COMPARITIVE ANALYSIS OF CARBON NANOTUBE

AND NANO CHARCOAL POWER AS ADDITIVES IN

A DIESEL ENGINE FUELLED WITH TERNARY
BLEND

ABSTRACT

The present study focuses on improving the performance and combustion

characteristics of a ternary blend (biodiesel, diesel, ethanol) in a single cylinder
diesel engine. The current work is done with four different blends and compared
with diesel as base fuel. The four test fuel include bio-diesel, diesel, ethanol, in
a proportion of 20%, 70%, 10% with 25ppm Mwcnt (Multiwalled carbon
nanotues), bio-diesel, diesel, ethanol with 50ppm Mwcnt, Biodiesel, diesel,
ethanol with 25ppm Activated charcoal, bio-diesel, diesel, ethanol with 50ppm
Activated charcoal. Test fuels were initially prepared by magnetic stirring
followed by ultrasonication. The nano particles were prepared in required
concentration (25ppm,50ppm) and blend with base fuel(bio-diesel, diesel,
ethanol).The engine performance and emissions were analyzed. The readings
were compared with that of a base fuel diesel. Performance characteristics like
Brake specific fuel consumption(BSFC), Exhaust Gas temperature(EGT),
Exhaust gas oxygen(EGO), were analyzed. Emission characteristics like
Hydrocarbon(Hc), Carbon monoxide(CO), Carbon dioxide( 𝐶𝑂2 ), Nitrogen
oxide(𝑁𝑂𝑋 ) and smoke emissions were analyzed after substituting the above
fuel in a single cylinder diesel engine. The performance combustion and
emission characteristics reveal that the effect of activated charcoal is better in
comparison with Multi walled carbon tubes which is costlier than activated
charcoal so the blend of bio-diesel, diesel, ethanol, with activated charcoal will
be promising as a better alternate fuel for single cylinder diesel engine.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

ABSTRACT iv

LIST OF TABLE vii

LIST OF FIGURES viii

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 overview 1

1.2 Fuel scenario in India

1.3 Scope of the project

1.4 Benefits of using Biofuel

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

3. ASSESSMENT OF INDIVIDUAL FUEL PROPERTIES

3.1 Diesel

3.2 Biodiesel

3.3 Ethanol

3.4 Carbon nanoparticles

 3.5 Charcoal power

4. METHODOLOGY

4.1 Preparation of blend

4.2 Comparison of Fuel properties

4.3 Experimental Setup

4.3.1 Engine specifications

4.3.2 Emission Analyzer

4.3.3 Smoke meter specifications

4.3.4 Gas analyzer specifications

4.3.5 In cylinder pressure

4.3.6 Experimentation and testing

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

6. CONCLUSION

7. REFERENCES
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1: Properties of diesel

Table 3.2: Properties of biodiesel

Table 3.3: Properties of ethanol

Table 4.1Comparison of blend properties with individual fuel properties

Table 4.2 Engine Specifications

Table 4.3 Smoke meter Specifications

Table 4.4 Gas Analyzer Specifications

 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 3.1: Diesel

Fig. 3.2: Biodiesel

Fig 3.3 Process flow schematic for biodiesel production

Fig. 3.4:Ethanol

Fig 3.5 Carbon Nanotube model

Fig3.5 SWCNT and MWCNT

Fig. 4.1 Methodology

Fig 4.2 Blend Preparation

Fig. 4.3 Experimental setup

Fig. 4.4 Five gas analyzer

Fig 5.1 oxides of nitrogen(𝑁𝑂𝑋 ) for five different blends

Fig 5.2 Smoke opacity for five different fuels

Fig 5.3 Brake specific fuel consumption for five different fuels

Fig 5.4 Carbon monoxide for five different fuels

Fig 5.5 Carbon dioxide(𝐶𝑂2 )for five different fuels

Fig 5.6 Cylinder pressure for five different fuels Fig 5.7 Exhaust gas

oxygen(EGO) for five different fuels

Fig 5.8 Exhaust gas temperature(EGT) for five different fuels

Fig 5.9 Hydrocarbon for five different fuels

Fig 5.10 Heat release rate for five different fuels

 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 OVERVIEW

The demand for energy, specifically the demand for petroleum fuels around the world
is increasing every day. From 2012 to 2016, 41% increase in global energy
consumption is forecasted, 30% and 52% increase over last ten and last twenty years
respectively. Non-OECD economies will account for 95% of this growth, half of
which is expected to come from China and India. Compared to 2012, 69% higher
energy will be used in 2035 in the non-OECD economics. Due to having benefits such
as adaptability, high combustion efficiency, availability,reliability as well as the
handling facilities, fossil fuels results in most energy consumption.

