÊs needs, supports the client well, and uses the role at
appropriate times in the counselling process.
(d) Level 4: Use the Role at the Best Level
The counsellor is most effective when the choice of words and voice tone is
very supportive and when the use of supporting role by the counsellor
caters to the desired response as needed by the client.

"
Let us look at the examples of supporting response level. For exercise and
practice in distinguishing effective counsellor responses from the ineffective
ones, three clientÊs statements are discussed below:
(i)" Client 1: Final Year Male Student of a Private College

„I am really displeased with the dean. He asked me why I joined the
demonstration just now. He acted as if I did a really terrible mistake.‰
Responses:
•" It seems like you acted based on your own principles. It is a very
important issue for you.
•" Well, it looks like you are really angry right now. Would you please sit
down, take a deep breath and calm down.
•" You feel like your decision to join the demonstration is the right thing to
do, but you are not satisfied when an authority figure questioned you
on something that you regard as very important to you.
•" If there is going to be another demonstration, let me know. IÊll join you.

•" 3.0 – The appreciated person response shows respect to client and
focuses on clientÊs moral values.
•" 3.0 – This calming response enables client to be in a calmer state of
mind.
•" 3.5 – Demonstrates approval for clientÊs feelings and support for
behaviour following life principles.
•" 1.0 – Inappropriate validation and support.
(ii) Client 2: Final Year Female Student of a Public University

„Nantha and I have been having a serious relationship for more than a year,
and suddenly he told me that he is going to Kota Bharu to manage his
fatherÊs shop. He left me just like that.‰
Responses:
•" It O.K. If you want to cry, just let it all out. ItÊs alright.
•" I can understand why you feel so angry and sad when you are left alone
after being in a relationship for such a long time.
•" I understand why you feel angry or sad, and you have the right to feel
that way.

•" I am sure you can get over this. You are confident and surely you can
get new friends.
•" 3.0 – Shows approval with the clientÊs sadness.
•" 3.5 – This coaxing response shows the counsellorÊs understanding and
care towards the client.
•" 3.0 – CounsellorÊs validation response shows the counsellorÊs awareness

about the clientÊs emotion and situation.
•" 1.5 – Even though the counsellor tries to show his or her respect to the
client, it is hardly convincing, and it can give false hope.
(iii) Client 3: 33-year Old Woman Who Just Lost Her Husband
„When I am alone, I feel sorrowful, and the memory keeps appearing in my
head. If I donÊt do something to distract my attention, I will start crying and
continue being sorrowful.‰
Responses:
•" Feelings and memories are a part of our lives. It shows that you are
missing your husband. It is not wrong to feel sad and miss your
husband.
•" You must have had a really happy relationship. The upheaval between
your feelings and thoughts has shown your respect for your husband
and your own self.
•" I understand how hard it is mourning for your husband.
•" I can see that you want to move on with your life, but the mourning
might be more important and it takes time to let it all pass. It is
important for you to take time to feel sad.

•" 3.5 – Demonstrates appropriate approval of clientÊs feelings and
behaviour.
•" 3.5 – The appreciated person response is combined with the approval
response and it shows the respect towards clientÊs inner feelings.
•" 3.0 – Shows the coaxing response towards clientÊs loss of loved one.

"
•" 3.5 – Displays counsellorÊs awareness of the clientÊs desire and

depression. This approval shows the counsellorÊs comprehension
towards the dynamics of this desire.
ACTIVITY 5.4
The following exercises are designed to help build your supporting

response skills. Just like all the exercises before, this differentiating
exercise enables you to examine different clientsÊ backgrounds.
(a) Client 1: A 40-year-old Woman

„My husband and I are really disappointed with our daughter.
Every time she comes home, we quarrel. SheÊs 23 years old and is
currently unemployed. I think her life is going nowhere. I wish she
would just get married.‰
Implicit meaning:____________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
________________________________________
Responses:
1. You are a good mother because you care about your childÊs
condition.
2. It is normal to be angry when your own child disappoints you.
3. You are distressed. Take a deep breath and try to calm down.
4. It is difficult to face dispute everyday. I understand your wish
to see your daughter get married.
1. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________


„I think I want a divorce. When I married Suraya I thought we were
meant to be together. Now I think itÊs the other way around. She is
too materialistic and I canÊt accept the way she thinks.‰
Implicit meaning:____________________________________________
____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________
Responses:
1. You are frustrated. You feel that your relationship with your
wife is not what you have expected it to be.
2. Living a life according to your own values certainly is
beautiful. You are a good person for wanting that kind of life.
3. Right now you are angry at Suraya and all you can see now is
your dissatisfaction towards her. Before we continue with this
discussion, I would like to ask you to take a deep breath and
let it all out slowly.
4. It is difficult to live with someone who does not share the
same value as you.

1. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
"

"
(c) Client 3: A Man in His Fifties

„I was just fired. I had worked with the company for eighteen
years, and they sacked me just like that. At my age, it is hard to
find a new job and start working again.‰
___________________________________________________________
______________________________________
Responses:
1. After eighteen years, it is tough to accept the fact that you
have been fired. You are certainly not ready for the change.
2. You must have been very hardworking for being with the
same company for eighteen years.
3. Sometimes life isnÊt fair. And this unfairness has befallen
you.
4. How can you give up? It might be hard to find a job at your
age, but I am sure you can do it.
1. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
The concepts in counselling which are explained in Topic 4 and 5 enable you to
understand the important things that you need to know before qualifying for
practicum. You need at least a year of practicum under the supervision of a
qualified and trained counsellor before you are allowed to give counselling
service to the public. However, the skills that you have learnt are very useful and
can help teachers to do their job in a more meaningful way. Communication
skills can help you to avoid misunderstandings, apart from facilitating good
rapport with other people.

•" This topic explains the three basic roles of a counsellor and how the skills of
practicing these three roles can be learnt.
•" The first is the focusing role. Focusing – which means the process of giving
full attention to the client with the intention of understanding what is
expressed by him or her, without any prejudice.
•" Second, the counsellorÊs clarifying role or asking for further explanation from
the client. This role is used when the counsellor needs more information or
explanation on blurry issues, or when the client makes inconsistent
statements that are difficult to comprehend.
•" The third role is giving support to the client. This role is about everything
that the counsellor does to create a good relationship between the counsellor
and the client.
•" Examples of how to perform each role are also provided after explanations of
each role.
Clarifying role Response level

Focus Role skills

Topic X Behavioural
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6 Counselling
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Theory
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1. Identify the principles of behaviourism theory;
2. Identify how behaviourism approaches are made into counselling
theories;
3. Describe which behaviours are known as maladaptive behaviours
and why they persist; and
4. Explain the strategies to help clients using behaviourism theory
approaches.
X" INTRODUCTION
This topic introduces the behaviourism counselling theory which is sometimes
referred to as behaviourism or conduct counselling. For students who have just
enrolled in the counselling course, they will need assistance in understanding
how an individual whom he wishes to help functions in his environment. They
must not make decisions just by relying on their own assumptions, without
thinking rationally on why an action must be taken. By using the chosen theory,
they will be able to understand why a behaviour happens the way it happens,
and what are the appropriate strategies to maintain or change the behaviour
according the theory. Most importantly, you will act more consistently towards
clients by thinking of the adopted theory.
Through this topic, you will be able to understand the functions of theories and
to follow the explanation of a theory which is widely used by professional
counsellors, which is the behaviourism theory. Firstly, you will comprehend the

TOPIC 6 BEHAVIOURAL COUNSELLING THEORY W 137
concepts and techniques which are used according to the behaviourism theory.
Further explanation will be given on how an individual continues his
maladaptive behaviour, which is the inappropriate behaviour among the society
and environment which he lives in. Several examples are provided to facilitate
your understanding on the implementation of behaviourism theory.
SELF CHECK 5.1
6.1 NEED FOR COUNSELLING THEORY
Theory is a presumption which consists of several ideas to explain an event or a
phenomenon. The purpose of a theory is to:
(a) Explain an event after making a few observations;
(b) Use the theory to overcome certain situations; and
(c) Use the theory to make predictions.
Whether theories are needed in counselling or not depends on the counselling

practitioner himself or herself. For example, Arnold Lazarus (1981) stated that
counselling or therapy does not need theories. There is also another view which
says that the idea in which counselling needs theory is given too much emphasis
(Smith & Glass, 1977). This view has a notion that all counsellors and therapists
do the same activities, achieve the same results and there are even those who use
the techniques which does not have any relation at all with the theory that it
supports. This means that the theory which a person supports or holds on to
does not bring any benefit.
Jerome Frank (1971) asserts that theory is very important to those who practice it.
In his opinion, theory is important because it gives meaning, confidence and
direction to the counsellors. Thus, we can conclude from FrankÊs statement that
theory gives focus to the counsellor on what he is doing to his client. Therefore,
the counsellor will be able to give full attention and energy on what he believes
to be the source of his clientÊs problem.
A counsellor who carries out his task according to theory will give him an
opportunity to make plans and preparation before he advises the client to plan
the strategies to make changes. This will indirectly increase the clientÊs trust
towards the counsellor because the counsellor is able to demonstrate his
professionalism.

138 X TOPIC 6 BEHAVIOURAL COUNSELLING THEORY
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ACTIVITY 6.1
1. State the three functions of theory and provide examples for each
theory.
2. Why are theories important to a counsellor?
6.2 BEHAVIOURISM COUNSELLING THEORY

The history of the behavioural approach in counselling begins with three
components: classical conditioning, operant conditioning and cognitive
behaviour therapy. We are going to discuss each component in the following
subsections.
6.2.1 Classical Conditioning Principle

This first component is taken from the classical conditioning principle,
sometimes referred to as respondent conditioning based on the study by Pavlov
(1960) and Hull (1943). In one study, John B. Watson (1920) (Figure 6.1) used
PavlovÊs principle, which is the classical conditioning principle, to train Little
Albert to be afraid of white mice, white cotton and WatsonÊs white hair!
Figure 6.1: John B. Watson
In the experiment, Watson used the unconditioned stimulus (loud ringing of a

bell) which is combined with the conditioned stimulus (white mouse). This
resulted in conditioned responses (feeling startled and fearful). It is important to
understand this example because it is the foundation of behaviourism theory,
and it shows that an individualÊs emotion can be learnt and modified by using

the learning principle. Figure 6.2 shows the classical conditioning learning
principle. This approach is used by Wolpe many times (1954; 1958; 1961) when he
introduced systematic desensitisation.
Figure 6.2: Classical conditioning learning principle
ACTIVITY 6.2
You must have seen a child imitating everything an adult does. Do the
actions of the child demonstrate the behaviourism theory? Explain.
6.2.2 Operant Conditioning Principle

The second component is the operant conditioning which was proposed by B.F.
Skinner (1953) (Figure 6.3). In operant conditioning, reinforcement is used to
ensure repetition of certain behaviour. Reinforcement is something that enables a
behaviour to be repeated because there are elements of pleasantness or
satisfaction. Examples of positive reinforcement are money or compliments.
Examples of negative reinforcement are such as an electric shock or loud bell
ringing. Negative reinforcement also reinforces the repetition of a behaviour.
Example of negative reinforcement is shutting up the loud ringing of a bell every
time the rat presses the lever. The rat presses the lever more often when the
ringing bell is turned down slowly. Punishment and extinction will hinder the
behaviour from being repeated. Punishment is to increase hurtful or
uncomfortable stimulus. One example is giving electric shock after smoking.
Extinction is to lessen unwanted behaviour such as interrupting older peopleÊs
conversations. To decrease these unwanted behaviours, it is adequate to ignore it

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or not give any response towards the person who is interrupting the
conversation.
Figure 6.3: B.F. Skinner
The use of the operant conditioning principle as a technique to modify behaviour

of an individual is known as behaviour modification technique or behaviour
modification. From the implementation aspect, this technique is sometimes
corresponded with behaviour therapy technique. Skinner used behaviour
modification on an individual or a small group. If you notice, both principles are
basic learning principles which are discussed in the Learning Psychology
module.
6.2.3 Cognitive Behaviour Therapy

The third component is known as cognitive behaviour therapy. This therapy is
the combination of two different trains of thoughts, where one focuses on
behavioural approaches only and the other emphasises on cognition.
We cannot explain the human occurrence or behaviour only through the

behavioural perspective, but we also have to take into account the thinking
process. The thinking process is the cognitive process.
ACTIVITY 6.3
1. What are the combinations of the three components which become
the behaviourism counselling theory?
2. Gather external information on the meaning and procedures of
behaviour modification.

6.3 BEHAVIOURISM PERSONALITY THEORY

In reality, there is no single specific personality theory which can be called
behaviourism personality theory. The theorists in the behaviourism domain are
not interested in proposing a single theory which can be referred to as
behaviourism personality theory. They emphasise more on the learning theory
instead of developing a model theory of human personality. Behaviourists
presume that the common behaviour consistently posed by an individual that is
referred to as attribute or personality is actually the symbol of maturity and the
learning law which the individual has experienced. Hence, the behaviourists
believe that the most similar thing to personality theory is actually learning
theory.
However, there are several things that all behaviourists agree upon about
personality that all of us must understand:
(a) The determiner of learning, attitude, habit or nature and other aspects
related to personal development is the behaviourism of an organism, not
mental phenomenon;
(b) Personality development is deterministic, where the environment and
experiences determines the personality development;
(c) Individual differences come from experience differences;
(d) Dualism such as mind-body and body-soul does not have scientific proof to
explain about human development, to make predictions on what will
happen about the human behaviour and to overcome human behaviour to
do something; and
(e) Even though personality development usually has genetic constraints
which cannot change or be changed anymore, it results from internal
environment and stimulus which play the dominant role.
6.3.1 Skinner’s Principle Adaptation

In 1977, a counselling expert named R.W. Lundin explained Skinner principles
which can be used to be adapted with one personality theory. We have already
comprehended that the foundation of Skinner principle is that the human
personality development depends on operant reinforcement.

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Lundin has developed the view of operant reinforcement to model personality

by listing some of the principles as below:
(a)" In shaping the behaviourism personality theory, the most important aspects
are to make predictions and to control behaviours. There is no question of
free will here. The environment variables will determine the type of
responses. When the variables are identified, the process of making
predictions and controlling behaviour can be carried out .
(b)" All behaviours can be divided into categories of operant and respondent.
This means that an individual responds to something (operant), or acts
(respondents) according to the environment. Thus, all behaviours are
subjected under the control of the environment stimuli and therefore the
voluntary behaviour does not exist.
(c)" An individualÊs personality is moulded by reinforcements. Apart from the
main reinforcements, such as food, water and air, specific conditioned
positive reinforcements such as money and societal compliments will also
help to mould the personality. Removal of negative reinforcements also
strengthens behaviour and help personality development.
(d)" Behaviour can be modified by weakening or restraining reinforcement – a
process called extinction. One example of behaviour modification using
extinction is ignoring a childÊs behaviour who tries to attract his or her
parentÊs attention by whimpering and sulking (refer to Figure 6.4).
Figure 6.4: A baby whimpers and wants the mother to fondle her
Practically, this might take a long time if the child has already been given
reinforcements on unwanted behaviour.
(i)" Modelling also facilitates personality development. Behaviour can be
modelled by observing the nearest person, and reinforcement is given to
the behaviour which is similar to the behaviour of the observed person. The

use of „role-play‰ technique to teach assertive behaviour is one way of

modelling.
(ii)" Apart from positive reinforcement, personality can also be controlled by
unpleasant reinforcement which can make an individual keep away from
or avoid it.
(iii)" Personality is maintained by continuous conditioned reinforcement.
Conditioned reinforcement begins from neutral stimuli, but when
combined with primary reinforcement, it can be reinforcement itself.
(iv)" Behaviour can persist if reinforcement is constantly or frequently reinforced.
Constant reinforcement is given for a constantly needed behaviour, which
means that for each response, it will be followed by reinforcement. If this
method is used excessively, the desired effect will gradually weaken or lose
its satisfaction. For frequent reinforcement, it is given according to a certain
schedule. Frequent and scheduled reinforcement are the most effective ones.
ACTIVITY 6.4
In your opinion, what are the most apparent differences between the
approaches proposed by Watson and Skinner?
6.4 INAPPROPRIATE BEHAVIOUR

An inappropriate or prohibited behaviour in a society is known as maladapted
behaviour, and if it is continued to be practiced by an individual, he will be
regarded as a person who cannot adjust himself to society (maladjusted person).
An act such as taking other peopleÊs property or showing aggressiveness are
examples of maladjustive behaviour which are categorised as inappropriate
behaviour in a society. On the other hand, helping someone in trouble and
contributing something to the society such as social work is regarded as adjustive
behaviour, which is the desired behaviour.
According to the behaviourism approach, a behaviour, either adaptive or

maladaptive is learnt. This also means that something which is learnt can also be
ceased or stopped. For instance, if an individual has the habit of smoking, it is
something that he has learnt, and theoretically, this maladaptive habit can be
ceased or stopped.
Maladjustive behaviour is specific in different cultures, time, social classes and

situations. What is maladjustive in one society might be considered as adjustive
in another society. The difference is that an individual receives reinforcement

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from the people in his immediate environment, who has influence in giving
reinforcement. For instance, in a gang someone who is close with the members of
the gang and one who has control in giving reinforcement to its members – will
become the gang leader. Therefore, orders from the gang leader such as to kill or
rob will be followed by the gang members because there is reinforcement. In this
context, the action done by the criminal gang is adaptive in the criminal society,
however it is said to be maladaptive in common society.
Time or period can also determine what is considered as adjustive or

maladjustive. Fifty years ago, Malay children were forbidden to go to English
schools fearing that they would become Christians. Those who still go to English
schools despite the prohibition is regarded as practicing maladaptive behaviour
and will suffer pressure from their relatives and some are forced to stop going to
school. However, parents nowadays do not suffer from any pressure from
anyone to send their children to English schools; there are even those who send
their children to America and England to study. Nowadays, studying in English
schools is considered as adaptive behaviour.
All social classes have their own interpretation on what is considered as adjustive
and maladjustive and on the way they handle themselves to avoid the discomfort
when performing maladaptive behaviour. In the West, these interpretations exist
where individuals from the middle class are able to control themselves better,
always feel guilty, and are humble as reactions towards maladjustive behaviour.
Individuals from lower social classes tend to show aggressive behaviour, have
the tendency to rebel and violate the laws as reactions towards maladjustive
behaviour (Myers and Roberts, 1959).
SELF-CHECK 6.1
How does a person turn into a criminal? What are the factors that
influence them to become criminals?
6.4.1 How an Individual is Troubled

How do the advocates of behaviourism view an individual who is having
problems or is „unwell‰? They believe that all learning happens through
respondent experience or operant. Therefore, behaviours which are regarded as
maladaptive are all learnt in order to get positive reinforcement or to lessen the
pain or uncomfortable feeling.
From the perspective of respondent learning, if the painful stimulus is combined

with neutral stimulus, gradually after the learning has occurred, the neutral
stimulus will produce a maladaptive response, even before the real event occurs.