Shares of the major fossil fuels are converging, with natural gas, oil and coal each
contributing 27% of the total mix by 2035 and the remaining share supplied by
nuclear and renewable energy. Burning of fossil fuels produces emissions that have
serious effect on both the environment as well as human health.Fuel, coal and gas
each contributes 38% of the increase in emissions and 24% increase is coming from
oil. It is predicted that by 2035 global CO2 emissions from energy use will increase
29%.

Compared to 1990, global emissions will be nearly double in 2035. Price hiking of
petroleum products, world-wide environmental concerns as well as the rapid depletion
of fossil diesel fuel have encouraged researcher to search for alternative fuel sources
which will provide cleaner combustion of diesel engines. Therefore, it has become a
global agenda to develop clean alternative fuels which are domestically available,
environmentally acceptable and technically feasible. According to the Energy Policy
Act of 1992 (EPACT, US), natural gas, bio fuel, electricity and methanol are the most
suitable substitute to fossil fuels that can reduce global warming, fossil fuels
consumption and exhaust emissions.

As an alternative fuel, bio fuel such as ethanol, biodiesel are the best choices due to
having properties such as environment friendly behaviour and similar functional
properties with diesel fuel. In both developing and developed countries bio fuel are at
the top of their agendas and thus it is predicted that world bio fuel production will be
quadruple by 2020.

The majority of the literature agrees that particulate matter (PM), unburnt total
hydrocarbons (THC) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions from biodiesel are lower
than from conventional diesel fuel. One of the most important reasons for this is the
oxygen content of biodiesel, this induces a more complete and cleaner combustion
process.

The potential emission benefits induced by the presence of oxygen in fuel molecules,
has increased the interest in using bio-alcohols fuel blends in compression ignition
engines such as ethanol. However butanol can be considered as an alternative due to
some favourable properties like higher energy density, being less prone to water
contamination, less corrosive, having a better blending stability and higher cetane
number with respect to ethanol. Although longer-chain alcohols are more suitable for
blending with diesel, properties like lubricity, viscosity and cetane number of alcohol-
diesel blends still requires improvement. One approach to address this is the addition
of biodiesel which can improve all of these properties forming diesel-biodiesel-
alcohol ternary blends.
Biodiesel is a mixture of mono-alkyl esters of different chain length and saturated
fatty acids. As biodiesel can be obtained from various sources such as rapeseed oil,
used vegetable oil, animal fats, etc., their composition can be different with varying
fatty acid profiles. Variation in biodiesel composition results in different physical and
chemical properties, affecting fuel miscibility, lubricity, engine performance, exhaust
emissions, etc. Consequently, understanding the effect of molecular structure of
methyl esters on diesel engine exhaust emissions and performance is necessary,
leading to the development of specific fatty acid profiles of biodiesel which lead to
advantages in the biodiesel used for alcohol-diesel blends.

1.2 FUEL SCENARIO IN INDIA

Energy plays a vital role in the socio-economic development of a nation. India faces a
pervasive imbalance in the demand and supply of energy. About 70% of India’s
electricity generation capacity is from fossil fuels. India is largely dependent on fossil
fuel imports to meet its energy demands. By 2030, India’s dependence on energy
imports is expected to exceed 53% of the country's total energy consumption.In 2009-
10, the country imported 159.26 million tonnes of crude oil which amounts to 80% of
its domestic crude oil consumption and 31% of the country's total imports are oil
imports.

Bio fuels are considered among the most promising and economically viable
alternative option, as they can be produced locally, within the country, and can be
substituted for diesel and petrol to meet the transportation sector’s requirements. Then
there wouldn’t be dependency on foreign oils, helping boost the country’s overall
economy.

The Indian economy is growing at the rate of approximately 7% since 2000.The bio
fuel policy of India has an indicative target of 20 percent blending of bio ethanol by
2017. India has 330 distilleries, which can produce more than 4 billion litres of
rectified spirit (alcohol) per year in addition to 1.5 billion litres of fuel ethanol which
could and should meet the requirement of 5% blending.

Ethanol has high octane and relatively clean combustion characteristics. The presence
of oxygen in ethanol facilitates combustion reducing CO and HC emissions. Ethanol
is a safe replacement for toxic octane enhancers in gasoline such as benzene, toluene
and xylene. While the calorific value of ethanol is lower than that of gasoline by 40%
it makes up a part by increased efficiency. So far its use as 100% fuel is concerned it
has no problem in designing an engine to run on only ethanol. However, for the reason
of compatibility as well as availability its use for blending is only being practiced. It
can be blended both in diesel as well as gasoline.

1.3 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

Deteriorating air quality is a pressing issue that most Indian cities face today. India
heavily lags behind in its vehicle emission standards and need to establish a roadmap
for vehicle emission and fuel quality standards. Rapid adoption of ultra-low sulfur
fuels and BS VI vehicle emission standards would dramatically improve India’s air
quality to the benefit of public health. Alternative transport fuels have to be promoted
and brought into the mainstream to tackle the twin objectives of reducing vehicular
emissions and import dependence. Diversifying fuel basket with the introduction
alternative fuels will provide the much needed energy security with the environment
being considered.

1.4 BENEFITS OF USING BIOFUEL

Biodiesel is a renewable energy source unlike other petroleum products that will
vanish in years to come. Since it is made from animal and vegetable fat, it can be
produced on demand and also causes less pollution than petroleum diesel.
One of the main advantage of using biodiesel is that it can be used in existing diesel
engines with little or no modifications at all and can replace fossil fuels to become the
most preferred primary transport energy source. Biodiesel can be used in 100%
(B100) or in blends with petroleum diesel. For e.g.: B20 is called as 20% blend of
biodiesel with 80% diesel fuel. It improves engine lubrication and increases engine
life since it is virtually sulfur free.
Fossil fuels when burnt release gre-enhouse gases like carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere that raises the temperature and causes global warming. To protect the
environment from further heating up, many people have adopted the use of bio fuels.
Experts believe that using biodiesel instead of petroleum diesel can reduce greenhouse
gases up to 78%.

Fossil fuels are limited and may not be able to fulfill our demand for coal, oil and
natural gas after a certain period. Biodiesel can work as an alternative form of fuel and
can reduce our dependence on foreign suppliers of oil as it is produced from domestic
energy crops. It is produced in local refineries which reduce the need to import
expensive finished product from other countries.

When Bio fuels are burnt, they produce significantly less carbon output and few
pollutants. As compared to petroleum diesel, biodiesel produces less soot (particulate
matter), carbon monoxide, unburned hydrocarbons, and sulfur dioxide. Flashpoint for
biodiesel is higher than 150°C whereas the same is about 52°C for petroleum diesel,
which makes it less combustible. It is therefore safe to handle, store and transport.

Vehicles that run on biodiesel achieve 30% fuel economy than petroleum based diesel
engines which means it makes fewer trips to gas stations and run more miles per
gallon.

With locally produced bio fuels, many countries have reduced their dependence
on fossil fuels. It may not solve all problems in one blow but a nation can save billions
by reducing their usage on foreign oil.
An extensive study of the various blends of diesel- biodiesel- ethanol that has been
experimented on by the researches have been noted. A particular composition for the
blend is selected based on the study and this blend is prepared experimented on in the
third chapter. The performance and emission characteristics of this blend are depicted
in the fourth chapter.
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

M. Mofijur et al. (2016) studied the role of bio fuel and their
binary(diesel–biodiesel) and ternary (ethanol–biodiesel–diesel) blends on internal
combustion engines. Their studies indicated that engine emission is dependent on
some factors such as engine operating condition, bio fuel types, blending etc. Both
biodiesel–diesel and ethanol–biodiesel–diesel blending plays a significant role in
reducing the exhaust gas emissions such as carbon monoxides(CO), hydrocarbons
(HC), particulate matter(PM). Butethanol–biodiesel–diesel and biodiesel–diesel
blends produce higher carbon dioxides emission, which is absorbed by the crops and
considered as lower net CO2 emission. Finally, about 5–10% of ethanol with20–25%
biodiesel can be added with petro-diesel effectively and efficiently to reduce global
GHG emission, thus to maintain environment and human health better.