For example, take a boy who experiences stomach ache (uncomfortable stimulus)
and during the night, he and some of his friends plan to go camping together
(neutral stimulus). At some other time, he once again experiences stomach ache
when he wants to go camping (combination). As time goes by, he will feel like
vomiting and will be uncomfortable (conditioned response) whenever he hears
the word „camping‰ (conditioned stimulus) (see Figure 6.5).
Figure 6.5: Camping causes uncomfortable feelings
Other maladaptive behaviours are learnt through operant conditioning. This

behaviour will be shaped, increased and continued because of further
reinforcement. For example, the boy who had stomach ache is given full
attention, love, sympathy and very comfortable care by both his parents when he
is sick. This will cause the boy to take the same advantage in other situations
where he does not want to go to school. Thus, by saying that he is having
stomach ache, he will be able to avoid doing something he dislikes, which is
going to school.
If we look deeper into this example, generalisations will occur, that is whenever
the boy wants to avoid a situation he considers uncomfortable, he will experience
stomach ache. Why does this happen? The answer is, because it works. In reality,
this behaviour will be a burden to him in the future; for instance, he might
experience stomach ache before he sits for examination. This individual might
want to change his maladaptive behaviour, however, because he has learnt that

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avoiding the uncomfortable stimulus will bring him „good‰ effects, it is hard for
him to quit the „stomach ache‰ behaviour, unless he goes for therapy or
counselling session.
ACTIVITY 6.5
1. Explain how behaviour is learnt from the perspective of

behaviourism counselling theory.
2. Think of a behaviour which you regard as maladaptive, and try to
detect how the behaviour is learnt.
6.5 THE COUNSELLING PROCESS

When carrying out counselling, just as it is in other counselling systems, the
behaviourism counsellor must also show his expertise in these skills:
(a)" Listening accurately;
(b)" Appreciate the clients;
(c)" Acceptance; and
(d)" Understand that the client is unique.
These skills have been explained in the previous topics. A counsellor needs to
build a positive relationship with the client in order to ensure that the counsellor
truly understands the clientÊs problem before starting a strategy with the client. A
positive relationship can also enable the client to be more motivated to succeed in
achieving changes towards adaptive behaviour.
In this situation, the client will be engaged in analysing, planning, processing and
evaluating his behaviour management programme. Behaviourism counsellors
will try to eliminate various behaviours which all this while were regarded as
maladaptive, and at the same time, the client will learn adaptive behaviours that
will be maintained according to the plan. The role of counsellor is to encourage
and help his client to make changes.
To implement this behaviourism counselling process, a counsellor must have

received training and experience in human behaviour modification, and must be
willing to be a consultant, teacher, advisor, reinforcer and facilitator. In terms of
characters, he needs to be friendly, inquisitive, willing to help others and sincere.

What are the duties of a counsellor? First, he should be able to help the client in
analysing his behaviour; second, to interpret problems, and finally, to choose an
objective to be achieved. The counselling process will be simpler and more
facilitating if the counsellor and client manage to create a means of
communication which is effective for both of them, to trust each other and be
cooperative. This good relationship factor must be maintained for as long as the
client and counsellor work together in finding ways to help the client to make
changes. More specific ways to do this are explained in the topic on
communication skills.
6.6 STRATEGIES TO HELP CLIENT
Several strategies to help clients will be explained in this section. A counsellor

can use the chosen strategy for the purpose of reinforcing a desired behaviour or
eliminating unwanted behaviour. Most importantly, the involvement and
cooperation between the client and the counsellor must be maintained. The
chosen strategies explained below are only related to external behaviour, such as:
(a)" Role play;
(b)" Assertive practice;
(c)" Economy token;
(d)" Self-management;
(e)" Self-monitoring; and
(f)" Self-reinforcement.
SELF CHECK 5.5
6.6.1 Role Play
Strategies using role play have been used regularly by counsellors to train clients
in various behaviours which they found were very hard to do before this. It can
be referred to as acting and training which is guided by counsellor with a specific
purpose. Professional counsellors who follow the behaviourism counselling
approach use role play when they conduct assertive practice, modelling (imitate
otherÊs behaviour) and career counselling.
Role play is the best technique in expanding the counsellorÊs awareness and
showing him that there are many alternatives in acting other behaviours. For
example, to teach an extremely shy student to talk in a group discussion, we can
use role play, where the student is asked to give an opinion to his counsellor.

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The rational here is that the student practises giving out opinions in a safe
environment and situation. When the counsellor feels that the student is
confident enough, only then will the student be allowed to return to his or her
respective group. The class teacher must give cooperation by not forcing the
client, because if the client is still nervous and shy, his or her feelings will be
jeopardised.
Role play techniques can also be used with other clients so that the student will
be more assertive when he finds himself having difficulties in reacting when
other people take advantage of him. Role play gives an opportunity to the
individual to try bringing out a new behaviour in a safer situation before it is
used outside or in places where troubles frequently arise.
Even though the use of role play technique is effective, however, it has its own
limitations, which are:
(a)" It depends on the counsellorÊs skills and eagerness in administering its
ways.
(b)" It also depends on the clientÊs own desire to experience, listen and feel the
new behaviour which might have been hard for him to do before this.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
Explain what role play technique is and its limitation of effectiveness.
6.6.2 Assertive Practice

Assertive practice is a technique used to teach clients to gain confidence in
coping with the people whom he thought was a threat. We must remember that
this technique must not be used to teach the client to be aggressive.
The main purposes of assertive practice are:

(a)" Actively gives strength to initiate chosen desired behaviour, that is to act
without causing any physical and emotional injury to other people; and
(b)" To guide clients who are passive, dependent and unmotivated, so that they
will find alternatives, which is to choose a more productive solution.
Many counsellors found out that their clients need to develop their assertive
skills in enhancing their self-management and problem solving skills. Clients

could lose their self-esteem by letting other people take advantage of them; are
unable to face their parents, employer, husband or wife or other people
appropriately; or creating unwanted responses by other people, if the clients
behave aggressively instead of assertively.
Assertive exercise is usually carried out using these ways:

(i)" Role playing and modelling passive, aggressive and assertive situations
which the clients usually experience;
(ii)" Through problem exploration and interpreting;
(iii)" Repeating chosen role play exercise a few times;
(iv)" Role-reversal, which is to act out situations that cause the client to be
unable to behave assertively; and
(v)" Implement the desired assertive behaviour gradually (successive
approximation).
With the ways mentioned above, the client will not only be able to shape his new
behaviour in a safe environment with his counsellor, but the client, together with
the counsellor could also analyse behaviours which can be gradually moulded.
When the client finally feels comfortable and is able to respond with the new
behaviour, then only can he try it outside of the counsellorÊs room, which is in
the clientÊs daily lives.
6.6.3 Economic Token (Rewards)

One of the behaviourism techniques normally used is economy token or
rewarding gifts. This is an organised procedure where tokens or gifts are given as
reinforcement for appropriate behaviour. The tokens can be in the form of things
like plastic coins, marks, or anything which can be cashed in with valuable things
or special privileges. The use of economy token has been proven to be effective
where this technique is used in institutions such as hospitals, clinics, nurseries
and also in prisons. This procedure can be used in various situations.
For example, in school environment, a counsellor can prepare an economy token

structure to be used as reinforcement to students who behave positively, and to
list down types of punishments, penalties or loss of privileges if a student is to
break the rule or fail to do his or her responsibility. This technique is very
effective when used with clients who have problem in normal behaviour or more
complex behaviour. Users of this technique discovered that this technique was
very suitable to be used especially to eliminate maladaptive behaviours or to
mould adaptive behaviours.

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The question now is – can a behaviour which was modified through this strategy
be maintained or would it diminish after a short while? For example, after a
student who behaves aggressively, has a tendency to get into a fight and likes to
disturb other students, undergoes the changing process using the technique, and
there seems to be positive changes – would these positive changes be sustainable?
Professional behaviourism counsellors will assert the effectiveness of economy

token strategy, however, they too agree that there exist problems in ensuring that
the achieved changes will be maintained and sustained. The counsellor who
planned and prepared the economy token structure must be prepared to ensure
that the changes can be maintained by implementing these steps:
(a)" Ask assistance from other workers such as the class teacher, teachers who
teach the student, request for parents to make commitments in helping and
understanding the concept and objective of economy token;
(b)" Choose behaviour which most probably would receive reinforcement from
the society and the environment;
(c)" Adhere to behaviourism modification principle such as rewarding tokens

or gifts instantly, being fair and consistent;
(d)" The tokens or gifts rewarded must have reinforcement value; and
(e)" Ensure that the modified behaviour is a desired behaviour outside the school.
ACTIVITY 6.6
How can we ensure the modified behaviour continues to be practised
by the client?
6.6.4 Self-Management, Self-Monitoring and Self-

Reinforcement
Self-management, self-monitoring and self-reinforcement are trends involving a
client as a collaborator participant who is active in the counselling process. If we
compare this with former behaviouristsÊ views, the client is more passive. The
characteristics of this technique are as follows:
(a)" Clients play an active role in each counselling phase;
(b)" Clients give his own opinion, follow the counsellorÊs advice and construct
his own specific and effective plans;

(c)" ClientsÊ thinking process is given attention and focus;

(d)" Clients are expected to be more responsible in working hard to achieve the
desired changes;
(e)" Clients learn the way to self-reinforce;
(f)" Clients are asked to observe, monitor, record, self-reinforce and are
sometimes asked to interpret behaviour data which they have recorded;
and
(g)" CounsellorsÊ role is more of a mentor or educator instead of an expert.
According to the proponents of behaviourism theory, the procedures listed above

can be made into a framework of any strategy discussed before this. Self-
management strategy has specific steps to be adhered to in order to achieve the
desired objective.
You must understand the steps explained below so that the discussion on the
behaviourism concept which has been explained earlier is more comprehensible.
Here are the steps to self-manage, self-monitor and self-reinforce.
(a)" Conceptualisation and Definition of Problem and Choosing Objective in

Behavioural Form
(i)" Decide target objective to be achieved individually.

(ii)" The objective must be:
•" Comprehensible, important and valuable to the client;
•" Can be analysed and measured objectively;
•" Realistic and achievable; and
•" Positive and constructive.
(iii)" Statements about target objective must include:
•" ClientÊs need at an achievable standard, or eliminated; and
•" Gradual achievement of target objective according to the chosen
dates.
Example:
Counsellor: So, now what you really want to do is to achieve your target to
lose your weight, and this time, it will be maintained.

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Client: Yes, thatÊs true, because what IÊm focusing on now is my health.
Counsellor: Alright, I think you have already made a commitment to lose

your weight and you want to start it as soon as possible. LetÊs decide how
many kilograms you want to lose, and plan a realistic and safe schedule,
and letÊs arrange on the dates to achieve your objectives.
(b)" Managing and Monitoring Target Behaviour

(i)" Choose appropriate aims based on clientÊs objectives.
(ii)" Start baseline assessment before implementing behaviour modification
strategies.
(iii)" Start monitoring and take notes of any related targets.
To implement this, the client needs to:

(i)" Take notes of behaviour right after it happens;
(ii)" Use paper and pencil, a watch, or any appropriate recording device to
record behaviour data; and
(iii)" Implement frequency calculation, time recording or use other
monitoring strategies to record behaviour.
Example:
Counsellor: How are you going to change the way you record and monitor
your behaviour this time in order to ensure that you stick to the schedule
and achieve the targeted weight?
Client: Oh, IÊve already figured it out; weight-lifting, calorie count, types of
exercise and I also thought about how I am going to trace my daily activity.
I have also thought about several methods to monitor what I do, so as not
to lie to myself.
Counsellor: You mentioned „several methods‰. What are the methods that
you intend to use? I really want to see you make it this time. LetÊs take a
look at the details on the things that you want to do and how you are going
to do it.
Client: Alright. I want to show you what IÊve written as a record on my

activities.
Counsellor: (While examining the note). This is a good list. LetÊs re-check
and discuss together. Maybe we could think of other ways which can help
make your activity monitoring easier.

(c)" Environmental Change and Taking the Right Step

(i)" Continue taking notes or recording target behaviour. At the
beginning, try to avoid the environment and situation which will
surely cause unwanted response or maladaptive behaviour.
(ii)" Change the atmosphere, situation and environment to make sure that
you:
•" Realise what you are doing;
•" Limit the stimulus that causes unwanted behaviour; and
•" Simplify behaviour which gives satisfaction.
Example:
Counsellor: This is one step where you have to change to other ways. If you
continue your past behaviour, it will be hard to eliminate this new
behaviour, and you will be eating like you used to eat back then and
performing physical activity which was started. This will cause trouble. In
my opinion, you need to make a drastic change if you want to achieve your
target weight.
Client: Yes, I know a few things that I must do. First, I must try to eat less
fattening food and lower the calorie of each meal that I take.
Counsellor: OK, is there anything else?
Client: Well, IÊm thinking of going for exercise everyday – maybe every
morning.
Counsellor: ThatÊs really good. Let us discuss that matter. We should think
of a way to avoid the craving to eat like you used to, and to ensure that
your plan will work.
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(d)" Generating Appropriate Reinforcement and Determining Meaningful and
Effective Outcome for Client
(i)" Continue recording target behaviour. Identify reinforcement and its
result; where positive reinforcement results in positive outcome, and
which reinforcement is regarded as unpleasant;
(ii)" Implement reinforcement in order to:
•" Appropriate behaviour is given immediate reinforcement.
•" Criteria in getting reinforcement are realistic and easy to perform.

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•" People who are close to the client support him in setting the
desired behaviour target.
•" Set up a phased schedule so that each achievement for each phase
is given reinforcement.
•" Provide extrinsic and intrinsic reinforcement.
•" Reinforcement has the ability to affect.
•" Reinforcement is scheduled to be made into short-term, mid-term,
and long-term incentives.
Example:
Counsellor: I want you to have enough reward to ensure that you follow
the plan, but be careful to not to set up a target too high and one that is
unachievable. And donÊt regard yourself as the only one who can give
reward and reinforcement. I want to know the people you regard as strong
supporters, those who can administer the rewards. This will increase your
chances in achieving your target.
Client: IÊm sure my wife will help me with this. After all, if I lie to myself
when IÊm eating, for sure my wife will stop me.
Counsellor: Good! Put in another few names of the people who can help
you. Then we will plan a strategy where you can divide specific tasks to
them for your and their sake too.
Client: OK. This time I really want to lose my weight.
(e)" Maintaining the Achievement and Counting the Success

(i)" Continue taking notes and continue thinking of suitable rewards for
desired behaviour.
(ii)" Create an effective evaluation or feedback system to make sure that
the self-management, self-monitoring and self-reinforcement can be
modified and enhanced, or can be used once again to maintain your
target objective.
(iii)" Maintaining the learnt behaviour by:
•" Lessening self-noting.
•" Lessening reinforcement.
•" Get social support.

•" Use this strategy to change something which the client regards as
important.
Example:
Client: What I want to do is to seriously involve my wife in controlling my

weight to maintain it even after I achieved my target.
Counsellor: Is there any possibilities that she might give reinforcement on

your old behaviour?
Client: Certainly not! She takes good care of my health.
Counsellor: If that is so, I suggest that you make your wife as an assistant in
continuing the target objective. Try to think of other few names who can
continuously support you to not to go back to your old eating habit. It
would certainly cause great trouble to yourself if you return to your old
habit after all the physical activities that you had done all this while.
Client: OK. Thank you.
•" In this topic, you have learnt the purpose of theories and learnt why
counsellors need theories before conducting the counselling process.
•" Behaviourism counselling theory is explained by providing the names of the

people who are related to the learning tenets which are the bases for
behaviourism counselling theory.
•" Counsellors need to understand how the clients view their own problems.
•" By using the behaviourism approach, counsellors will be able to explore

clientsÊ problems based on the counsellorsÊ understanding on adaptive and
maladaptive behaviour from the perspective of this theory.
•" Several practical techniques, such as role play, assertive practice and
economy token are also elaborated.

"
Assertive practice Role play

Behaviourism Self-management
Counselling theory Self-monitoring
Reward Self-reinforcement
"

Topic
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X Person-
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7 centred
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Counselling
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" LEARNING OUTCOMES
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1." Explain the humanistic personality theory of Carl Rogers;
2." Describe the main concepts of the person-centred counselling
approach;
3." Describe the counselling process based on person-centred
counselling approach;
4." Describe the main strategies in helping clients; and
5." Apply important concepts in person-centred counselling theory.
"
X" INTRODUCTION
This topic will introduce the Person-Centred Theory proposed by Carl Rogers.
Person-centred counselling is an approach that helps an individual or a group of
people based on the philosophy that psychological growth will occur when an
individual or a group of people perceive that they are treated honestly, kindly
and emphatically. Giving all the trust to a counsellor is the foundation of person-
centred counselling. Rogers believes that each human has the tendency to fulfil
the potential which he owns (to self-actualise). Therefore, each human will act
and move forward to fulfil this tendency. You will find this theory to be more
meaningful if you fully comprehend important concepts such as congruence,
unconditional positive regard, empathy, phenomenology and others.

158 X TOPIC 7 PERSON-CENTRED COUNSELLING
"
7.1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Life History
Carl Rogers (refer to Figure 7.1), the first proponent of Person-Centred Theory,
was born on 8 January 1902, in Oak Park, Illinois, and passed away in 1987. Born
and raised in a disciplined, religious and morally high family, Rogers started his
tertiary education at the University of Wisconsin in the field of botany, but two
years later he changed his major to religious studies at Union Theological
Seminary in New York. However, Rogers moved out of the religious group
because of his controversy surrounding the religion doctrine and for boldly
questioning the meaning of life.
Figure 7.1: Carl Rogers (1902 – 1987)
Rogers preferred to regard himself as a clinical psychologist, and later he

furthered his studies in TeacherÊs College, Columbia University and received his
PhD. in 1928. When he was in Columbia, Rogers already tried to harmonise
contradicting ideas such as the Freudian vision belief with scientific statistic
methods, and religious beliefs with scientific beliefs, intuition with objective and
clinical with statistics.
Rogers started to work as an expert psychologist as a director of child study,

department of the Society and Prevention of Cruelty to Children at Rochester,
New York, Professor of Clinical Psychology at Ohio State University (1940 –
1943), Psychology Professor and Counselling Director at University of Chicago
(1945 – 1957), Psychology and Psychiatry Professor at University of Wisconsin
(1957 – 1963), Director at Western Behavioral Sciences Institute (1963 – 1968), and
Director at the Center for the Studies of the Person (1968 – 1987).

TOPIC 7 PERSON-CENTRED COUNSELLING W 159
7.1.1 Personality Theory (View towards Human)

Humans are characteristically positive. They are forward moving towards self-
actualisation, stabilisation and socialisation.
Rogers did not accord to the belief that human beings are generally prone to sin,
as proposed by Christians. Freud, too, stated that humans are irrational, unsocial,
vicious and tend to be destructive to themselves and other people. According to
Rogers, human beings do act as above, but at that time, he is in a neurotic
condition, and is not fully functioning like a real human being. Human beings
are free to experience and fulfil basic human needs when they can operate well.
To Rogers, human beings are actually positive and sociable, trustworthy and
constructive.
For example, the behaviour of humans can be compared to the behaviour of a

lion. According to Rogers, a lion is a constructive animal and it is trustworthy
among the lion creatures. Even though a lion is always described as a wild
animal, this creature possesses good qualities. It only kills when it is hungry, not
whenever it wants to kill.
A lion grows from a cub which relies much on independence; and it transforms
from being a selfish creature into a cooperative member of the group, always
putting the groupÊs needs first. Thus, what is clear here is that RogersÊ view of
humans is very positive, and it is similar with Maslow and Goldstein who
emphasise that organisms move forward to achieve their own potential. There is
no such thing as a destructive drive in humans, as everything move towards a
healthy personality, self-actualisation and self-realisation.
7.2 CONCEPTS OF PERSON-CENTERED

In this topic, we will look at the main concepts which were proposed by Rogers.
Besides that, we will also discuss personality growth in relation to the theory.
7.2.1 Phenomenology
One of the concepts which were proposed by Rogers is his phenomenology view.
According to Rogers:
„An individual perceives this world according to his unique view and these
perceptions become his background of the phenomenology. An individual reacts
to the environment as how he sees it, and this environment might not be similar
with the definition of environment as used by other researchers.‰
"
The background of a personÊs phenomena includes the conscious and

unconscious perceptions, either symbolised or unsymbolised (Figure 7.3). The
important determiner is the behaviour. For a healthy person, it is the symbolised
behaviour (conscious) and/or the ability to be symbolised. Even though the
phenomena world is a personal realm, it can be perceived here (especially for
clinical cases) as it appeared to this individual, which is to view behaviour with
his own eyes, and how the hypothesis of this matter gives psychological meaning
to the person. When we go through a counselling process, it seems as if we are
also involved with the drama which the client experiences and we enter the
clientÊs phenomena realm.
ACTIVITY 7.1
In our daily lives, we come across human who have various personalities
and life principles. Have you ever thought about how they come to form
their own life principles, especially how they view the world around
them? Does the experience of an individual influence the way they view
their environment and their lives?
7.2.2 Concept of Knowing

There are three ways of knowing:
Interpersonal is the knowledge which is acquired from other peopleÊs world

through the empathy attitude.
Objective knowledge refers to the knowledge that we know and is validated

by other peopleÊs observation.
Subjective knowledge refers to the knowledge which we acquire from our

own inner reference.
In knowing through phenomena, we use our empathy skills to understand the

phenomena background of a person – the phenomenology knowledge. All types
of knowledge of this kind must be used in therapy and research.

From the aspect of theory formation, Rogers started with a simple observation
and later developed it to perfection. The beginning of RogersÊ session usually
started in his clinic, because in his clinic there were phenomena subjects which
could be observed and later be combined to form the complete picture.
Therefore, we observed that the hypothesis which was proposed by Rogers was
explicit, and each was also explained vividly and in an orderly manner.
7.2.3 Structure of Personality

There are two main important constructs that we must know in order to
comprehend RogersÊ personality theory. They are: Organism and Self.
(a) Organism
Psychology views an organism as the centre of all experiences. Experience
involves everything that an organism consciously goes through in time. The
entire experience is referred to as phenomena background, which is the
reference frame known only to the individual. How a person behaves
depends on his phenomena background (subjective reality) and does not
depend on stimulus condition (extrinsic reality).
Phenomena background is dissimilar to awareness background. Awareness

needs emergence (imagining) of certain experiences. Life background
phenomena involve consciousness (symbolised) and unconsciousness
(unsymbolised).
An individual normally will validate the emerged experiences with the

situation of the environment. Validation of the world enables an individual
to live realistically. However, there are also unwanted perceptions or
uncompleted perceptions which an individual has tried, and these untested
experiences could cause a person to behave unrealistically and thus destroy
himself. The question here is: „When can we determine the correct
representations of perception and which are the unrealistic ones?‰
Rogers clarifies by stating:
„What is experienced or thought by an individual is not the reality for him;

it is actually a temporary hypothesis towards reality, a hypothesis which
might be true or untrue. An individual will not make evaluation unless
after he has made an attempt. What is an attempt? It involves the validation
of the centre of truth of all the knowledge acquired, by hypotheses which
are formed of organisms based on the previous information. Just like how
we test the salt, which is by tasting it.‰

"
(b) Self
Self is a part of phenomena background which is gradually separated. It is a
conception of the whole perception which is arranged and consistent
representing the characteristics of „me‰ and perception of the relationship
between „me‰ and other people, and various other aspects of life,
altogether with the values instilled with this perception. It is a totality in
consciousness, an ever-changing gestalt but it is specific within a particular
duration.
An individual perceives an object and behavioural experience which seem to

relate to him or her as an object. He or she gives meaning to these objects. All or
the whole of perception and meaning system contributes to the phenomena
background to be known as Self.
The self-concept related is ideal self. Ideal or superior self is the self-concept
desired by an individual. It involves perception and meaning which is related to
self-appreciation by individual, significance people and the society.
There are a few interesting characteristics of the self-concept elaborated by

Rogers, which are:
(i)" RogersÊ view of self is similar to the general psychology understanding

towards perception;
(ii)" The self contains configurational characteristics – representing one which is

fully organised and consistent. Even though self is said to be ever-changing,
it has a pattern, is integrated and organised. It does not evolve from
thousands of stable stimulus which react independently, but it is a whole
fixed pattern which changes with each new addition but maintains the
same quality;
(iii)" Self is not homunculus. Self does not do anything. An individual does not
have a self which controls his or her behaviour, instead he or she has an
integration of experiences which is known as self; and
(iv)" The integration of experience and perception, known as self, emerges in

awareness. If the definition of self is drawn in unconscious measure, it is
hard to operationalise the self to be studied.
In the thousands of counselling sessions conducted by Rogers, there are

numerous statements which refer to self such as real self and ideal self. These
experiences have convinced Rogers about the experienced self-concept which
humans go through and that the purpose of humans is to be the real-self.

7.2.4 Process of Personality Growth

Rogers focuses on the view towards personality which emphasises perfection to
changes. Humans are forward moving, thus he or she has the perfection pattern.
Unlike Freud, who assumes that personality is constant, the energy can be
channeled. There is no drive in humans but there is more of a tendency towards
the self-perfection.
„The organism has one basic tendency and striving to actualise, maintain,
and enhance its experiencing organism.‰
He does not believe that human has many motives. The concept of perfection
involves:
(a)" Tendency of an organism to move from an easier structure to the ever-
changing ones;
(b)" Move from dependency towards independency;
(c)" From constancy and resolute to changes and freedom;
(d)" Involves organism with need or tension;
(e)" The focus is more on the satisfaction or enjoyment which can be acquired
from the activities which enhance the organism growth;
(f)" Creative activity done by the organism; and
(g)" Organism works to maintain the consistencies between the perception-self
with the congruence and the perception towards the experiences.
„Most of the way we behave which is adjusted with the organism is the one
which is consistent with the self concept.‰
Organism does not move to find enjoyment or to avoid pain but it moves solely
to maintain its organisation (structure). Therefore, the individual is true to
himself only. A person will behave with consistent means by maintaining his
self-concept, even though this behaviour does not give any benefit to him. For
example, an individual who considers himself as a lazy person, will try his
hardest to not to attend the lectures, even though by doing so he will be left
behind in many aspects!

"
A question arises from the statement above which is:
„When is the time where an individual experiences inconsistencies in him, and

how can we maintain the consistencies during such situation?‰
To expand this question, Rogers stated:
„An individual is in incongruence when he experiences conflict between the

self which is perceived with the real experience. For instance, if a person
considers himself as someone who does not favor hatred, but now he
experiences hatred for someone, he is in the state of incongruence.‰
Incongruence is a condition of inner tense and disorder. When incongruence

happens and the individual fails to realise it, he will be easily worried.
Anxiety happens because of inconsistencies between the experience and

perception towards self. In many situations, an individual imagines his
experiences, and it will appear in awareness. However, an individual is also able
to maintain unsymbolised experiences and thus it will not reach awareness.
7.2.5 Subception Process

An individual could experience a stimulus by not bringing it to his awareness.
For example, a person could recognise certain experiences as threatening and
conflicting with his self-concept, and does not imagine the experience so that he
will be aware. Because his purpose is to maintain the congruence between the
self and the experience, an individual denies the experience to his awareness.
This denial causes worries; the ignored experience might appear in awareness.
An organism must maintain its self-concept and its responses by enhancing the
use of defense, which is by defending the self-experience which conflicts with the
self. There are two processes of defense, which are distortion and denial.
7.2.6 Personality Growth

Rogers did not study the individual growth from infant to adult – specifically. He
believes in the general personality development for all individuals. ChildrenÊs
growth depends on the support from the parents and environment. Studies on
children with high self-esteem, show that they come from families who practice
acceptance, show interest, are attending and kind with a permissive lifestyle, and
those who practise democracy instead of being abusive.

Growth process occurs naturally, where an organism develops, distinguishes

experiences, become freer, enhances the socialisation ability and continues
looking for the perfection of self-experience. Self will separate from the
phenomena space, and will be different and complete but at the same time
maintains its completeness. Self-development will involve the demands of other
peopleÊs regard which will compete with the experience of self-organism. The
process of filtering will occur when other peopleÊs demands are stronger than the
self-experience.
Basically, Rogers is stating that the most important thing is that children can
grow in congruence and find perfection. A healthy child lives in an environment
where he is free to accept himself, accepted by the parents even though there are
still behaviours which are quite hard to be accepted by them.
7.2.7 Psychological Disorder

A healthy person is able to accept a variety of experiences which form an entire
whole (Gestalt). There will be congruence here between the experience and self,
where the individual will be open to experiences and will not be defensive.
On the contrary, for a neurotic (being disorderly), the characteristics below can
be observed:
(a)" Structure of self is no longer in parallel with the experience of organism;
(b)" Often denying experiences to be emerged in awareness, either through
distortions or denials; and
(c)" The effect is an individual who is intolerant, resolute, and defensive in
defending the incongruent self.
An individual also uses defense mechanisms such as FreudÊs terminology

(rationality, fantasy and others), but the most important in exposition of person-
centered approach is distortion and denial.
Rogers believes that in order to cure a disorderly person, a counsellor needs to

possess certain attitudes that are sufficient enough to help the client to change. It
is known as „the necessary and sufficient conditions‰. They are:
(a) Congruent
The concept of congruent refers to the self of an individual which matches
what he/she experiences. Self and experience have a similarity. A
counsellor who wants to help the client must be a person who does not
encounter inconsistent and conflicting experiences.