H.K. Imdadul et al.(2016) discussed about the higher alcohol–biodiesel–

diesel blends. They investigated the performance, emission, and combustion
characteristics of a single-cylinder, four-stroke, water-cooled, direct-injection diesel
engine were evaluated by using 10%, 15%, and 20% pentanol and Calophyllum
inophyllum (CI) biodiesel blends in diesel under different speed conditions. The fuel
properties of the blended fuels were measured and compared. Combustion attributes,
such as cylinder pressure and heat-release rate, were also analyzed. Results indicated
that increasing the proportion of pentanol in biodiesel blends improved the fuel
properties compared with 20% blend of CI biodiesel (CI 20). The modified blends of
pentanol showed reduced brake-specific fuel consumption with higher brake thermal
efficiency and brake power than CI 20. Although the modified test blends showed a
slightly higher nitric oxide emission, the carbon monoxide emission and unburned
hydrocarbon emission for 15% and 20% blends of pentanol showed even better
reduction than CI 20. Smoke emission was also reduced significantly. The carbon
dioxide emission of the test blends were reduced at the maximum speed condition
compared to CI 20. In terms of combustion, the modified test fuels exhibited a
significant improvement, thus indicating better performance and emission. This study
concluded that the 15% and 20% blends of biodiesel, diesel, and pentanol can
optimize engine performance and emission without any engine modification.

H. Tse et al. (2015) investigated the combustion characteristics and

particulate emissions from a diesel engine fueled with diesel-biodiesel-ethanol
blends. The effects on in-cylinder pressure, heat release rate, combustion duration,
diffusion fuel mass, BSPM (brake specific particulate mass) and BSPN (brake
specific number concentrations) when diesel-biodiesel is blended with 0%, 5%, 10%
and 20% ethanol were tested in a 4-cylinder naturally-aspirated direct-injection diesel
engine at a steady state speed of 1800 rev/min under five engine loads. Overall,
compared with ULSD (ultra-low sulphur diesel), DBE blends can effectively reduce
BSPM, BSPN and maintain a good trade-off relationship among PM-PN-NOX.
Compared with biodiesel, the blended fuels perform better in suppressing BSPN,
leading to a reduction in the number of ultrafine and nano-particles.

S.A.Shahir et al. (2015) studied the opportunities and prospects of

introducing diesel–biodiesel– ethanol/bio ethanol blend as fuel in the existing diesel
engines. Their study is based on the engine emissions and its performance. They
revealed that when biodiesel is used as an additive in this diesohol blend, it improves
the physicochemical properties of the ternary blend, engine performance and also
increases the renewable portion of the blend. First the engine performance and
emissions data found by using diesel–biodiesel–ethanol/bio ethanol ternary blends are
accumulated. Then the results of the scientists and investigators are discussed to
evaluate its potential as an alternative to fossil diesel fuel. The physicochemical
properties of ternary blends are found to be almost similar to the diesel fuel. These
ternary blends significantly reduce the PM (particulate matter) emissions from the
diesel engine but the emissions of NOx (nitrogen oxides),soot and smoke,
HC(hydrocarbon), CO(carbon monoxide), CO2 (carbon dioxide) and the carbonyl
compounds depend on the operating conditions of the engine and remain almost
similar to the diesel fuel exhaust.