"
(b) Positive Unconditional Regard

All human wants a meaningful relationship: to be accepted, loved,
respected and trusted. The counsellor, when communicating with the
client, must accept the client with an open heart, does not evaluate the
clientÊs strengths and weaknesses, and appreciate the relationship with the
client. The unconditional regard enables the clients to communicate openly
and talk freely with the client.
(c) Empathy
The concept of empathy denotes the ability of the counsellor to understand
and help the client precisely as what the client experiences. It is as if the
counsellor goes through what the client goes through, if not emotionally, at
least cognitively. By accurately perceiving the clientÊs inner world, the
counsellor will be able to understand the client.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
Sometimes, a counsellor also can be too involved in thinking about

the clientÊs problem. What are the ways to avoid this from happening?
7.3 COUNSELLING PROCESS

When Rogers introduced this therapy, it was well-received particularly because
his approach was different as compared to what was practised at that time,
which was from the psychoanalytic or behavioural aspect. The person-centred
approach focuses on the relationship built by the counsellor and the client. The
counsellor must have certain characteristics that make the relationship
meaningful for the client and must be effective in counselling sessions.
Meanwhile, for the client, he needs to experience certain psychological conditions
before undergoing a counselling session.
7.3.1 Therapy Conditions

According to Rogers (1957), what is vital in shaping the human personality
changes which are experienced in counselling are several main characteristics
which can drive the counselling session. Rogers proposed that the personality
changes that happen in individuals in counselling is the inner and outer change
towards integration, reduction of inner conflict, more energy used to live more
effectively and behaviour change which is considered as more mature. Based on
his clinical experiences, Rogers suggested a few important conditions to start the
positive change, and these conditions when used simultaneously are sufficient to

initiate change. Initially, Rogers (1957) proposed the conditions as a series of

hypotheses which needs to be tested up until 1985, and after all these while doing
the experiments, Rogers (1985) still considered these conditions as feasible and
acceptable and regarded as a guide to understand the relationship between the
counsellor and client in person-centred theory.
Rogers (1957) advocates six important conditions to initiate personality change

during a counselling session. The important and continuous conditions needed
for some time during counselling in order for the personality change to occur are:
(a)" Two persons in a psychological relationship;
(b)" The first person which is known as the client is in the state of incongruence,
is easily influenced or worried;
(c)" The second person which is known as the counsellor is congruent and
integrated in relationship;
(d)" Counsellor accepts client unconditionally;
(e)" The counsellor understand empathically the inner reference frame of the
client and tries to communicate it; and
(f)" The counsellorÊs effort to communicate to the client the empathic
understanding and unconditional regard is achieved at least in part.
If all the six conditions exist in the counselling process and is continued for a
certain period, other conditions are not necessary to start a personality change.
The six conditions proposed by Rogers encompass three major concepts which
are:
(a) A Relationship Pattern

The first condition is that the counselling must be conducted as a
relationship. This means that the first condition demands that both persons
communicate and both of them perceptualise different scope of experience
between each other. Rogers considers the first condition as a necessary
presupposition to give notion to other conditions. From another aspect, the
presupposition is the definition to the meaning of counselling as proposed
by other authors such as Arbuckle (1974), Patterson (1974) and Corey
(1984). Rogers (1957) states counselling is an extremely personal and
subjective relationship between an individual and another individual. All
of them define counselling as a relationship.
(b) The Psychological Situation the Client Undergoes

Clients who are in need of guidance from a counsellor must be in the state
of incongruence, and they must be easily influenced and anxious. A person
suffers from incongruence when his experience does not match his self-

"
perception. Rogers (1957) illustrates this by giving a situation of how a

mother pretends to be sick to come up with an excuse to ask her son to stay
at home in order to make her happy. To perceive this desire consciously
would conflict with her self-perception that she is a good mother. Thus,
being sick consistently fits her self-concept and with this, she is able to
realise her distorted experience (for her son to stay). What happens now is
the incongruence between her self-perception (a sick mother who deserves
attention from her son) and the actual experience (a mother who refuses to
allow her son to leave).
When a person fails to notice the incongruence he is experiencing, it would lead

him to feel anxious and restless. This happens in two contexts: some drastic
experiences which cannot go unattended by the person involved, and situations
where the state of incongruence is realised little by little. The former leaves the
person to take it as a personal challenge, whereas the latter would stir his
anxiety. The two situations prove that the actual experience of the person is not
congruent with his self-concept and this is what has actually been noticed when
the counselling session starts.
ACTIVITY 7.2
Have you ever heard of a newly delivered mother experiencing post-

partum psychosis? In your opinion, what are the influential factors for
this?
"
(c) The Attitudes that Counsellor Should Hold On To
(i) Congruence
The first quality necessary for a therapeutic development is
congruence, genuineness or integrity. This means that in the
interaction between a counsellor and a client, the counsellor is free to
express his true colours, not acting on false pretenses as he describes
himself either directly or indirectly. Anyway, it is impossible for the
counsellor to keep up the pretence in every aspect of life; hence the
necessity to act genuinely throughout the interaction with the client.
(ii) Positive Unconditional Regard
When the counsellor feels that he is going through the warmth feeling
of accepting every aspect of the clientÊs experience as part of the
personÊs life, the counsellor has achieved the level of positive
unconditional regard. This shows that there is no positive or negative
prejudgment available. It involves accepting all the clientÊs
experiences whether the negative ones described as „bad‰, sad, scary,

and strange experiences or the positive ones described as „good‰,

positive, mature, confident or positively socialised. All these feelings
including the fact of whether or not the client is consistent are
accepted warmly by the counsellor and not for the reason to dominate
or just to fulfil his needs.
(iii) Empathy
The third quality is that the counsellor has to grasp the idea about the
clientÊs experience empathically in the sense that he tries to put
himself in the clientÊs shoes. The counsellor tries to stimulate the
anger, pain and guilt of the clientÊs even though the counsellor is not
actually experiencing them. When he is clear about the clientÊs feeling
and situation, but is still free to revolve within his own world, the
counsellor can express his understanding and voice the meaning of
the experience to the confused client. The counsellor needs to be
empathic in order to:
•" Understand the clientÊs feeling;
•" Clearly comprehend the clientÊs messages;
•" Articulate proper and relevant language and point of view; and
•" Express suitable intonation to signify that he is able to share the
clientÊs experience.
7.3.2 Personality Development

In order to comprehend all the three qualities recommended by Rogers with the
relevance of their use, they have to be viewed in line with RogersÊ theory of
personality. The readiness of the counsellor to start a session with the client,
demands a clear picture of the types of personality he is dealing with. This theory
has been gradually developed from RogersÊ individual and group counselling
sessions handled since he first served the children at a child guidance clinic until
his session with the „encounter‰ group.
„From these hours and from my relationships with these people, I

have drawn most of whatever insight I possess into the meaning of
therapy, the dynamics of interpersonal relationships, and the
structure and functioning of personality‰.
Rogers (1957)
The main principle conceptualised by Rogers from his therapeutic experience is

the idea that when a client perceives, which means that the counsellor accepts the
client unconditionally and understands emphatically what is going on within the
client, the process of change will begin. When this happens, the client will

"
gradually be aware of his feelings and the actual experience; hence the
congruence of his self-concept with his entire experience. When the individual
reaches the congruence to the maximum, he is said to be a fully functioning
person. The change that is taking place occurs because the individual, as he
experiences freedom, will have the tendency to move forward towards maturity.
RogersÊ theory of personality very much relies on the phenomenological theory

and this theory of personality makes use of the self-concept to explain the
individual development.
„It pictures the end-point of personality development as being a basic

congruence between the phenomenal field of experience and the
conceptual structure of the self – a situation which, if achieved, would
represent freedom from internal strain and anxiety, and freedom from
potential strain; which would represent the maximum in realistically-
oriented adaption; which would mean the establishment of an
individualised value system having considerable identity with the
value system of any other equally well-adjusted member of the
human race‰.
Rogers (1951)
Organisms have a tendency and a basic aim – to reach perfection as well as

maintain and develop his experiences. Thus, the organism is equipped with a
moving force with one aim in life. The tendency to move forward is held firmly
by every counsellor to encourage personality changes among his client.
According to Rogers, self-development can only operate when certain
alternatives have been clearly perceived and viewed holistically by the clients. In
other words, a certain someone will not be able to perfect himself unless he can
differentiate between the progressive and regressive behaviours.
7.3.3 Therapy Process

Even though an individual has the potential to move forward, he is also open to
the influence of the environment particularly the social settings. If the judgment
to a child as he grows is positive (positive unconditional reception), his self-
development will not interfere with his tendency to move forward.
This means that his self-worth is not threatened and flows with the development
of the organism and will then lead to the development and individual
adjustment for a more effective life.
Unfortunately, as one grows to maturity, not all the evaluations received are
positive. Some may be negative. These help shape a personÊs self-concept. When

a significant other in the person's world provides positive comments that are
conditional, rather than unconditional, the person introjects the desired values,
making them his own, and acquires conditions of worth. Nevertheless, if the
evaluation is in conflict with his self-evaluation, his self-concept will develop
distortedly and he will be enveloped with the feelings of insecurity especially if
the views of the people around him are seen to be more influential. As he has to
maintain his integrity of the self-concept, this threatening experience will be
perceived distortedly or denied into awareness. In other words, the experiences
that conform with his self-concept will be perceived and developed into
awareness while those that are not, are distorted or denied into awareness.
The experience which has been accepted into his self-structure accurately will
raise the incongruence between the individual and the experience. This will lead
to incongruence in behaviour which means that some behaviours consistent with
the self-concept are manifested accurately with conscious awareness while some
others describe the organism experiences which have yet to be absorbed into his
self-structure; those which have not been recognised or have been distorted to
match the personality.
An incongruent experience with the self-structure will be described as

threatening. If this experience is described with conscious awareness, it would
lead a person towards inconsistency and a state of anxiety will appear. However,
the self-defense process would hinder this from happening. It will try to maintain
the experience perception so that it would be consistent with the self-structure
and self-worth. However, this process will eventually result in inappropriate
perceptions or direct him towards misleading intentions.
At the point where the self-incongruence with the actual experience grows huge,
the process of self-defense will not be able to develop effectively and will thus
create anxiety and raise conflict.
To restore self-congruence, several conditions of acceptance imposed need to be

reconsidered and the counsellor should create an atmosphere of unconditional
warm friendship. In order to convey this, it needs to be done emphatically. When
the individual perceives full acceptance, she would by then be less anxious.
To develop such an individual, a non-threatening condition has to exist at the

start of the session. Enveloped in such warmth, the counsellor will encourage the
client to explore her subconscious distorted experience and guide her to escape
from the experience with conscious awareness. A therapeutic communication
will encourage the client to slowly accept the threatening feelings to be
assimilated with the structure of her self-concept. The understanding and
acceptance of the threatening judgment will be a starting point to create a more
flexible self-structure and a perpetual acceptance.

"
7.4 STRATEGY TO HELP CLIENTS

For a person-centred counselling, interaction is of the essence; it starts the process
of development, helps through the process and ends it. There is no specific
strategy or technique recommended by the person-centred approach like other
theories. The main focus is the relations and conditions experienced by both the
counsellor and client.
7.4.1 Counselling Interaction

Counselling can be classified as an interaction between an individual with
another individual or more. This interaction varies from one individual to
another. A counsellor needs to submit to several principles or etiquette of his
profession when conducting this type of counselling.
Firstly, he has to show interest in being genuine and honest to every client. Carl
Rogers stated that it is crucial for a client to feel accepted by the counsellor. This
interest can be expressed to the client in many ways; being punctual for
meetings, being sensitive to what the client delivers through appropriate body
language and facial expressions, and responding to whatever is said by the client.
It is important to note that this interest must not be faked.
Secondly, a client needs to place her trust in the counsellor and feel safe with
him. In this case, confidentiality is mandatory. If the client wishes to refrain
herself from defenses and unleash all her weaknesses and strength, she has to be
convinced that the disclosure of private information will not leak and be used
against her later on. Aside from confidentiality, trust and respect for credentials
of the counsellor, the client has to like him as an individual and feel positive
about his knowledge. Indeed, there are no easy techniques available to develop
trust in the counsellor. It is an ongoing effort that grows with time and the
counsellor can help precipitate this by showing his genuine interest to help the
client through his actions, language and behaviour.
Lastly, counselling is limited in so many ways, but the limitations are imposed
for the purpose of development. For instance, the meeting is held at a certain
time by appointment within a time limit. Also, there are limitations pertaining to
the services that can be offered by the counsellor. The counsellor, unlike a
welfare department officer, cannot by any means visit his clients at home and
there is a limit to his relationship with the clients. The counsellor cannot share his
personal opinions in a private conversation. Though he may meet them in a
social event, he must not get intimate or extend the hand of friendship with the
clients and must not play father, mother, lover or any significant role in the
clientsÊ lives. These limitations serve to show that he is taking the clients
seriously and professionally. What needs to be done must be done by the clients
themselves. They must not depend on someone else to decide for them or save
them from the effects of their own doings.
Since the process of counselling is an interaction, we notice that Rogers never

used any specific techniques to help clients and there were no certain stages that
the clients had to go through. Nevertheless, based on the observation and
analysis on the sessions done by him, there are several conspicuous techniques.
Even though skills do not equate to techniques, they can be used in the process of
building counselling relationships which is the major focus in the person-centred
counselling. In essence, these skills have been further explained by Ivey (1998).
Not all were applied by Rogers, but they can still serve as good guidelines.
7.4.2 Counselling Skills

Basic skills in a certain counselling being applied throughout the process are:
(a) Questioning
If the open-ended questions are in use, the counsellor can expect a freer
response from the client. Otherwise, the client will provide shorter and
accurate answers if given close-ended questions. Questions can help the
client keep on talking or the other way round. Relevant questions may
delve into her world and thus provide helpful information for the
counsellor to better understand the clientÊs problem. These questions can
also direct, develop and restrain the discussion. In general, questions may
either be open-ended or close-ended and may start with what, how and
why.
(b) Minimal Encouragement
The client needs to know if she is heard and understood when she discloses
her problem, view or opinion. She wants her self and her world to be
understood by the counsellor. Encouragement is in the form of nodding,
„mm...hmm...‰, „go on‰, „yes...yes...,‰ „I understand‰ or other similar short
expressions. All these short responses tell her that the counsellor is actually
listening and is following her story and that he is there with her. It is also
crucial to give the proper responses according to the flow of the clientÊs
story.
(c) Paraphrasing
Apart from following the clientÊs storyline and telling her that the
counsellor understands it, another way is by paraphrasing the points that
have been told by the client briefly.
When the client hears the brief responses by the counsellor, she may come
to realise that the counsellor truly understands what she is saying.

"
Paraphrasing also helps to ensure that the counsellor understands what the
clientÊs real problem is. However, paraphrasing is not repeating the points
but rather a summary of the whole story.
(d) Summarising
This is almost similar to paraphrasing but it covers much more information
and demands a longer time in listening to the story before the counsellor
gives a response. In summarising, there may appear some connected ideas
or themes. Sometimes, it is applied at the start of the session to help the
client recap the content of the previous meeting. Also, it is used by the end
of the session to offer a solution to the story throughout the session.
(e) Reflection of Feelings
When the client tells her story, it always involves emotions. These emotions
embedded in the spoken words call for attention by the counsellor. By
doing the reflection of feelings, the counsellor is making a statement that he
understands what the client feels or is experiencing. As she starts to realise
this, the client will be encouraged to disclose her feelings. Those feelings
which have been concealed or told just on the surface will be elaborated one
by one. A deeper feeling helps the relationship and the exploration to
happen sooner. It is best to remind that should the reflection of feelings be
done, it has to be accurate or else it may reveal that the counsellor fails to
understand the clientÊs feelings. Needless to say, the counsellor has to have
a collection of accurate terms to describe human feelings effectively.
(f) Confrontation
Even though Rogers himself did not confront his clients very often during
his sessions, a person-centred counsellor needs to sometimes do so in order
to obtain certain information or help accelerate the clientÊs progress. The
challenge given has to be more in the form of an invitation so that the client
may be able to see herself more deeply and no longer hide in her comfort
zone.
Confrontation can be done when the client-counsellor relationship has
reached a higher level. If the challenge is given too early, the client would
most likely feel threatened or challenged. This will result in the client being
angry or hostile. If there happens to be conflicting ideas and feelings,
confrontation can be done to certify the truth.
Confronting skill demands high expertise. If it hits the right note, it helps
the counsellor to delve very quickly into the clientÊs problem; but if it turns
the other way round, it acts as a hindrance to the client from talking or
makes her lose interest in proceeding with the counselling session.
(g) Focusing
The stories delivered by the client need to be directed to certain situations,
not by force or manipulation but rather by looking at the flow. An

environmental perspective has to be embedded in the story plot. By

focusing, the counsellor will not get lost. He will always follow the clientÊs
story precisely and respond accurately.
(h) Reflection of Meaning
Reflection of meaning involves the counsellorÊs ability to delve into the
clientÊs world and understand what she experiences and feels. This skill
needs the counsellorÊs persistence to understand the whole story and
interpret the hidden messages. The reflection of meaning may not
necessarily be done by the counsellor but also by the client with
encouragement by the counsellor so that the client can find meaning for her
actions and feelings.
Since the interpretation of meaning deals with the subconscious world, it needs
to be done carefully. Sometimes, the client may not be ready to let the counsellor
interpret her meaning of life. So, the counsellor has to be really careful as the
client may deny the interpretation even if it is true.
7.5 SAMPLES OF COUNSELLING CASES

Even though the verbatim quote or the following transcript may not be able to
fully describe the ways of relationship that take place in counselling together
with the voice intonation, facial expression, gestures and many other non-
counselling languages, it is hoped to reflect the process that occurs during
person-centred counselling. At the end of the counsellorÊs response, the skills
applied and dynamics that happen during the session are mentioned.
Case 1 (extract from the verbatim quote)
Aminah, 25 year-old woman
Client l: I am so mad with him. At first he promised to come and meet my

family. To get to know my parents, thatÊs what he said. Now, itÊs
been three months and heÊs been postponing things. He gave me
countless reasons: from simply being busy and having a lot of work
to complete to being called to work outstation and many others. IÊve
gotten fed up with his attitude and I feel like breaking off with him.
If he doesnÊt have time for me, why should I take him seriously?
Counsellor: I think you are mad because he didnÊt fulfil his promises and
doesnÊt seem to be concerned about you. (The emphasis is given on
the word „mad‰)

"
Client l: Why shouldnÊt I be? Last Sunday we planned to go back to my

hometown to meet my parents, but he called on Saturday morning
to inform me that he has to go outstation. I doubt it. Was that the
real reason or was he just giving an excuse to avoid seeing my
parents? I know he needs to go outstation since his job involves
working outstation but we have promised my parents that weÊd be
coming home and I have even told my mom we were coming.
Counsellor: It looks like not only are you mad at him but you are also
disappointed that he didnÊt keep his promises. (The counsellor
emphasises on the reflection of feeling, anger with disappointment.)
Client: You bet! This is not the first time. If itÊs only me, itÊs alright. But
when it involves other people, I just couldnÊt accept it. It turns out
more than once heÊs cancelled the appointment. I can actually
forgive him because I know heÊs busy outstation. But my mum
really looked forward to meeting him.
Counsellor: Even though heÊs done this before but his last act seemed
unforgivable especially when it involved your mother. (Emphasis is
given on the previous event).
Client: Certainly! My mom has been kept waiting and we promised her.
Even if he has to travel outstation, he should have informed me
earlier. His constant last minute calls have really gotten on my
nerves. That day I had to apologise to my mom. She had made few
preparations. Luckily sheÊs not a nagging mother. Otherwise, I
couldnÊt even imagine what might have happened. What I donÊt
understand is his warmth towards me. When he returns from
outstation he usually buys me many presents. He also seems to be
really concerned about me: asking me out, taking care of me, and
showing his love. Whenever I remember those fond memories, I
would cool down a little bit. I know he loves me but sometimes I
feel that he loves his job even more.
Counsellor: It seems like you have mixed-up feelings, love-hate feelings.

Roughly it is love but sometimes anger when he breaks his
promises. (The counsellor tries to delve into the clientÊs mixed-up
feelings. These conflicting feelings create a conflict that leaves the
client feeling incongruent.)
Client: Maybe I need to understand his nature of job. If he needs to be

outstation for most of the time I need to be patient. Otherwise, I
have to search for another boyfriend (laughing). I know two or three

other guys who admire me but I simply turned them down. They
smile at me a lot and some even asked me out. What if I smile back
and accept the invitation? (smiling).
Counsellor: If IÊm not mistaken you mentioned earlier that you love him but
now you are saying that you want to get to know other guys. (The
counsellor needs to confirm this especially her remarks is followed
with a smile. This needs to be explored.)
Client: I do love him, but for someone who is frequently ignored, IÊm
beginning to lose my patience. My other friends are free to go out
every weekend, but look at me; IÊm stuck in front of the TV. I donÊt
think itÊs wrong to go out with some other people every now and
then. At least IÊd know how other people might treat me.
Counsellor: So to avoid loneliness, you wish you could go out with your other
friends?
(The counsellor paraphrases a newly mentioned point as
„loneliness‰ and he explores a new idea about the clientÊs claim of
going out with someone else).
From the excerpt of this session, we are drawn to several skills that commonly
receive emphasis by the human-centred counsellor i.e. the use of reflection of
feelings and paraphrasing skills. The minimal encouragement, though applied on
several occasions, is hard to transcribe. Despite the brief session, we are able to
look at the progress in concern i.e. the recognition of feelings and the exploration
of the clientÊs tentative plans together with the counsellor.
This session will continue with a focus on the feelings and alternatives which are
being explored by the client.
Case 2 (excerpt from the beginning of a session)
Raju, a twelve year-old boy

RajuÊs case describes a Year Six student experiencing personal stress and conflict
with his peers. This client has been referred to by the class teacher.
The counsellor invites the client into her office.
Counsellor: Please have a seat, Raju.
Client: (He sits while looking out the room, his body leans feebly in his
chair).

"
Counsellor: I was requested by the class teacher to meet you. So, how can I
help you?
Client: (Still remains silent, he looks out the room and lets out a sigh).
Counsellor: Maybe you can tell me whatÊs making you sigh?
Client: ThereÊs really nothing, teacher (even though Ms. Zainab is a full-
time, registered counsellor, the students still call her „teacher‰).
Counsellor: I can feel that you have something to tell me. Let me remind you,
this conversation is strictly confidential and will not be repeated
except between the two of us. So, can you tell me whatÊs been
bothering you at the moment?
Clientl: (He looks at the counsellor and slowly starts to tell his story).
They keep picking on me, teacher, and IÊve had enough.

Sometimes I feel like slapping them.
Counsellor: I understand that you are really mad at these students. If possible,
can you tell me what have they done that made you this angry?
Client: They called me hateful names – fatty, fatso. I never got in their
way. I sat at the back of the class and did my thing. I just want
them to leave me alone, and I donÊt want to be their friend
(crying).
Counsellor: So, the students in your class always get in your way?
Client: I never wanted to be their friend. I want them to leave me alone

and not to mind me at all.
Counsellor: From what I can see here, Raju, you do not wish to befriend
anyone in the class. Does that mean you donÊt have any close
friends in your classroom?
Client: (Crying again) They refused to be my friends. It has been a while

and IÊve never had any good friend and I never had the chance to
talk to anyone. Everything that bothered me, I kept it to myself. I
have no one to listen to me.
Counsellor: So, you are lonely with no one to talk to and share stories.
Client: Certainly, teacher. In that class I have no friend. Not a single one.
They are always pulling my leg. Whenever I try to speak, they will
shout back at me telling me to shut up. It beats me why they hate

me and what is wrong with me. Even though I am a little big, IÊve
got a heart too.
Counsellor: What feelings would you want to share with your friends?
(This session is continued by focusing on the feelings enveloping
Raju and how these feelings can be shared with his friends).
This excerpt shows that the client being referred to can also undergo person-
centred counselling. What needs to be done by the counsellor is to accept the
client as a whole and remind him about the confidentiality they have. The
emphasis by a counsellor in order to try to understand a clientÊs world, even
though he is only a school student is crucial. The clientÊs feelings need to be
looked into and returned to him so that he knows someone is listening and trying
to understand him even though the other students are not. The safe and
therapeutic condition will encourage the client to tell more and explore the
reasons that make him unpopular among his colleagues and later look for
suitable ways to develop new relationships with them.
7.6 CONTRIBUTIONS BY THE PERSON-

CENTRED THEORY
The human-centred theory has greatly contributed to the field of counselling and
psychotherapy. This approach is so flexible it can be applied in various types of
counselling such as individual counselling, group counselling and family
counselling. The theory can also be used in different contexts such as in
education, government or private organisations, rehabilitation centres, hospitals
and others.
This client-centred counselling has given the power to the clients to be

autonomous and make their own decisions. The counsellor helps the clients
explore, understand and guide them to insights regarding their own personal life
but they themselves choose the alternatives to change after some discussions
with the counsellor. This indirectly gives the impression to the client that she has
the right to choose her way of life.
Support for this theory since it was first introduced in the 1950Ês remains strong
until the present day. One significant contribution to the practitioners of
counselling is the fact that counselling or psychotherapy does not belong
exclusively to those who call themselves experts or professionals especially
psychoanalytic therapists. Nowadays, we see many members of the society able
to receive the benefit of counselling, not only those who can afford to pay a high
bill for this service.

"
The human-centred counselling also emphasises on the importance of client-

counsellor mutual respect as a key element in counselling. Three qualities of a
counsellor: congruence, positive unconditional reception and empathy are a must
for different approaches to counselling.
Apart from the contribution toward the application of counselling and therapy,
Rogers who fathered the theory also contributed to personality psychology
which is the main track of this theory. Specifically, he has contributed in terms of
understanding people, emphasising the ideas about interpersonal relationship in
the development of personality and current change through counselling and
showing openness and the flexibility to a scientific research.
The concept of phenomenology held by Rogers has brought three main

influences in understanding personalities. What is important is the experience of
the individual, not the expert details or what should have been experienced.
Firstly, the phenomenology approach has challenged the objective approach to

understand human behaviours. Objectivity refers to studying human externally
in terms of their behaviours, is mechanical and must not interfere personally.
Rogers questioned the form of objective study of a therapy like that. He had
proven that human can be analysed phenomenally and started a new pace to
study this scientifically.
Secondly, Rogers attempted to explore the self-concept. Direct observation in the

process of counselling enables studying clients in their own world, whether it be
in the normal condition or in the state of confusion.
Thirdly, Rogers taught us to understand humans by trusting them. With

acceptance and supportive environment, individuals will develop toward
perfection and refinement.
Rogers has always been recognised as the father of modern counselling for
having suggested that an incongruent individual can be given help to change
with all three qualities as the backbone to the person-centred counselling. This
view helps counsellors serve people who face everyday crisis in their lives.
7.6.1 Limitation of the Person-centred Theory

One obvious limitation of the person-centred theory is the way it is applied, not
because it is a poor theory. There are some counsellors who have misinterpreted
or misused it in practice. Many who understand the principles and (or believe
that they understand the principles) theoretically agree with all the principles but
have found it difficult to practice them effectively. For instance, a school
counsellor always assumes that because of its non-imperative feature, it is hard
to be applied to the students who are so used to being ordered by their teachers.
This view is more to the nature of counsellors who love to have order in the
practice of counselling and do not necessarily reflect the incompatibility of the
theory to clients.
The warm counsellor-client interaction as the counsellor accepts the client

unconditionally may raise anxiety on the part of the counsellor who cannot draw
the limits to the relationship. The tendency to misuse this closeness in
relationship may be regarded as a disadvantage in terms of the controlling factor.
A clear separating line between the expert and patient is not drawn in this
theory. Even though it is not a real limitation of this theory, it is more to the
abusing of power toward clients in a relationship with mutual respect.
Common criticism toward this theory that comes from the mouth of the
counsellor is that this theory is easily manipulated by the clients since this theory
asserts that the counsellor has to accept his clients unconditionally and
acknowledge the clientÊs subjective phenomenology. If the entire process is
understood correctly, this issue may never arise since eventually those clients
may come to realise that manipulating counsellors who are trying the best to help
them is a sheer waste for themselves who are in need of help.
Another criticism of the theory is that does not suit those who are in the state of
severe psychology incongruence. It is more applicable to daily stress and crisis.
For those clients who have severe mental disorder such as being psychotic or
excessive neurology, this theory has proven to be inefficacious.
Since there seems to be no specific strategy or technique suggested by the theory,

it may sometimes be troublesome to the counsellors, especially those who are
new, to explore the clientÊs predicament. The use of skills such as reflecting,
paraphrasing or summarising which turn out to be too mechanical may seem
rather pedestrian to the clients to the extent that it may affect the whole
counselling progress. This criticism may be accepted if it is specific to the
counselling skills, but this does not prove the inadequacy of this theory in
counselling.

"
SELF-CHECK 7.2
1. The person-centred counselling theory has its distinctive view

about humans. Elaborate on the view.
2. State the meaning of self-concept in Carl RogersÊ theory.
3. What are the three crucial qualities to ensure the success of a
counselling session according to Carl Rogers?
4. There are quite a number of basic skills in counselling. Name the
four skills that you find very important.
"
•" This topic comprehensively explains the person-centred counselling theory

with related key concepts provided with justifications.
•" Scripted instances are also included to acquaint readers with a clearer picture
of a counselling session.
•" To further explore and become a counsellor of this theory, one needs to
understand the description of the principles and concepts by Rogers.
•" The practice has to follow certain sequential stages and behavioural changes
based on the order of this theory.
•" To ensure the efficacy of a counselling session, it is recommended that the

requirements are met and that the process experienced by clients is handled
by following the aforementioned suggestions.
Personality theory Psychological order

Person-centred Subception process
Phenomenology Therapy condition

Topic X
" " "
"
"
"
Group
Counselling
8
"
"
"
"
"
"
" LEARNING OUTCOMES
"
" 1. Explain the meaning of group counselling;
"
" 2. Relate counselling theory to group counselling; and
" 3. Discuss the characteristics of an effective group.
"
X" INTRODUCTION
In the present scenario, there is an increase in the method of group counselling in
various sectors of society. This section comprises of schools, colleges, community
mental health clinics and other human service agencies. In this topic you will
study about group counselling in detail. Group counselling essentially involves a
small group of members who join each other forming a group with their own
specific goals. They share their problems, provide empathy and support to
others. Moreover, as a consequence, they try and change their self-defeating
behaviours. The group members are also facilitated in developing their existing
skills in dealing with interpersonal problems.
8.1 INTRODUCTION TO GROUP COUNSELLING

Group counselling can be defined as follows:
„Group Counselling may be termed as a process of psychotherapy in which

a small, cautiously selected group of individuals meet regularly with a
counsellor to pursue common objectives.‰

184 X TOPIC 8 GROUP COUNSELLING
"
The group counsellor should pursue the following:

(a) Facilitate interaction among the members;
(b) Assist them in establishing personal objectives;
(c) Support the members in the group;
(d) Help them learn from one another;
(e) Also provide unremitting empathy; and
(f) Should verify whether the members have carried their learning experience
from the group and practiced it in the outside world.
Group counselling is, as a matter of fact, an effective form of learning experience

because the members get an opportunity to share their experiences, learn from
others and also come to know that each person has similar difficulties and they
are not the only one struggling with present problems. Group counselling is
fundamentally effective in a school or college setting since students find it easier
and enjoy learning with their peers given that the leader or the counsellor is
efficient and maintains the ethical issues and standards proficiently and is able to
use his capability and personality to the fullest.
Let us look at the steps in carrying out group counselling:
(a) Formation of the Group

It involves three steps as follows:
(i) In this stage, clients are made aware about the group through
announcements, putting up posters etc;
(ii) After this, the important step is screening and selection of group
members; and
(iii) The third step includes briefing the members about the group plan, its
goals and also group ethics.
(b) Initial Stage

This stage includes „orientation and exploration‰ which is focused on
determining the structure of the group, getting acquainted and exploring
the memberÊs anticipation level. They also get acquainted on how the group
functions, define their own objectives and clarify their expectations.
(c) Transition Stage

This involves dealing with resistance. This is quite a complicated phase
where the members deal with their anxiety, resistance and disagreement.
Moreover, the leader helps them deal and work with their shortcomings.

TOPIC 8 GROUP COUNSELLING W 185
(d) Working Stage

This deals with „cohesion and productivity‰. While going through this
stage, the members develop better cohesiveness and a sense of belonging to
the group. Moreover, it also focuses on in depth exploration of issues and
on bringing expected changes in behaviour.
(e) Final Stage

This includes „consolidation and termination‰. This is a time for
summarising, organising the loose ends and integrating the group
experience. Members may get a feeling of grief; they may also express their
nervousness because of separation. Moreover, members may also share
their experiences of being in the group with other members, they would be
able to get the information related to their insights and learning in the
group and the practical use of learning in the group. Planning is
encouraged for follow up meetings for accountability so as to allow
members to carry out their plans for change. The leader, in turn, should
help the members summarise their learnings by assisting them to develop a
conceptual framework for working. They should also develop explicit
contracts and home assignments as practical ways of making changes.
(f) Follow-Up Sessions

These are initiated after the termination of main counselling sessions.
SELF-CHECK 8.1
In your own words, try to explain the concept of group counselling.
ACTIVITY 8.1
The following link will take you to a research paper on „Application

of Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy in Group Counselling‰. Read
it carefully and try to analyse the conclusion.
http://www.eurojournals.com/ejss_10_2_15.pdf

"
8.2 WHAT MAKES THE GROUP EFFECTIVE?

Effectiveness of the group depends on the group leader as he is the one who
coordinates all the activities of the group. Some personal characteristics are
necessary for the group leader in order to promote growth in the memberÊs lives;
the leaders themselves should live development-oriented lives. The personal
characteristics are:
(a) Presence: Being emotionally present refers to the capability of being able to
share the joy and grief that others are facing which helps in being
empathetic and compassionate to the group members.
(b) Personal power: This aspect focuses on the group leader. He has to be
confident about himself and facilitate the members towards empowerment.
(c) Courage: The group leader must be able to honestly recognise his faults,
confronting others.
(d) Willingness to confront oneself: The group leader should be modest and
moreover be capable of questioning himself, about his attitude, feelings,
biases, etc.
(e) He should be sincere.
(f) Authenticity should be considered.
(g) Sense of identity is must.
(h) Inventiveness and creativity: They should be ready for new experiences,
share new ideas and not stick to traditional ritualistic methods.