G. Venkata Subbaiah et al. (2010) investigated the performance and

emission characteristics of a direct injection (DI) diesel engine when fueled with
conventional diesel fuel, pure biodiesel, a blend of diesel and biodiesel and three
blends of diesel-biodiesel-ethanol were studied over the entire range of load on the
engine. The experimental results showed that the highest brake thermal efficiency
was observed with 30% ethanol in diesel-biodiesel-ethanol blends. The exhaust gas
temperature and sound reduced with the increase of ethanol percentage in diesel-
biodiesel ethanol blends. The Carbon monoxide, smoke, exhaust gas temperature and
sound reduced with the increase of ethanol percentage in diesel-biodiesel-ethanol
blends. The minimum values of Carbon monoxides, smoke, exhaust gas temperature
and sound intensity were observed with the blend BE30 and were respectively
41.23%, 14.5%, 0.57% and 11.53% lower than that of the diesel fuel. The Oxides of
nitrogen and carbon dioxide emissions increased with the increased percentage of
ethanol in diesel-biodiesel-ethanol blends. The hydrocarbon emissions increased with
ethanol but lower than that of the diesel fuel by a maximum of 35.35% with 10%
ethanol in diesel-biodiesel-ethanol blend. The blending of 20% biodiesel into diesel-
ethanol blends allowed higher percentage (30%) of ethanol mixing with diesel,
increased the brake thermal efficiency and reduced the carbon monoxide, sound,
hydrocarbons and smoke than that of the diesel fuel.
 Golmohammad Khoobbakht et al. (2015) optimised the operating
factors and blended levels of diesel, biodiesel and ethanol fuels to minimize exhaust
emissions of diesel engine using response surface methodology. The experiments
were designed using a statistical tool known as Design of Experiments (DoE) based
on central composite rotatable design (CCRD) of response surface methodology
(RSM). The resultant quadratic models of the response surface methodology were
helpful to predict the response parameters such as oxides of nitrogen (NO x), carbon
monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2) and total hydrocarbon (THC) and smoke
opacity and further to identify the significant interactions between the input factors on
the responses. The results depicted that biodiesel and ethanol could reduce CO and
HC emissions as well as smoke opacity and enhance CO2 which indicated a more
quality in fuel combustion. However over adding these bio fuels in diesel led their
detrimental impacts to be dominant over advantages of biodiesel and ethanol and as
result emissions tended to increase. Optimization of independent variables was
performed using the desirability approach of the response surface methodology with
the goal of minimizing CO, THC, NOx and smoke opacity and maximizing CO2. An
engine load of 80% of full load bar, speed of 2800 rpm and a blend of 26% biodiesel,
11% ethanol and 63% diesel were found to be optimal values with a high desirability
of 74% for the test engine having 0. 013% of 39 CO, ppm of HC, 643 ppm of NOx,
12% of smoke opacity and 7.3% of CO2.

Guven Gonca et al. (2016) performed a theoretical and experimental

study on the performance of a diesel engine fueled with diesel-biodiesel blends and
reported the effects of engine load and biodiesel percentage on the performance of the
engine by experiments and a new theoretical model based on the finite-time
thermodynamics (FTT). In this study, performance of a single cylinder, four-stroke,
direct injection (DI) diesel engine fueled with diesel-biodiesel mixtures has been
experimentally and theoretically investigated. The simulation results agree with the
experimental data. After model validation, the effects of engine load and biodiesel
percentage on engine performance have been parametrically investigated. The results
showed that, effective power increases constantly, effective efficiency increases to a
specified value and then starts to decrease with increasing engine load at constant
biodiesel percentage and compression ratio. However, effective efficiency increases,
effective power decreases to a certain value and then begins to increase with
increasing biodiesel percentage at constant equivalence ratio and compression ratio.

Nadir Yilmazet al. (2014) investigated CI engine emissions in biodiesel–

ethanol–diesel blends as a function of ethanol concentration. Both low and high
concentrations of ethanol were studied. Ethanol concentrations were varied at 3%,
5%, 15% and 25% in biodiesel–diesel–ethanol (BDE), while biodiesel and diesel
concentrations were maintained equal. Emission characteristics for biodiesel–diesel–
ethanol blends were compared to baseline curves of diesel as a function of engine
load. Results indicate that emissions strongly depended on not only engine operating
conditions, but also fuel blends concentrations. Cooling effects and oxygen contents
of alcohols were two of the most important factors in the outcomes. Overall, alcohol
blended fuels increased CO emissions as compared to diesel fuel for all operating
conditions. While ethanol blended fuels reduced NO emissions for all concentrations,
unburned HC emissions depended not only on ethanol concentrations, but also
operating conditions. Overall, high concentrations of ethanol increased HC emissions,
and vice versa. But at over 50% load, ethanol decreased HC emissions for all
concentrations. Reduction of HC emissions occurred for all concentrations at over
70% load.

Gvidonas Labeckaset al. (2014) examined the effect of ethanol–diesel–

biodiesel blends on combustion, performance and emissions of a direct injection
diesel engine. They presented the test results of a four-stroke, four-cylinder, naturally
aspirated, DI 60 kW diesel engine operating on diesel fuel (DF) and its 5 vol% (E5),
10 vol% (E10), and 15 vol% (E15) blends with anhydrous (99.8%) ethanol (E). An
additional ethanol–diesel–biodiesel blend E15B was prepared by adding the 15 vol%
of ethanol and 5 vol% of biodiesel (B) to diesel fuel (80 vol%). The purpose of the
research was to examine the influence of the ethanol to diesel fuel on start of
injection, auto ignition delay, combustion and maximum heat release rate, engine
performance efficiency and emissions of the exhaust when operating over a wide
range of loads and speeds. The test results were analysed and compared with a base
diesel engine running at the same air–fuel ratios of k = 5.5, 3.0 and 1.5 corresponding
to light, medium and high loads. The same air–fuel ratios predict that the energy
content delivered per each engine cycle will be almost the same for various ethanol–
diesel–biodiesel blends that eliminate some side effects and improve analyses of the
test results. A new approach revealed an important role of the fuel bound oxygen,
which reflects changes of the auto ignition delay more predictably than the cetane
number does. The influence of the fuel oxygen on maximum heat release rate,
maximum combustion pressure, NOx, CO emissions and smoke opacity of the
exhaust is highly dependent on the air–fuel ratio and engine speed. Fuelled with blend
E15B the diesel engine develops the brake thermal efficiency of 0.362, i.e. the same
as a straight diesel running on slightly richer air–fuel mixture k = 1.5 at rated 2200
rpm speed. Adding of the ethanol to diesel fuel reduces the NOx and the HC
emissions for richer combustible mixtures whereas the influence of a higher ethanol
mass content on CO emissions and smoke opacity depends on the air–fuel ratio and
engine speed.

Qiang Fang et al. (2013) investigated the effect of ethanol on

combustion and emissions in premixed low temperature combustion in a four
cylinders heavy-duty diesel engine. The biodiesel was used as an additive to prevent
the stratification of ethanol and diesel blends. The premixed LTC is achieved by the
medium level of EGR and the prolonged ignition delay. Compared with diesel fuel,
ethanol –diesel-biodiesel blends have lower NOx emissions due to lower combustion
temperature, resulting from the higher latent heat of vaporization. Unfortunately, the
lower combustion temperature also leads to the higher HC and CO emissions. Smoke
emissions for ethanol blends decrease obviously because of higher oxygen content
and longer ignition delay. The oxygen in ethanol also has a favourable impact on the
reduction of smoke emissions, which is obvious in high loads. Thus, the upper load
limit of LTC mode is extended. Compared with diesel fuel, 20 vol% ethanol in diesel
and biodiesel blends (BDE20) has lower NOx and smoke emissions and higher brake
thermal efficiency in LTC.

G.R.K Sastry et al. (2015) experimentally investigated in a direct

injection diesel engine. Isobutanol and Ethanol were added 5%-10% by volume to
diesel-biodiesel blends and the performance and emissions characteristics at different
injection pressures viz. 200, 225, 250 and 275 bars were studied. From the results, it
was found that nozzle opening injection pressure could be increased up to 250 bar, as
a result of which brake thermal efficiency and fuel economy of the engine were
improved. Further, Carbon Monoxide (CO) emissions opacity was reduced
significantly. However, Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) emissions decrease in some blends
marginally.

Nadir Yilmaz (2012) made a comparative analysis of biodiesel-ethanol-

diesel and biodiesel-methanol-diesel blends in a diesel engine. In this work, standard
diesel fuel, biodiesel (45%) methanol (10%) diesel (45%), biodiesel (40%) methanol
(20%), diesel (40%), biodiesel (45%) ethanol (10%) diesel (45%), and biodiesel
(40%) ethanol (20%)diesel (40%) blends are tested in a compression ignited engine
under the same operating conditions. Performance and emission characteristics of the
engine fueled with biodiesel-methanol-diesel (BMD) and biodiesel-ethanol-diesel
(BED) are compared to standard diesel fuel as the baseline. Overall, biodiesel-
alcohol-diesel blends show a higher brake specific fuel consumption than diesel. As
alcohol concentrations in blends increase, CO and HC emissions increase, while NO
emissions are reduced. Also, methanol blends are more effective than ethanol blends
for reducing CO and HC emissions, while NO reduction is achieved by ethanol
blends.
 Ludivine Pidolet al. (2012) studied the properties of ethanol blended
fuels and evaluates their behaviour in conventional Diesel combustion and advanced
combustion such as Low Temperature Combustion (LTC). The addition of ethanol
into diesel fuel affects some key properties such as the blend stability, the cetane
number or the flash point, the fuel formulation was thus improved. The remaining
weak ignitability of the blends requires an engine settings optimization, which
associated to the high oxygen content allows a combine reduction of smoke levels
and NOx emissions, with a contained fuel consumption penalty. These oxygenated
fuels also lead to an extended LTC operating range and improved maximum power
output.

Dattatray Bapu Hulwanet al. (2011) investigated performance, emission

and combustion characteristic of a multi cylinder DI diesel engine running on diesel–
ethanol–biodiesel blends of high ethanol content. The blends tested are D70/E20/B10,
D50/E30/B20, D50/E40/B10, and Diesel. The blends are prepared to get maximum
percentage of oxygen content but keeping important properties such as density,
viscosity and Cetane index within acceptable limits. Experiments are conducted on a
multicylinder, DI diesel engine, whose original injection timing was 13o CA BTDC.
The engine did not run on blends at this injection timing and it was required to
advance timing to 18o and 21o CA BTDC to enable the use of blends. However
advancing injection timing almost doubled the NO emissions and increased peak
firing pressure. The P–h and net heat release diagrams shows that the combustion
process of these blends delayed at low loads but approaches to the diesel fuel at high
loads. The comparison of blend results with baseline diesel showed that brake
specific fuel consumption increased considerably, thermal efficiency improved
slightly, smoke opacity reduced remarkably at high loads. NO variation depends on
operating conditions while CO emissions drastically increased at low loads. Blend
which replaced 50% diesel and having oxygen content up to 12.21% by weight has
given satisfactory performance for steady state running mode up to 1600 RPM
however, it does not showed any benefit on peak smoke emission during free
acceleration test.
 Lei Zhuet al. (2010) studied the emissions characteristics of a diesel
engine operating on biodiesel and biodiesel blended with ethanol and methanol. Euro
V diesel fuel, pure biodiesel and biodiesel blended with 5%, 10% and 15% of ethanol
or methanol were tested on a 4-cylinder naturally-aspirated direct-injection diesel
engine. Experiments were conducted under five engine loads at a steady speed of
1800 r/min. The study aims to investigate the effects of the blended fuels on reducing
NOx and particulate. On the whole, compared with Euro V diesel fuel, the blended
fuels could lead to reduction of both NOx and PM of a diesel engine, with the
biodiesel–methanol blends being more effective than the biodiesel–ethanol blends.
The effectiveness of NOx and particulate reductions is more effective with increase of
alcohol in the blends. With high percentage of alcohol in the blends, the HC, CO
emissions could increase and the brake thermal efficiency might be slightly reduced
but the use of 5% blends could reduce the HC and CO emissions as well. With the
diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC), the HC, CO and particulate emissions can be further
reduced.

Bang Quan He (2016) studied the advances in emission characteristics

of diesel engines using different biodiesel fuels. They concluded that the degree of
unsaturation and the chain length of the esters in biodiesel have close relation to
NOx emissions from diesel engines. The esters in biodiesel with more double bonds
lead to slightly high NOx emissions.

Hofman et al. (1981) indicated that while vegetable oil based fuels and
their blends had encouraging results in short term testing, problems occurred in long-
term durability tests. In their research they noted that carbon build-up, piston ring
sticking and lubricating oil contamination caused engine failure when vegetable oils
were used in high percentages (50% or more) as diesel fuel additives.

Nye et al. (1983) prepared esters of used frying oil to determine their
effects on engine performance and emissions. The esters of methanol, ethanol, 1-
propanol, 1-butanol and 2- ethoxyethanol were prepared using sulphuric acid and
KOH as acid and base catalyst respectively. They found out that all acid-catalyzed
fuels had low viscosities, but all base catalyzed fuels had high viscosities except for
methanol based fuel. In that study, the three fuels with the lowest viscosities (methyl
esters prepared with base catalysts, ethyl esters prepared with acid catalyst and butyl
esters prepared with acid catalyst) were tested in half hour runs in a high speed diesel
engine and in a Perkins low-speed engine and no problem was reported.