The following are the details of a group-counselling programme for reducing

aggression.
We have chosen this study because it explains in detail the content of an

effective training programme designed to help children cope with their
feelings of anger and frustration. This study was reported in the review.
Twenty-four boys and girls aged nine to twelve in the US who had been
selected randomly from a pool of forty seven children nominated by their
teachers as behaving in an aggressive and hostile manner took part in the
study. Half the children were randomly allocated to receive the intervention;
the other half was assigned to a control group.
The researchers argued that disruptive behaviours, caused by children feeling

angry or frustrated, are best tackled by addressing the root cause of the
problem – the angry feelings – rather than by tackling the disruptive
behaviour directly by punishment. They suggested that punishing a child
who throws things for example, while feeling angry, does not allow the anger
to disappear; it just results in stopping an angry child throwing things. The
aim of their programme was to teach children how to handle their angry
feelings, in order to prevent disruptive behaviour from occurring.
The intervention had three phases and was delivered by a trained counsellor
over ten sessions:
(a) Phase 1 was to help the children develop an understanding of anger and
to differentiate its positive and negative aspects.
(b) Phase 2 focused on incidents that had precipitated angry feelings in the
children in the past and discussed their reactions to them.
(c) Phase 3 provided opportunities for the children to practise appropriate

behaviours when they felt angry. This was accomplished by modelling,
role-playing and giving feedback.
The children took part in the following sequence of activities.

"
(a) Name Tag Game

The children were given „name tag‰ cards on which they wrote:
(i)" Their names;

(ii)" Four positive adjectives they believed described themselves;
(iii)" Their favourite television programme;
(iv)" Something they did which they were proud of;
(v)" Someone they admired; and
(vi)" A school subject they enjoyed.
The children discussed their name tags with a partner and then
introduced each other to the rest of the group. The counsellor presented
the rules of the group (for example, one person talking at a time,
confidentiality, passing if the child had nothing to say).
(b) Awareness of Feelings

The children drew pictures of various feelings that they had
experienced. When discussing these drawings, the counsellor discussed
the positive and negative aspects of the various feelings with an
emphasis on the childrenÊs responses to angry feelings.
(c) Specific Incidences of Feelings

The counsellor showed the children a Ferris wheel with seats of different
colours representing different feelings (gold = happy, pink = okay, red =
angry, blue = sad, white = so-so). The counsellor asked each child to:
(i) Suggest specific situations which made them feel happy, okay,
angry, sad, so-so (one for each colour on the wheel).
(ii) Choose the coloured seat that best represented how she or he
would feel in different situations suggested by the counsellor (such
as getting full marks on a test, being punched and falling over).
(iii) Choose the coloured seat that best represented how she or he
would feel in situations that would cause angry feelings (such as a
friend stealing something and blaming you, a teacher accusing you
of cheating when you were not and someone breaking a promise to
you).

Finally, the students discussed their reactions and behaviours resulting from
their angry feelings in terms of positive and negative consequences.
(a) Reactions to Anger

The counsellor presented the children with more situations that would
typically result in angry feelings. The children discussed how they
would react and looked at their responses in terms of the seat colours on
the Ferris wheel (for example, remaining angry and being alone = blue,
talking it over, walking away = pink, giving it time to work out = white,
hitting and screaming = red). Then the children discussed alternative
reactions that would result in feeling happy (gold) or so-so (white) and
whether or not their individual responses were constructive or
destructive.
(b) Making Choices

The counsellor suggested scenarios whereby the children would practice
decision-making skills. Emphasis was placed on weighing the pros and
cons of each situation in terms of the consequences.
(c) Alternative Reactions to Anger

The counsellor presented the children with situations that they would
normally feel angry about. Referring back to the Ferris wheel, each child
was asked to think of a different response for each of the colours and a
reason for choosing those alternatives. Then, the children were asked to
give real life situations that made them feel angry, identify their usual
responses, and finally, decide on a different, more appropriate response.
(d) Modelling Behaviours

The children suggested incidences that made them angry. The
counsellor role-played appropriate, constructive outcomes with positive
results.
(e) Role-playing
The children were divided into groups of two or three. The counsellor
gave each of the groups a situation, such as, your parents promised that
you could see a movie this Saturday. At the last minute, they changed
their minds and said that you had to baby-sit your younger brother. The
groups role-played their reactions and the whole group discussed each
of the presentations. In the subsequent session, the groups were all given
the same anger-provoking situation. Each group role-played their
reactions. The whole group discussed the different presentations.

"
(f) Summary and Wrap-up

The children summarised their experiences during the previous ten
weeks. The counsellor answered their questions and the children shared
their reactions.
The researchers found a significant decline in teachersÊ ratings of

aggression and hostile isolation in the children who had been assigned
to the experimental group, compared with the control group. However,
the children displayed aggressive behaviour again, very soon after the
sessions finished, suggesting that the programme may need to be
ongoing to maintain the effect. Another explanation for the short-term
effect could be that the programme did not allow the children to gain
control over their learning or to internalise the learning. The extent of
the impact of the programme may also have been reduced because the
class teacher had revised his or her expectations of the childrenÊs
behaviour, in view of the training they had been given.
Source: http://www.gtce.org.uk/teachers/rft/strat1104/strat1104cs/casestudy2 /
ACTIVITY 8.2
After reading the details of a group counselling programme, try to

analyse the result of the programme conduct. Discuss your findings
with your coursemates.
•" Group counselling essentially involves a small group of members who join
each other forming a group with their own specific goals, sharing their
problems, providing empathy and support to the others.
•" Group counselling is fundamentally effective in a school or college setting.
•" Effectiveness of a group depends on the group leader as he or she is the one
who coordinates all the activities of the group.

Empathy Group counselling
1." What is group counselling?

2." Explain the different stages in the development of the group.
3." What are the characteristics of an effective group leader?
4." Analyse the importance of group counselling in the present scenario.

T op i c
" " "
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X Counselling
9 in a
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Multicultural
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" Society
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
" 1." Relate cultural differences to counselling;
"
" 2." Discuss the barriers to multicultural counselling; and
" 3." Discuss the skilled multicultural counsellor.
"
X" INTRODUCTION
Multicultural counselling is emerging as a significant component of counselling
practice in the present scenario. It seems impossible for counsellors to avoid
counselling clients who are culturally dissimilar from them. Even in the US, the
estimated numbers of racial ethnic minorities will include the majority of the US
population by 2030. Even in Malaysia, our population is made up of different
races and cultures. Consequently, it is significant for counsellors to be aware of
the multicultural differences in society to ensure effectiveness of counselling
sessions while taking into account the principle of beneficence and justice for all
clients. In this topic, you will study more details about multicultural counselling.
9.1 CULTURAL DIFFERENCES AND

COUNSELLING
Immigrants of today seem to differ from past generations in that they seek to
retain many of their cultural values and are less interested in becoming
homogenised within the US culture.
· Rubaii-Barrett & Back, 1993
TOPIC 9 COUNSELLING IN A MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY W 193
This dissimilarity can create a potentially complicated situation for both the client
and therapist who may differ substantially in their own cultural values. For
successful therapy to take place, it is significant for counsellors to be culturally
sensitive with clients and avoid stereotyping. Stereotyping is a hampering
element to the client and counsellor relationship.
For instance, for many people, hearing the words „blonde hair‰ may bring to
their minds a myriad of blonde jokes that they might have heard which imply
that blondes lack the cleverness and mental equality of others simply because
their hair is blonde. Even though these jokes are laughable, sometimes one may
find them, on more than one occasion, being treated as if those jokes were proven
and sustainable facts. Other stereotypes can involve certain religions, or
pertaining to particular races, ages, or genders and still others can relate to
non-verbal cultural gestures that may mean different things to different cultures.
"
For instance, Ivey & Ivey (2007) use the example of Russians who shake their
heads from side to side to indicate an affirmative (or yes) response whereas
European cultures nod their heads up and down to indicate a positive
response. Even though counsellors cannot probably be experts on all cultures
and their particular customs, it is important for therapists to recognise
potential biases that cultural differences can create in the assessment process.
(Ayonrinde, 2003).
Cultural stereotyping can hamper good communication between the client and
counsellor and can be as destructive as ignoring cultural norms and beliefs
altogether. In the absence of familiarity with the specific cultural norms of a
client, we risk stereotyping that client and may fail to recognise the specific
verbal and non-verbal cues which would otherwise facilitate additional insight as
to the clientÊs perception of themselves and their surrounding environment. In
order to minimise the risk of misunderstanding and misinterpreting clients, the
counsellor should take into consideration the influence of culture and respond
respectfully to these cultural differences, values, and beliefs.
"
One instance of stereotyping by failing to be culturally sensitive could be
Muslims and their association with terrorists. Many times, Muslims in different
countries have been persecuted because of stereotyping that associates their dress
and customs with those of terrorists. Although, there are many similarities
between the country of origin for many Muslims and those known to be actively
involved in terrorist activities, it is essential to be culturally sensitive and
distinguish those who would take life from those who are practicing a lifestyle
both outwardly and inwardly based on their religious beliefs. By being
courteous, and giving the individual the chance to share their story in their own

194 X TOPIC 9 COUNSELLING IN A MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY
"
words, insight can be gained and help offered to the individual in resolving the
current issues and problems they are faced with.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
Write a short note on cultural differences and counselling.
ACTIVITY 9.1
1. „Counselling has nothing to do with culture‰. Do you agree? Why

or why not?
2. Suppose you are the counsellor who is about to deal with a US
client. Find out the cultural differences you will keep in mind,
dealing with the same.
9.2 BARRIERS TO MULTICULTURAL

COUNSELLING
The barriers to multicultural counselling are as follows:
"
(a) Not Understanding Cultural Biases
The major challenge for counsellors is to reach out and recognise the
cultural biases and values of different cultures.
For instance, a Malay counsellor might not be able to understand the

Hindu concept of reincarnation and this might lead to misunderstanding.
A counsellor might also be offended because of dissimilar religious values

and beliefs. For handling such complicated situations, the counsellor has to
work on finding more and more information about other cultures or
religions and acknowledge the differences in a non-judgmental manner.
The counsellor can also explore cultural differences with the client in the
group. This will be advantageous for other group members by increasing
their understanding of cross-cultural differences. However, this job will
demand extra time and effort from the counsellor.
"

The counselling processes and techniques used by Malaysian counsellors

are mainly based on Western orientation and lifestyles. Even though
Malaysia is reaching a developed country status, certain values and beliefs
· for instance, the concept of gender disparity · are still upheld in our
culture. The women still uphold the tradition of being calm and gentle
though men are more dominant and aggressive. In counselling (from the
Western point of view), eye contact is considered a significant gesture in
building relationships. On the other hand, in our society, particularly Malay
society, women generally avoid long eye contact which should not be taken
as a sign of non-cooperation but a sign of politeness and respect.
(b) Use of Inappropriate Counselling Techniques

Conducting a multicultural counselling group obviously presents a greater
challenge to the counsellor. In addition to the earlier challenges mentioned,
complexities may occur in terms of approaches and techniques.
According to Sue and Sue (1999), culturally effective counsellors are

truly eclectic. They use skills, methods and techniques that are
appropriate to the experience and lifestyle of the culturally different.
However, looking at counselling practice in Malaysian society, most of
the approaches are based on Western culture. These sometimes do not fit
into the needs of our society due to the differences in values, beliefs and
opinions.
An example can be taken from the Rational Emotive Therapy (RET)
group approach by Ellis (in Gazda, 1982) which states that group
members are urged in regular sessions and during rational encounter
sessions, to push themselves as much as possible, to reveal their utmost
uncomfortable feelings, and to bring out their serious problems. They
are also encouraged to try to get others to reveal themselves, and to
refrain from politely letting inhibited and non-talkative members get
away with this kind of unrevealing behaviour. Other techniques from
the West such as hugging, touching and mixing between different
genders in group counselling might also be inappropriate in our society
since they contradict certain religious or cultural values. Counsellors
must be aware of the sensitive areas when conducting group activities
adopted from the West. To ensure the ethical use of techniques, group
counsellors need to be aware of the necessity to modify their techniques
to fit the unique needs of various cultural and ethnic groups (ASGW,
1989).
Source: http://myais.fsktm.um.edu.my/5108/1/3.pdf
"
"

"
(c) Language Barriers

In addition to values and beliefs, language barriers could also create
problems in multicultural group counselling. Two of the most frequent
problems in multicultural group counselling are to understand and be
understood. In few situations, the problem lies in the context in which
certain words are used by participants from different cultural backgrounds.
Language barriers therefore, depict a major communication problem as the
messages are not properly given and received.
Language should not be a reason for restricting personal growth, and

counsellors should try to ensure effective communication throughout the
group session and clarify any misunderstanding. Communication also
includes body language and different cultural backgrounds may cause
different types of body language presentation and interpretation.
Counsellors must educate themselves on body languages of different
cultures. In fact, the ethical guidelines involve counsellors to upgrade their
knowledge and skill competencies through educational activities, clinical
experiences and participation in professional development activities
(ASGW, 1989).
SELF-CHECK 9.2
List the ways to overcome cultural biases.
"

ACTIVITY 9.2
Read the following article carefully and answer the questions given
below:
Multicultural Counsellor Training

· By Patrice Lesco
Counsellor Education
Multicultural counselling embraces the different and shared
characteristics of people, according to the National Guidance Research
Forum. Multicultural counselling training, therefore, is intended to
assist counsellors with providing services to individuals and groups
from all cultural backgrounds. Training can be received as part of a
degree program, or it can be presented through individual courses.
1." Purpose: Multicultural counselling training concentrates on

understanding individuals on the basis of race, gender, sexual
preference, economic background, religious beliefs, age, disability
and social class. Multicultural counselling training, therefore, tries
to provide the counsellor with skills and knowledge that she/he
can use in assisting people from all societal groups.
2. Significance: Training in multiculturalism for counsellors has been

growing in importance because of the increasingly diverse society
that exists across the world. No longer are countries made up of
one culture, nor do they consist of only people born to that nation,
but are filled with individuals from all parts of the globe. These
individuals bring with them their own beliefs, customs and
cultural connections. Nevertheless, traditional counselling
practices have suggested that all people can receive counselling in
the same manner, without considerations for variations in cultural
background. The National Guidance Research Forum indicates
that this approach to counselling in relation to a multicultural
society does not support the needs of all people. Consequently,
training in multiculturalism for counsellors is imperative.

"
3. Ethics: The American Counselling Association added ethical

standards for the counselling code of conduct in relation to
multicultural sensitivity in counselling in 2005. According to the
American Counselling Association, counsellors must respect the
varying beliefs of people from different cultural backgrounds, as
well as the individualÊs view towards the counselling process itself.
Counselling training in relation to multiculturalism, therefore, must
include a focus on multiculturalism as it pertains to ethics and the
standards that guide the profession.
4. Self-Examination: Multicultural counselling training should call on

the counsellor or student to examine his own culture and cultural
beliefs in an attempt to understand the cultural factors that
influence his counselling practice. Self-examination means that the
counsellor should consider his own cultural background and his
own values and beliefs in relation to culture and the cultural
standards that he currently embraces. Such an examination creates
a multicultural belief awareness that the counsellor can build upon
or alter to provide more effective services to people of other
cultures.
5. Communication: Training in multiculturalism in the counselling

profession should also include a focus on communication methods.
This includes communication that is verbal and non-verbal.
Communication practices regarding culture are important because
some common statements in one culture may be highly offensive in
another.
Likewise, some non-verbal communication that is considered perfectly

acceptable in one culture may be taboo for the members of another
cultural group.
"
Source: http://www.ehow.com/about_6328109_multicultural-counsellor-
training.html
Questions
1. „Training in multiculturalism for counsellors is considered
important in the present scenario.‰ Do you agree? Why or why not?
2. What do you understand by self examination?

9.3 THE SKILLED MULTICULTURAL

COUNSELLOR
The skilled multicultural counsellor requires the use of Skilled Counselling
Training Model (SCTM). SCTM is a skills-based training programme that
encourages attainment of skills through the use of modelling, mastery,
persuasion, arousal and supervisory feedback (Smaby, Maddux, Torres-Rivera, &
Zimmick, 1999). In the SCTM, skills are divided into three stages: exploring,
understanding and acting (Smaby et al., 1999). For each stage, the model depicts:
(a) The objective;
(b) Two counselling processes; and
(c) Six counselling skills.
ACTIVITY 9.3
Search the Internet for any articles on „Academic admission
requirements as predictors of counselling knowledge, personal
development and counselling skills‰. Find out more about SCTM.
Modelling means providing a good example or pattern of behaviour for the client
who does not know how to act appropriately in some situations. At one level, of
course, modelling could simply mean showing a physical example. Usually,
modelling refers to actions, which seem very complicated. For this reason,
modelling is usually demonstrated in two ways, i.e. completely without a break
to show the total effect, and also in segments to show that the separate skills can
be isolated for observation and practice. The counsellor can act as a model; even a
colleague or a peer can act as a model for the client in an ordinary social setting.
After the model has been presented, the client should be asked to attempt to
imitate the model. He should be encouraged to rehearse the behaviour, with the
counsellor giving immediate feedback in the form of positive comments and
suggestion about needed improvements. He should be reminded of the
importance of such behavioural rehearsals in his own time.

"
9.3.1 Role Playing

Role playing means acting out how a person with a particular title or function
usually behaves. It is obviously akin to modelling and behaviour rehearsal, and
all these are often used in conjunction with one another. However, role playing
usually implies a less prescribed way of behaving. The emphasis is more upon
feeling what it is like to act in a certain manner, sometimes with the further
implications that the role, being different is unfamiliar. It is not necessary for the
roles to be played for long; three or four minutes are all that is desirable.
When people play somebody elseÊs role, they might begin to experience what
another person feels or thinks. In both role playing and role reversal the client
should be encouraged or even coached, to throw himself into the parts he plays,
with all the feelings, gestures, words, tones, and volume that typically are used,
or that he wants to experiment with. The more convincingly the roles are
enacted, the greater the number of learning opportunities and change
possibilities that are offered to the client.
9.3.2 Bodily Awareness and Relaxation Activities

As part of the processes by which behaviour is changed, it can be very helpful for
people to become aware of and be in control of their bodily sensations.
Heightened awareness can help clients to identify their feelings more precisely. It
can also help clients to gain more control of themselves. Relaxation is an
especially useful skill for this. Transcendental mediation, yoga, biofeedback, and
hypnosis are few examples of techniques with similar purposes.
Relaxation is achieved by gradually loosening muscles in all parts of the body so

the there is no tightness or tension anywhere. Full attention is required so that
different parts of body are relaxed in sequence. It is possible to obtain total
relaxation or partial relaxation. Relaxation can be used in preparing for some
especially tense situations such as an interview, examination or important
meeting. Counsellors should encourage clients to use partial relaxation skills
while actually in a tense situation. The following set of directions is typical of
those used to attain a deep state of relaxation. Counsellors who often use
relaxation methods usually have such directions readily available for clients in
pamphlets form and recorded on cassette tapes:
(a) Lie flat on the back, placing the feet about 18 inches apart. The hands
should rest slightly away from the trunk, with the palms up.
(b) Close your eyes and gently move all the different parts of the body to create
a general feeling of relaxation.

(c) Then start relaxing the body part by part. First think of the right leg. Inhale
and slowly raise the leg about one foot off the floor. Hold it fully tensed.
After five seconds, exhale abruptly and relax the muscles of the right leg,
allowing it to fall in the floor on its own. Shake the leg gently from the right
to left, relax it fully, and let it rest and concentrate on the other leg.
(d) Repeat this same process with the left leg, and then with both hands, one at
a time.
(e) Abdomen, chest, shoulders and all other parts of the body are then
followed for relaxation.
(f) Slowly, gently, turn the neck muscle. Follow it up with facial muscles, lips,
cheek muscles, and nose and forehead muscles.
(g) Now, you have relaxed all the muscles of the body. To make sure of this,
allow your mind to wander over your entire body and reach for any point
of tension. If you come across any spot of tension, concentrate upon it and it
will relax. If you do this mentally, without moving any muscle, you will
notice that the part concerned obeys your command.
This is complete relaxation. Even your mind is at rest now. Observe your
thoughts without trying to take your mind anywhere. You will witness that you
are not a body or a mind but an ocean of peace and tranquillity. Remain in this
condition for five minutes. Do not become anxious about anything. When you
decide to wake from this conscious sleep, do so quite slowly. Imagine that fresh
energy is entering each part of your body then slowly get up. This exercise helps
create refreshed and peaceful feelings for the body and mind. Try to do this one
to three times a day, especially upon arising and retiring.
Physical activities can reduce the many stresses that come from modern living-
mentally and emotionally demanding experiences and boring, solitary, and
sedentary occupations. Similarly, functions can be served by many other pursuits
such as dancing, hobbies, games, arts and crafts and playing and listening to
music.
9.3.3 Thoughts and Imagery

The clientÊs thoughts, ideas and perceptions are obviously important throughout
counselling, so much so that their uses in changing behaviour are often
overlooked. The counsellor can tell the client to recall or imagine events and
situations when indulged in the relaxation technique. This imagery encourages
the loosening of muscle tension. Physical tightness in body may be reduced if
client can call up images associated with calmness, comfort and rest.

"
Some clients seem to have too active an imagination and most of their difficulties
seem to arise from the way they concentrate on relative aspects of their thoughts.
These people become more and more anxious and resistant to change because
they constantly anticipate failures, and as a result they avoid facing up to things.
In whatever way he can, the counsellor should stop these clients from dwelling
on these aspects. He can reinforce talk about alternatives, he can ignore
references to negative aspects, and he can point out in a rational manner the self-
defeating nature of such thoughts.
Some counsellors, in trying to change the clientÊs behaviour, also use a rather
dramatic technique called thought-stopping. It is sometimes used with clients
who indulge in unproductive talk. Suppose a client expresses his doubts or fears
for the tenth time, the counsellor may interrupt him and say firmly „stop that,
right now‰ and emphasise his point with a gross movement, such as thumping
his chair, standing up or turning away. He might succeed in directing this talk
constructively. Obviously, the success of this depends upon sound counsellor
and client relationship and upon the judgment by the counsellor. It may be used
in more subtle ways. He can encourage the client to devise a thought-stopping
signal for himself.
9.3.4 Systematic Desensitisation

This approach to changing behaviour uses several techniques together,
including, thinking, relaxing and imagining. In effect the counsellor tries to
inoculate the client against fears and anxieties that have become very intense in a
particular situation. There are several considerations and distinct stages in this
process.
(a) This is used with clients who are anxious about only one specific matter,
e.g. exam fear, dread about travelling in aircraft, fear relating to height etc.
(b) All the clientÊs feelings should be explored in advance. Until the client
accepts that change is possible and most fears can be learnt and can be
unlearnt, the process will not work.
(c) Then, the counsellor should make the client believe that the change for the
better is possible, and they should together work out a list of events that are
associated with fear. These are arranged in a hierarchy from least feared to
most fearful. It is useful to sort them on a scale, assigning a value of zero to
the least and 100 to the very worst.
(d) The counsellor describes the lowest item in the fear hierarchy. If the client
signals that it is distressing to imagine that event (i.e., by raising a finger) he
helps him to relax and concentrate on other pleasant images until he feels
that the client is able to cope with the things he fears. Not giving a distress

signal means that he can tolerate that event. The counsellor then introduces
the next item. And soon the client achieves a state of deep physical
relaxation. In this way, the two of them gradually work up the hierarchy.
SELF-CHECK 9.3
In your own words, explain SCTM.
"
•" Multicultural counselling is emerging as a significant component of
counselling practice in the present scenario.
•" Cultural biases, use of inappropriate counselling techniques and language are
the barriers to multicultural counselling.
•" Skilled multicultural counsellors require SCTM.

"
Cultural biases Multicultural counselling

Language barriers SCTM
1." Explain the impact of cultural biases on counselling.

2." Find out the various cultural differences to be considered before dealing
with a client from Europe.
3." What do you understand by desensitisation?
4." Explain the importance of bodily awareness and relaxation activities.
"
"
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"

Topic
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" X Ethical
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10
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Principles of the
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Counselling
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Profession
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" LEARNING OUTCOMES

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" 1. Discuss the purposes of ethical codes;
"
2. Identify the codes of ethics, conditions and tips for ethical and
"
effective counselling; and
"
" 3. Explain the principles of ethical conduct.
"
X" INTRODUCTION
In the previous topic, you studied about cultural differences and counselling.
Counselling services would not be well availed by the client in the absence of
proper ethical conduct. In this topic, you will study about the ethics involved in
the counselling profession. Ethics in counselling services facilitate a safe,
non-judgmental space for reflection and the exploration of problems, challenges
and issues faced by clients in day-to-day life.
10.1 PURPOSES OF ETHICAL CODES

The values of clients are not replacements of regulated ethics. Mental health
associations have developed standardised codes of ethics for governing the
professional application of qualified counsellors. These ethics are the essential
framework that describes professional therapy and are not the same as values.

TOPIC 10 ETHICAL PRINCIPLES OF THE COUNSELLING PROFESSION W 205
Values are not the same as ethics in that ethics define the framework of
professional counselling session, while values predict the motivation and
mechanisms of counselling. For instance, ethics can be thought of as the
foundation of a home and values as the model of the home.
While ethics are critical to the practice of professional therapy, they alone are not
adequate to speak to values, or lack thereof, in counselling. The purpose of ethics
is not to define values. Although values are certainly important, and we very
strongly uphold them, they have a totally different purpose.
For instance, an ethical principle may state that a counsellor cannot have an
external relationship with a client until at least two years have passed from the
time of termination of the professional relationship which is known as dual
relationship. This is an ethical standard. Ethics are rooted in philosophy, and not
only in science (such as in the instance just cited, one regulatory body may say
two years, another may say three years etc.). Regulatory bodies have
dissimilarities in their ethical codes from one another, and members of their
respective associations must adhere to them totally so as to be in good standing
with their regulatory body. Although, ethics are essential to the practice of
counselling and therapy, they do not speak to values at all, and are something
totally different.
Therefore, it is significant to understand that ethics and values exist in harmony.

Moreover, a good counsellor is one who is not only ethical in his practice, but
also one who upholds strong values.
Figure 10.1 depicts the various guidlines and codes for regulated professional
bodies of mental health for ethical standards. Please note that as ethics are rooted
in philosophy more than testable science, many of these will differ from each
other.
(a)" American Group Psychotherapy Association: Guidelines for Ethics.

(b)" American Psychological Association (APA): Code of Ethics.
(c)" American Association of Christian Counsellors: Code of Ethics.
(d)" American Counselling Association: Code of Ethics and Standards of
Practice.
(e)" British Columbia Association for Clinical Counsellors: Code of Ethical
Conduct.
(f)" Canadian Counselling Association: Code of Ethics & Standards of Practice.
(g)" Canadian Psychological Association: Ethical Standards.

206 X TOPIC 10 ETHICAL PRINCIPLES OF THE COUNSELLING PROFESSION
"
(h)" Canadian Traumatic Stress Network [Reseau Canadian du Stress

Traumatique]: Ethical Principles.
(i)" Christian Association for Psychological Studies: Ethics Statement.
(j)" International Society for Mental Health Online: Suggested Principles for
Online Provision of Mental Health Services.
(k)" National Board for Certified Counsellors: Code of Ethics.
(l)" National Board for Certified Counsellors: The Practice of Internet
Counselling.
(m)" Avoiding Exploitive Dual Relationships: A Decision-making Model.
Figure 10.1: Guidelines and Codes for regulated professional bodies of mental health
SELF-CHECK 10.1
Differentiate between ethics and values.
ACTIVITY 10.1
Find out the details of guidelines and codes for regulated

professional bodies of mental health as given in Figure 10.1.
10.2 CODES OF ETHICS FOR ETHICAL AND

EFFECTIVE COUNSELLING
According to Sue and Sue (1999), an ethical practice of counselling requires the
following things:
(a) Counsellors must be conscious of their own racial and cultural biases and
assumptions;
(b) Moreover, counsellors need to reach out and understand the cultural values
and biases of various cultures;
(c) Confidentiality;
(d) Proper termination;

(e) Being fair to all clients and respecting their human rights and dignity; and
(f) Finally, they must begin to develop culturally suitable counselling
practices.
10.2.1 Conditions Required for Ethical and Effective

Counselling
Counselling is a means rather than an end in itself. A clientÊs performance does
not automatically develop in positive ways because counselling takes place.
However, when done effectively, counselling can be quite useful in helping a
client to integrate with the organisation and to develop a sense of involvement
and satisfaction. The following conditions are necessary if counselling is to be
ethical:
(a) A General Climate of Openness and Mutuality
At least a minimum degree of trust and openness is essential. If the
organisation or the unit in which the client works is full of tension and
mistrust, counselling will not be effective.
(b) A Helpful and Empathic Attitude on the Part of the Counsellor
Counsellor must approach the task as an opportunity to help, must feel
empathy for the client being counselled and must be able to convey both
helpfulness and empathy to the client.
(c) The Establishment of an Effective Dialogue
Counselling is collaborative rather than prescriptive. It is based on the
clientÊs achievement of performance goals set in concert with his counsellor.
Consequently, the counselling process should be one in which both the
counsellor and the client participate without inhibition and engage in a
discussion that eventually results in a better understanding of the
performance issue involved.
(d) A Focus on Work-Related Goals
Work-related goals should be the exclusive concern of a counselling effort;
attention should be given only to behaviours and problems that directly
relate to the clientÊs achievement of those goals. During the course of the
discussion, issues that are not work-related may arise; but when this
happens, the counsellor should refocus the dialogue on improvement in the
organisational setting.
(e) Avoiding of Discussion about Salary, Raises and Other Rewards
The purpose of counselling is to help the client plan improvements in
performance, but discussing the linkage between performance and rewards
may interfere with this purpose.

"
10.2.2 Tips for Ethical and Effective Counselling

The following are useful tips for counselling that need be followed:
(a) Make Sure that the Client is Willing to Learn from Counselling
On some occasions, a client does not ask for counselling, but is, in effect,
forced into it. When counselling is provided without having been sought, it
may be of limited value and frustrating to the counsellor as well as the
client. In such a situation, the counsellor would do well to forget about
counselling and instead talk to the client about his or her interest or lack of
interest in growth. If the counsellor establishes the proper climate, such a
discussion can lead to openness on the part of the client. However, if the
client has serious difficulty in dealing with the counsellor, a problem-
solving session should be the first step.
(b) Encouraging the Client to Function Independently

Sometimes, clients are so loyal and their counsellor so protective that they
become totally dependent on the counsellor. From time to time, every
counsellor should reflect on whether he or she is unintentionally fostering
this kind of relationship. It is important to allow clients to make their own
decisions and thereby increase their autonomy. The same principle holds
true in a counselling situation, such as the client should bear the main
responsibility for determining what action to take.
(c) Make Sure that the Client Understands the Purpose of Counselling
If the client does not understand the purpose or has unrealistic expectations,
he or she may not receive the counsellorÊs message in the proper perspective.
If it is obvious that the client has some misunderstandings, it is a good idea to
spend the first session addressing them; then another session can be
scheduled for the actual counselling effort.
(d) Minimise Arguments

One argument is sufficient to make both the counsellor and the client
defensive. The counsellor should try to accept everything the client says
and build on it. Acceptance is the best way of helping the client to achieve
self-realisation.
(e) Ensure Adequate Follow-up

Good counselling sessions will ultimately fail to produce effective results if
follow-up is inadequate. When the counsellor follows up though informal
exchanges, this approach goes a long way towards communicating interest
in the client. But when the counsellor fails to follow up, the client may feel
that the counselling was artificial and, consequently, may lose interest in
improving the performance at issue.

10.2.3 Pre-disciplinary Action

The term pre-disciplinary is used because the use of counselling skills is not a
substitute for disciplinary action. Instead, the use of counselling skills precedes,
and is complementary to disciplinary action. Using counselling techniques at an
earlier stage before initiating disciplinary action can often prevent the need for
that action; using counselling skills along with the formal disciplinary procedure
can help clients to take ownership of a responsibility for resolving the problem.
Personal problems, of course, should be allowed to remain private unless the

person is willing to talk or the problem is adversely affecting their work. In fact,
counsellors may feel uncomfortable about initiating a conversation with a client
whose work has not yet been very adversely affected by their problem. However,
attempting to tackle the problem early might prevent it from getting worse. Refer
to the example below:
Example: A normally polite and pleasant customer service representative was

known to have a personal problem, which was making him edgy and sharper
than usual when dealing with people. This developed to the stage where his
approach to the customer became unacceptable and the first step of discipline
had to be taken. A counselling session set up by the individualÊs counsellor or
supervisor when an enduring problem first became apparent would perhaps
have prevented more drastic steps.
If the offer is rejected, do not push the client. Simply point out that the situation
cannot be allowed to continue indefinitely if it is having a negative effect on the
company, and then continue to monitor performance. The counsellor can offer
help again later on.
Pre-disciplinary counselling sessions fall into different categories. Sometimes the

counsellor has the facts, and at other times to communicate the problem clearly
and concisely, he uses the counselling skills to try to establish agreement on the
existence of the problem, and to help the person to decide on courses of action. If
the counsellor asks too many questions before sharing the reasons for the
meeting, he will appear furtive.
Pre-disciplinary counselling sessions are difficult because of the emotional

content. In response to the statement of the problem(s), the counsellor is likely to
face an emotional outburst, denial of a problem or deflections away from his
point.
The counsellor should use his counselling skills to listen to the personÊs
emotional outburst and let them take their time. He should acknowledge their
"
feelings and reflect back the emotional content. He should not make any
judgement about their feelings, such as „you are right or wrong for feeling upset
or angry‰, he should rather just say „you are upset or angry about that.‰ In order
to avoid getting caught up in deflections, there is a need to have a very clear idea
of what the issue is and be sure to keep coming back to it.
Reflection can also be used in a pre-disciplinary situation to play back any

ridiculous statements that clients make in defence of themselves. Often, they will
then admit they are not being straightforward. For example, if a client with
absenteeism problem brings up her new puppy when the counsellor refers to her
attendance record he could say, „Your puppy has stopped you from coming to
work regularly over the past few months?‰ Then she is likely to realise what a
weak excuse it is.
The following depicts the summary of important ethical issues to be kept in mind
by the counsellor in multicultural counselling.
Counsellors require a socio-cultural framework to work with clients from

different cultural backgrounds. The requirement for ethical multicultural
assessment and intervention includes the ability to:
(a) Be acquainted with cultural diversity and respect the clientÊs culture;
(b) Recognise the role that culture and ethnicity or race plays in the socio-
psychological and economic development of ethnic and culturally varied
populations;
(c) Acknowledge that socioeconomic and political factors extensively impact

the psychosocial, political and economic development of ethnic and
culturally diverse groups; and
(d) Respect and understand the interaction of culture, gender and sexual
orientation on behaviours and requirements.

Ethical issues involved in group counselling are:
(a) Informed consent: The leader has to show to all the members honesty
and respect and also provide information about the group in the
preliminary session. The information comprises a clear statement for the
purpose of the group, ground rules, the group leaderÊs introduction,
information concerning fees, issue of confidentiality, rights,
responsibilities of group members etc.
(b) In the case where a member wants to leave a group, he should provide a
suitable reason to the group leader for opting out. He should not leave
without prior notice and justification.
(c) Confidentiality is the most important consideration in a group. It should

be noticeably explained in the initial session by the group leader to all
the members including situations where confidentiality can probably be
broken in certain cases.
(d) It focuses on stressing on the responsibilities of the group members

which are regularity, punctuality, being willing to openly talk about
oneself, providing feedback to others and most importantly,
maintaining confidentiality.
ACTIVITY 10.2
"
The following link will take you to the website depicting Malaysian
code of ethics for counsellors. Read them carefully and prepare a list of
ethical codes to be considered by counsellors in Malaysia.
www.eghrmis.gov.my/wp_content2/polisihr/kodetika/kodetika.htm

"
ACTIVITY 10.3
Read the following case study and analyse the importance of ethical
behaviour:
Until its crash in the fall of 2001, Enron was one of the worldÊs largest
electricity, natural gas, and broadband trading company, with revenues
of over $100 billion. EnronÊs strategic intent was to become the blue-
chip energy and communications company of the twenty-first century
through its business efforts in four core areas - Enron Wholesale
Services, Enron Broadband Services, Enron Energy Services and Enron
Transpiration Services. Enron management claimed that each of these
business units supported the companyÊs shared ambition, stated as
follows:
Who are We and Why do We Exist?

We offer a wide range of physical, transportation, financial and
technical solutions to thousands of customers around the world. Our
business is to create value and opportunity for your business. We do
this by combining our financial resources, access to physical
commodities and knowledge to create innovative solutions to
challenging industrial problems. We are best known for our natural gas
and electricity products, but today we also offer retail energy and
broadband products. These products give customers the flexibility they
need to compete today.

What do We Believe?
We begin with a fundamental belief in the inherent wisdom of open
markets. We are convinced that customer choice and competition leads
to lower prices and innovation. Enron is a laboratory for innovation.
That is why we employ the best and the brightest people. We believe that
every employee can make a difference here. We encourage people to
make a difference by creating an environment where everyone is
allowed to achieve their full potential and where everyone has a stake in
the outcome. We think this entrepreneurial approach stimulates
creativity. We value diversity and are committed to removing all barriers
to employment and advancement based on sex, sexual orientation, race,
religion, age, ethnic background, national origin, or physical limitation.
Our success is measured by the success of our customers. We are
committed to meeting their energy needs with solutions that offer them a
competitive advantage. We work with them in ways that reinforce the
benefits of a long-term partnership with Enron. In everything we do, we
operate safely and with concern for the environment. This is a
responsibility we take seriously in all the different places around the
world where we do business. WeÊre changing the way energy is
delivered, as well as the market for it. WeÊre reinventing the
fundamentals of this business by providing energy at lower costs and in
more usable forms than has been provided before. Everything we do is
about change. Together, we are creating the leading energy company in
the world. Together, we are defining the energy company of the future.
Our Core Values

Integrity: We work with customers and prospects openly, honestly, and
sincerely. When we say we will do something, we will do it; when we
say we cannot or we will not do something, then we wonÊt do it.
Respect: We treat others as we would like to be treated. Ruthlessness,

callousness, and arrogance donÊt belong here.
Excellence: We are satisfied with nothing less than the very best in every
thing we do. We will continue to raise the bar for everyone. The great
fun here will be for all of us to discover just how good we can really be.
Communication: We have an obligation to communicate. Here, we take

time to talk with one another and to listen. We believe that information is
meant to move and that information moves people.

"
However, gaping flaws in EnronÊs strategy began to emerge in the „Fall of

2001‰, starting with revelations that the company had incurred billions
more in debt to grow its energy trading business than was first apparent
from its balance sheet. The off-balance sheet debt was hidden by obscurely
worded footnotes to the companyÊs financial statements involving
mysterious partnership in which the companyÊs Chief Financial Officer
(CFO) had an interest (and was apparently using it to make millions in
profits on the side). After EnronÊs strong price slid from the mid-$80s to the
high-$30s despite glowing earnings reports, the companyÊs well-regarded
Chief Executive Officer suddenly resigned for „personal reasons‰ in
August 2001. Weeks later, the companyÊs CFO was asked to resign as
details of his conflict of interest in the off-balance sheet partnerships came
to light. Meanwhile, top company executives continued to insist publicly
that the company was in sound financial shape and that its business was
secure, hoping to keep customers from taking their business to rivals and
to reassure concerned shareholders. But EnronÊs crown jewel, its energy
trading business, which generated about $60 billion in reported revenues,
came under increased scrutiny, both for the debt that had been amassed to
support such enormous trading volumes and for its very high profit
margins (some of which were suspect due to accounting treatments that
had won the stamp of approval of Arthur Andersen, the companyÊs
auditor). Within weeks, Enron filed for bankruptcy, its stock price fell
below $1 per share, its stock was delisted from the New York Stock
Exchange, and a scandal of unprecedented proportions grew almost daily.
Arthur Anderson fired the partner on the Enron account when it appeared
that working papers relating to the audit were destroyed in an apparent
effort to obstruct a congressional investigation of the details of EnronÊs
collapse. EnronÊs board fired Arthur Anderson as the companyÊs auditor.
Then Enron was caught destroying documents (as late as January 2002) in
an apparent attempt to hide. The companyÊs former vice chairman
committed suicide after it became public that he had vigorously protested
EnronÊs accounting practices earlier in 2001. It also came out that senior
company officers had sold shares of Enron Stock months earlier, when the
stock price slide first began. EnronÊs employees - most of whom had their
entire 401 (k) monies tied up in Enron and were precluded from selling
their shares and 4,000 of whom were dismissed in a last – ditch effort to cut
costs-watched helplessly as their retirement savings were wiped out by the
crash. The extent of managementÊs unethical behaviour is still under
investigation. But Enron management clearly did not act in accordance
with the principle and values it espoused.

10.3 PRINCIPLES OF ETHICAL CONDUCT

Principles bring our attention towards significant ethical responsibilities. Ethical
decisions that are strongly supported by one or more of the principles without
any contradiction from others may be regarded as reasonably well-substantiated.
Although, practitioners will encounter situations in which it is impractical to
reconcile all the applicable principles and selecting between principles may be
required. A decision or course of action does not essentially become unethical
simply because it is controversial or other practitioners would have reached
dissimilar conclusions in similar situations. A practitionerÊs duty is to consider all
the relevant situations with as much care as is reasonably possible and to be
appropriately accountable for decisions made.
Let us look at the counsellors principles of ethical conduct:
(a) Fidelity: Honouring the Trust Placed in the Practitioner

Being trustworthy is regarded as the primary key in order to understand
and resolve ethical issues. Counsellors who follow this principle – act in
accordance with the trust placed in them. Confidentiality should be
regarded as an obligation arising from the clientÊs trust. Restrict any
disclosure of confidential information about clients to furthering the
purposes for which it was initially disclosed.
(b) Autonomy: Respect for the ClientÊs Right to be Self-Governing

This principle focuses on the importance of the clientÊs commitment to
participating in counselling or psychotherapy, generally on a voluntary
basis. Practitioners who respect their clientsÊ autonomy – ensure accuracy in
any advertising or information given in advance of services offered; seek
freely given and adequately informed consent; engage in explicit
contracting in advance of any commitment by the client; protect privacy;
protect confidentiality; normally make any disclosures of confidential
information conditional on the consent of the person concerned; and inform
the client in advance of foreseeable conflicts of interest or as soon as
possible after such conflicts become apparent. The principle of autonomy
opposes the manipulation of clients against their will, even for useful social
ends.
(c) Beneficence: A Commitment for Promoting the ClientÊs Welfare

The principle of beneficence means acting in the best interest of the client
based on professional assessment. It directs attention to working stringently
within oneÊs limits of competence and providing services on the basis of
adequate training or experience. Ensuring that the clientÊs best interests are
achieved requires systematic monitoring of practice and outcomes by the
best available means. It is considered significant that research and

"
systematic reflection inform practice. There is an obligation to use regular

and ongoing supervision to improve the quality of the services provided
and to commit to updating practice by continuing professional
development. An obligation to act in the best interests of a client may
become paramount when working with clients whose capacity for
autonomy is diminished due to immaturity, disbelief, extreme depression,
serious disturbance or other important personal constraints.
(d) Non-malfeasance: A Commitment to Avoiding Harm to the Client

Non-malfeasance includes avoiding sexual, financial, emotional or any
other form of client exploitation; avoiding incompetence or misconduct; not
providing services when unfit to do so due to illness, personal situations or
intoxication. The practitioner has an ethical duty to strive to mitigate any
harm caused to a client even when the harm is inevitable or unintentional.
Holding suitable insurance may help in restitution. Practitioners have a
personal duty to challenge, where appropriate, the incompetence or
malpractice of others; and to contribute to any investigation and/or
adjudication regarding professional practice which falls below that of a
reasonably competent practitioner and/or risks bringing harm to the
reputation of the profession.
(e) Justice: The Fair and Unbiased Treatment of All Clients and the Provision
of Satisfactory Services
The principle of justice focuses on being fair to all clients and respecting
their human rights and dignity. It directs attention to considering
conscientiously any legal obligations, and also being alert to potential
conflicts between legal and ethical obligations. Justice in the delivery of
services calls for the ability to determine impartially the provision of
services for clients and the allocation of services between clients. A
commitment to fairness requires the ability to understand differences
between people and to be committed to the equality of prospects and
avoiding discrimination towards people or groups contrary to their
legitimate personal or social characteristics. Practitioners have a duty to
strive to ensure a fair provision of counselling and psychotherapy services,
accessible and suitable to the requirements of potential clients.
(f) Self-respect: Fostering the PractitionerÊs Self-Knowledge and Concern for

One-Self
The principle of self-respect means that the practitioner suitably applies all
the above principles as entitlements for self. This involves seeking
counselling or therapy and other opportunities for personal development as
required. There is an ethical responsibility to use supervision for suitable
personal and professional support and development, and to seek training
and other opportunities for continuing professional development.

Guarding against financial liabilities arising from work undertaken

generally requires obtaining suitable insurance. The principle of self-respect
promotes active engagement in life-enhancing activities and relationships
that are independent of relationships in counselling or psychotherapy.
•" Ethics play an important role in effective counselling.
•" Ethical decisions that are strongly supported by one or more of the principles
without any contradiction from others may be regarded as reasonably well-
substantiated.
•" Principles bring our attention towards significant ethical responsibility. A

practitioner's duty is to consider all the relevant situations with as much care
as is reasonably possible and to be appropriately accountable for decisions
made; keeping in mind all principles of ethical conduct.
Autonomy Ethics
Ethical decisions Principles
1." List the purposes of ethical codes.

2." Explain the conditions required for ethical and effective counselling.
3." What do you understand by the term „Pre-disciplinary‰?
4." What are the ethical issues involved in group counselling?
5." List the ethical issues to be kept in mind by the counsellor in multicultural
counselling.

218 X REFERENCES
"
References
American Association for Counseling and Development (1981). Ethical standards
(Rev. Ed.) Alexandria, VA: Author.
American Counseling Association (1985). Code of ethics and standards of

practice. Alexandria, VA: Author.
American Psychological Association (1981 a). Ethical principles of psychologists

(Rev. Ed.), Washington, DC: Author.
Association for Specialists in Group Work (1989). Ethical guidelines for group
leaders. Alexandria, VA: Author.
Ayonrinde, O. (2003). Importance of cultural sensitivity in therapeutic

transactions: Considerations for healthcare providers. Disease Management
& Health Outcomes, 11(4), 233-248.
Barker, L. (1971). Listening behavior. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Cormer, L. S., & Hackney, A. (1987). The professional counsellors process guide
to helping. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc.
Crews, F. (1995).The memory wars. New York: New York Review Books.
Gazda, G. M. (Ed.) (1982). Basic approaches to group psychotherapy and group

counseling (3rd ed.). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
Ivey, A. E., & Ivey, M. B. (2007). Intentional interviewing and counseling:

Facilitating client development in a multicultural society (6th ed.). Belmont,
CA: Thompson Brooks/Cole.
Ivy, A., & Ivy, M. (2006). Interviewing and observational skills: Ethical concerns
[Video Recording]. Walden University: Laureate Education, Inc.
Lee, C. C., & Richardson, B. L. (Eds.) (1991). Multicultural issues in counseling:

New approaches to diversity. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling
Association.
Maclennan, N. (1986).Counselling for managers. Aldershot: Grover.

REFERENCES W 219
Maslow A. (1961).Toward a psychology of being. Princeton, NJ: D. van Nostrand.
Murro, C. A. (1980). Counselling – A skills approach: London: British

Psychological Society and Mithnen.
National Board for Certified Counselors (1989). Code of ethics. Alexandria, VA:
Author.
Perls F., Hefferline, R. & Goodman, P. (1951). Gestalt therapy. New York, Julian
Press.
Perls, F. E. (1969). Hunger and aggression. New York: Random House.
Reddy, M. (1987). Counselling at work. London: British Psychological Society

and Mithnen.
Rogers, C. R., & Roethlisberger, F. L. (1952). Barriers and gateways to

communication. Harvard Business Review, July-August, p. 34.
Rubaii-Barrett, N., & Beck, A. C. (1993). Minorities in the majority: Implications

for managing cultural diversity. Public Personnel Management, 22(4), 503-
521.
Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (1999). Counseling the culturally different: Theory and
practice (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley 28 Masalah.
Weaver, C. H. (1972). Human listening. Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merril.
Webster, R. (1996). Why Freud was wrong. London: Harper Collins.
Wolvin, A. D., & Coakley, C. G. (1991). A survey of the status of listening training
in some Fortune 500 corporations. Communication Education, 40, 152-164.
http://changingminds.org/articles/articles/group_counseling.html Kerlinger,
F. (1973). Foundations of behavioural research. New York: Holt Rinehart &
Winston.
wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn

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HBEF3703

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Module Writers: Dr Zainal Abidin Ahmad

Moderators: Assoc Prof Dr Arifin Haji Zainal

Translator: Dr Norhasyimah Isa

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Acme Learning Private Limited

Printed by: Meteor Doc. Sdn. Bhd.

First Edition, August 2011

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 1 Introduction to Counselling 1

Topic 2 The Process of Counselling 27

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 3 Communication Skills 50

Topic 4 Listening Skills 73

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 5 Role Skills 107

Topic 6 Behavioural Counselling Theory 136

Topic 7 Person-centred Counselling 157

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

7.2.6 Personality Growth 164

Topic 8 Group Counselling 183

Topic 9 Counselling in a Multicultural Society 192

Topic 10 Ethical Principles of the Counselling Profession 204

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

10.2.3 Pre-disciplinary Action 209

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

" Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

" Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

1. Explain counselling concepts, principles and processes;

2. Discuss a counsellorÊs characteristics, roles and skills; and

3. Apply the principles in counselling theories to assist people with their

Topic 1 discusses the importance of counselling in todayÊs society. It explains the

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Topic 4 explains what is listening, stages of listening, obstacles of listening,

Topic 6 introduces the behaviourist counselling theory. It explains the concept

Topic 7 introduces learner-centred counselling theory which was founded by

Topic 8 explains group counselling, counselling theory and group counselling,

Topic 9 discusses cultural differences and counselling, barriers to multicultural

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL

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Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

In this country, counselling services have reached an encouraging level especially

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

developing nation geared towards becoming a developed nation with high

Although counselling is regarded as a new field compared to sociology,

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1. Have you ever experienced stress or know of any individual who

2. How did you or that individual overcome the stress?

1.2 DEFINITION OF COUNSELLING

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Below are some definitions of counselling:

Krumboltz (1965) defined counselling as: