AN INVESTIGATION-OF THE BEHAVIOUR

OF
•
SOIL-STEEL STRUCTURES

A Thesis

by

MO. REZAUl KARIM

Submitted to the Department of Civil Engineering of

Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology,Dhaka
in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
of

MASTER OF SCIENCE IN CIV1l ENGINEER[NG

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 AN INVESTIGATION OF THE BEHAVIOUR
oF .~
SOIL-STEEL STRUCTURES

A Thesis
by

MO. REZAUL KARIM

Approved as to style and content by

Dr. M. _AzaduRahmanJ ~__~----, Chairman

Associate Professor, 0
Dept. of Civil Engineering,
BUET,Dhaka.
---A ~~-. r0\~.~:-IL:C.. ~---
(Or. A.M.M. Safiullah). Member
Professor of Civil Engineering,
BUET, Dhaka.

£J1~A~~
(Dj~--;;~~~;:r Habib) Member
Professor and Head,
Dept. of Civil Engineering,
BUET, Dh ka.

(Or. M.A. Rouf ) Member

Associate Professor,
Dept. of Civil Engineering,
SUET, Dhaka •
.
~.
_ 4

(Dr. A. J. Khan) Member

Director,
PI\lACSLtd.,
Road No.2, House No.34
Ohanmondai, Dhaka.

June, 1985

r
\, ••..•.
 The thesis considers the interaction between buried

structures and their surrounding soil. The finite element

method is applied and computer programs are developed for

the two-dimensional non-linear plane strain analysis of the.

structure and the soil as an integral system. The non-linear

properties of the soil are obtained from triaxial test results

and represented by a set,of graphs of octahedral shear stress

and strain. These are mathematically formulated in terms of

the cubic spline functions and followed by an incremental

analysis technique. Geometric non-linearity of the structurnc

.
member is incorporated using stability functions.

Economy in the computer time is achieved by forming

the element stiffness matrices only once and storing in a

direct access device and using repeatedly at different stress

levels by changing the shear modulus. Jennings' compact

storage scheme has been used for global stiffness matrix to

achieve maximum efficiency in the solution of equilibrium

equations.

Series of analyses are made to study the effect of

soil and structural parameters such as stiffness of cuiv~~~,

depth of cover above crown, size and shape of culvert and

Poisson's ratio ~f soil on the performance of buried ~u~vert5.

knalyses oi the results have shown t"at (iJ load

C"cf,r"
. .
.!. ;'":1_ -:: "'; -; :-:' ) : H] :3t iff;l2SS Q! the
 iv

------ -.
culvert material relative to surrounding soil" (i.i.)there 'is

an optimum depth of cover above crown at whi~h stresses are

minimum,.(iii) stress distribution is more favourable for

circular shape than for elliptical shape, and (iv) effect of

Poisson's ratio of soil is not very significant.

Key words: Interaction, Finite Elements, Non-linearity,

Soil-steel Structures.

•
 D€di.ea:t€d :to

fly La:t€ r a:th"-/l.

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This research was carried out in the Department of

I

Civil Engineering, SUET, Dhaka. Dr. M. Azadur Rahman;Assoc. Prof.j

Department of Civil Engineering had been a vigilant and

enthusiastic supervisor from its embryonic stage. The author

expresses his deep senSe of gratitude and profound indeb-

tedness to Dr. Rahman for hi~ sincere and untiring effort

this regard.

The author is gratefur to his co-supervisor Dr. A.M.M.

Safiullah, Professor, Department, of Civil Engineering, for

his invaluable advice and guidance throughout the course of

this research.

The author wishes to thank Dr. Alamgir Habib, Professor

and Head, Department of Civil Engineering for his constant

encouragement and co-operation.

The author expresses his sense of gratitude to Messrs

A.K.M. Riazul Zamil, A.K.M. Zubair and A.S.M. Mustaque Hossain,

his colleagues in the Department of Civil Engineering for their

co-operation in preparing this thesis. Thanks are also due to

Mr. Md. Shahiduddin for helping with the tracing of diagrams

and to Mr. M.A. Malek for typing the thesis.

 CONTENT5
Page

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 A Review of Interactive Analysis 7

1.3 Scope of the Work

Chapter 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction 5

2.2 Cha~acterization of Soil R~sponss 5

2.2.1 Linear Elastic Models

2.2.2 Non-linear Elastic Models

2.2.3 Higher-Order Elasticity Models 1

2.2.4 Plasticity Models 11

2.3 Characterization of Conduit Response 13

2.4 Selection Criteria for Soil Model for

Soil Conduit Interaction Problem 15

2.5 No-tension 8ehaviourdf.Soil Mass 16

2.6 Finite Element Computer Codes for

Analysing Soil Conduit Interaction 18

Chapter 3 .. ANALYTICAL MODELS

3.1 Introduction

3.2 8eam-column Element

3.3 Isoparametric Quadrilateral Element 28

3.4 Representation of Non-linear Properties

by Spline Functions 33

3.4.1 Representation of three Dimensional

Soil Properties 34

3.4.2 The Octahedral Components 34

3.4.3 Representation of Triaxial Test

Results iri Terms of the Octahedral
Components 3~
 Pag.'

3.4.4 Applicationof,th~ Cubic Spline

Function to Describe T DC t- Y DC t
Curves 40

3.S Non-linear Solution Technique 41

Chapter 4 THE FINITE ELEMENT COMPUTER PROGRAMS

4.1 Introduction 46

4.2 Techniques of Analysis 46

4.3 Storage of Stiffness Matrix 47

4.4 Construction of the Stiffness Matfix 49

4.S The So,lution Routine 5C

4.6 The Use of Spline Functions 5

,
4.7 The Structure of the Computer Program 53

4.8 Limitations of the Program 55

4.8 Concluding Remarks 55

Chapter S DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

S.1 Finite Element Discretization and

Boundary Conditions 5 •
S.2 Verification of the Computer Codes

5.3. Loading used in the Analyses au

5.4 .~aterial Properties 6

c.
.~mmaEY of Analysis Schemes

5.6 Effect of Structural Stiffness C

L

S.7 Effect of Depth of Cover Above Crown 74

5.8 Effect of Shape of Culvert 77

5.9 Effect of Size of Cu10ert 80

5.10 Effect of Poisson's Ratio of Soil 81

5.11 Distribution of Stresses in 50il

 viii

Page

Chapter 6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR

FURTHER RESEARCH

6.1 General 92

6.2 Conclusions 92

6.3 Recommendations for Further Research 94

APPENDIX SPLINE FUNCTION REPRESENTATION 96

-:EFERENCES
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Corrugated metal culverts can be economical replacemec. ,

for short-span bridges. In the recent years long-span metal

culvert structures are 'being used increasingly in railro",'

and highways. These culverts are quite flexible. and they

derive a considerable portion of their load-carrying capacity

through interaction with the surrounding backfill. It is fo~

this reason that these structures have earned the n~me soi

steel structure~. Design of these structures requires an

understanding of the interaction and a means for estimating

the forces in the-structures.

Traditionally culvert design has been largely empir

but with the increasing demand for long-span structures t

need for rational analytical procedure has grown. :Recent

field studies by Beal (19B2) have shown that for the mos

recent of the conventional design methods, calculated valu2~

underestimate experimental:.bending moment values by nearly

100%. By contrast, calculated thrust values are nearly 100%

larger than measured values.

In this thesis an attempt has been made to study the

fundamental behavior of corrugated metal culverts by an inter-

active analysis. Understanding of the interaction obtained

fro"".such analyses will ultimately lead to the development

of a rational design procedure for soil-steel structures.

1. 2 A REVIEW OF INTERACTI VE ANAL YSI S

A buried culvert and its surrounding sOlI form an

integral unit. A study of the interaction between the two

leads to a better understanding of the behaviour of both.

While the need for an interactive analysis is appreci-

ated, few exhaustive methods are available. Most of these

simplify the behaviour of the structure or the soil and giv~

insufficient or inaccurate result. The traditional concept

approaches the problem as a two-phase system. The structure

is one and the soil is the other. Attempts are then made to

account for the interaction between these two phases 'by some

simplified approach. Either the soil is analysed, with the

structure being represented by an artificial model or the

structure is supported by a fictitious soil.

In the present investigation the culvert and the soil

are considered as integral components of a single physical

system. A one-step analysis of this complete system makes it

possible to account for the interaction that may taks' pIaL"

between the components. The finite element method is used

represent the soil and the culvert by discrete elements havinv'

approrriate characteristics. The non-linear behaviour of the

soil is incorporated in the analysis by means of an incremen-

tal solution technique.

1.3 SCOPE OF THE WORK

It was decided to use plane strain finite element methoD

the interactive analysis. "-e-n~~E-Ofli"Q

J.. ~ 1"- ,J.. ..:I..... __ ' -!.
 j

a series of beam-column elements-'having linear elastic pro-

perties. The modulus of elasticity of the material of culvert

was suitably adjusted to conform to plane strain behaviour.

The soil surrounding the culvert was represented by plane

strain isoparametric quadrilateral elements. The non-linear

properties of the soil were represented by a set of curves

relating octahedral shear stress and octahedral shear strain.

The c,urves were followed in the, analysis by using cubic spline

functions and adopting an incremental solution technique.

Chapter 3 describes the development of the analytical model.

A computer program was developed to analyse the system

repr,e'sented by the'model described in Chapter 3. A compact

storage scheme for the stiffness matrix resulted in an effi-

clent use of the available resources. The computer techniques

are described in Chapter 4.

The computer program developed was verified by analysing

systems with known closed form solutions. It was then used

to analyse a series of different soil-steel structures to

gain an insight into their behaviour. Several parameters were

selected for studying their effects On the performance of

these structures. These include depth of cover, stiffness 0,

culvert material, shape and size of culvert and Poisson's

ratio of soil. The results or these analyses are diSCussed

in Chapter 5.

Several interesting conclusions are drawn from the

analytical results. During the investigation it was felt that

 4

certain more aspects of thE! pi-obl-em-could be examined to

obtain even better understanding of the problem. However,

this could not be accomplished in the limited scope of this

investigation. Refinements of the analytical method to

incorporate some aspects of the system ignored in the current

analysis were also cons_ider-eddesirable. These- are _recommended

for future investigations into the behaviour of soil-steel

structures. _The conclusions and recommendations for- future

research are presented in Chapter 6.

()
 CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Development of an analytical procedure that.would incor-

porate the essential characteristics of soil-structure .inter-

action during all stages of function ofa culvert structure

requires appropriate represent~tion of soil and. structural

behavitiur under load. In this chapter review is made to

outline various available methods to represent the soil pro-

perties and structural characteristics and select the most

suitable one for use in analysis. Attempt has also been made

to asses the availability, ~dvantages and disadvantages of

software related to the analysis of soil-structure interac-

tion problem.

2.2.CHARACTERIZATION OF SOIL RESPONSE

Soils are mult~phase materials that consist of variable

amounts of solid particles, water and gas (air). The soil mass

is often found to be non-homogeneous and anisotropic. The

mechanical behaviour of soil is dependent upon a number of

factors such as dry density, void ratio, stress level, stress

path, stress history, temperature, time and degree of satura-

tion. If the result of an analysis is to be realistic, it is

important that the stress-strain characteristics of the soil

be represented in a proper way.

,
 b

It is, however, very difficult to evolve a general

constitutive (stress-strain) law which is valid for all ~Qils

under all placement and loading conditions. By necessity,

simplified constitutive models based largely on phenomenolo-

gical considerations have been employed to represent soil

behaviour in analyzing stresse& and displacement of soil

masses.

It is convenient to classify the various simplified

models for defining time independent behaviour of soil into

four categories (Leonards et aI, 19B2): (1) Linear elastic

models, (2) Non-linear elastic models, (3) Higher order

elastic models, and (4) Plasticity models.

Except for a few plasticity and higher-order elasticity

models, most of the soil models employ the generalized Hooke's

law as a deformation model (Leonard and Stetker, 1978); con-

sequently, shear dilatancy is not explicity accounted for.

2.2.1 Linear Elastic Models

The assumption of linear elasticity constitutes the

simplest approach to model the stress-strain behaviour.

The stress-strain relationship, which is governed by

the generalized Hooke's law of alastic deformations, may be

expressed as follows for conditions of plane strain

 7

a = C -
D E
~ 11 C 1 2.. (2.1)
x
a C C22, D E
Y 12 Y
T D D
xy C
33 Yxy

in which {a
x
.a
y T xy } T .and (E
.. _ . x
E. }T
Y Yxy . are stress and

strain vectors respectively.

Subject to the further assumption of mater~al isotropy,

only two independent elastic moduli are needed to completely

define the coefficients C11, C12, C and C 3" Any pair of

22 3
the following elastic. moduli may be selected. YOUng's modu-

lus (E) and Poisson's ratio (v ), shear modulus (G) and bulk

modulus (K), shear modulus (G) and constrained modulus (M),

Lame's parameter (A) and principal stress ratio in uniaxial

strain (Ko)' A summary of the relationships between the vari-

ous elastic moduli was given by Baladi (1979).

For orthotropic or transeversely isotropic materials,

additional elastic moduli which reflect the directional

dependency have to be incorporated to define the components

C11, C12, C22 and C33 (Lekhinitskii, 1963).

2.2.2 Non-linear Elastic Models

Non-linear elastic models have been used successfully

by many authors including Cunnel (1974~, Girija Vallabhan and

Jain (1972), Lee and Shen (1969), Nobari and Duncan (1972),
 Desai (1974) and R\Jser and Dawkins '(1972). cThe dependence

of the state of stress on cti~~~hb on the history of loading

is excluded in this':approach. The state of stress is thus

assumed to be a function of state of strain only.

Non-linear elastic models

, differ among themselves in

the way that a given set of stress-strain curVes are obtained

and simulated. Functional forms of relationship are the most

commbn.ln functional forms of relationships, a given set of

stress-strain curves are represented by usihg mathematical

functions such as a hyperbolic function, power function,

parabolic function, Lagrangian formula, spline function and

others.

The most widely used functional relationship was deve-

loped by Duncan and Chang (1970). The model is based on

Kondner's finding (1963) that stress-strain curves for a

number of soils could be approximated by hyperbolas. Wong

and Duncan (1974) listed the values of the hyperbolic para-

meters determined for more than one hundred different soils

tested under drained and undrained conditions. This wide

data base can be used to estimate reasonable values of the

parameter in cases where the available information on the

soil is restricted to descriptive classification.

The Hardin model (Hardin, 1970; Hardin and Drnevich,

1972) provides a relationship for th~ recent shear modulus

of soils as a function of accumulated shear strain and hydro-

static pressure. The major advantage of the model lies in the

extensive correlations (Hardin~formula) between Hardin para-

meters and soil index properties (void ratio, percent satura-

tion and plasticity index) that have been established for a

wide variety of soils. Katona et aI, (1978) developed a hyper-

bolic Poisson's ratio function which provided the second

elastic soil modulus for the Hardin model.

Duncan et al,(1978) propose~ a modified hyperbolic

model which employed bulk modulus in place of Poisson's

ratio in the Duncan-Chang model. The model assumed that bulk

modulus is independent of deviatoric stress and that varies

with confining pressure, Duncan et aI, (1978j~provided values

of the bulk modulus parameters for a wide variety of soils,

which later were revised and summarized by Duncan (1979).

Desai (1971) proposed the Use of cubic spline functions

for simulating a set of stress-strain data. The cubic spline

function approximates a given set of stress-strain data by a

piecewise cubic polynomial such tbat the polynomial along

with its first and second derivatives is continuous Over the

entire range of the data.

Leonard and Roy (1978), Rahman (1978), employed the

cubic spline function to represent soil behaviour and compared

the results with those obtained by other functional represen-

tations (e.g. Duncan-Chang model, Hardin model, modified

Duncan model etc.). They also compared the results obtained

by the analyses with their experimental results. The cubic

spline function representation was found to provide better

 10

.-
simulation of stress-strain cr~teria than those obtained

by other functional representations.

2.2.3 Highep Order Elasticity Models

Two. higher order elasticity models that have been

investigated in geotechnical engineering are hyperelastic

and hypo elastic models.

The hyperelastic models rely on finding constitutive

relations by differentiation of a strain energy function,

with respect to invariants.of strain. Different order of

"
hyperelasti~ models can be' obtained by retaining higher-

order terms. Depending on the order, the model can account

for various factors. Ko and Masson (1976) proposed a third

order hyperelastic soil model. The model can accommodate

dilatancy and strain hardening of soils.

Truesdell (1955) proposed a rate theory which is known

as the hypoelastic formulation. In this the stress increment

is a function,f, of strain increment and the function is

dependent upon the state of stress.

The most general form.of constitutive relation for an

is~tropic hypoelastic material involves twelve response

parameters. Coon and Evans (1972) and Vagnerson et al,(1976)

applied grade-one hypoelastic models, which retained only

terms upto first order in the general hypoelastic relation

(i.e. f, is only a linear function of stress tensor), to

 11

characterize behaviour of cohesionless soils. Their models

'----------_.
involve seven response parameters whose evaluation requires

that several different types of laboratory test (e.g. t~ia-

xial compression test, ,uniaxial strain test, isotropic com-

pression test) be performed. They found that the incremental

nature of hypoelasticmodels offers many advantages regarding

their ability to cha~acterize mechanical behavioJr of soils.

such as stress path dependence, work softening and dilation.

Ho~ever," a numbeE of difficulties are encountered in the use

of the models: (1) the response parameters are not unique,

their "v'alues being dependent on the types of test that are

selected to be performed,' (2) no ~elation has been found

between the response parameter and the resulting change in

stress-strain-volume change behaviour of soils.

2.2.4 Plasticity Models

From an academic point of view, plasticity soil models

are attractive because they are inherently capable (Roscoe,

1970; Lade, 1~72; Frydman et aI, 1973; Prevost and Hoeg,

1975) of accommodating such behaviour of soils as: (1) in-

elastic strain components;"even if the stress increment is

small, (2) stress-strain relation that are stress path

dependent", (3) coUpling between volume changes and changes

in shear stress, (4) the influence of all three principal,

stresses on the stress-strain and strength characteristics,

and (5) the tendency to exhibit strain softening after a

peak strength has beeh reached.

.
,,
 12

In incremental elasti~~pla~tic models, the stress-

strain relation is usually expressed as;

(.2.2 )

in which d denotes an increment and Cep is the elastic-

plastic stress-strainmatrix~ Equation 2.2 can be used as

a constitutive relation in finite element analysis in the

same way as the generalized ~ooke's law (Equation 2.1).

The elastic-plastic stress-strain matrix can be derived on

the basis of assumptions from classical plasticity theopy.

In recent years, many plasticity soil models have

been proposed and some were incorporated in finite element

analysis of stresses and deformation of soil masses, inclu-

ding the Drucker and Prager model (Drucker and Prager, 1952; (7
Drucker et al, 1957), critical state model (Roscoe et aI,

1963; Roscoe and Burland, 196B; Schofield and Wroth, 196B),

Lade's model (Lade, 1972; Ozawa and Duncan, 1976) and various

modified cap models (Dimaggio and Sandler, 1971; Sandler

et al, 1976; Chen, 19BD).

It has been shown experimentally (Barden and Khayatt,

1966; Ko and Scott, 1967; Rascoe and Burland, 196B; Smith

and Kay, 1971; Lade, 1972) that the yield function and plas-

tic potential function are not identical for most soils.

Plasticity soil models encounter two serious difficulties:

(1) the elastic plastic stress-strain, matrix, Cep, is not

 13

usually symmetrical, which results in a huge increase of

computer storage and computation effort over the use of

soil model with associated plasticity, and (2Junlike asso-

ciated plasticity soil models, the uniqueness and stability

of the solutions is no longer guaranteed.

2.3 CHARACTERIZATION OF CONDUIT RESPONSE

Buckling of burLed flexible conduits can occur at

stress levels below yield or after yielding has initiated •.

The occurrence ofbuc~ling in a given soil conduit system

depends on (1) the geqmet~ic configuration of the system,

(2) the sectional pro~erties of the conduit, (3) the mate-

rial properties of the conduit, (4) the nature and stiffness

of the surrounding soil, (5) the construction sequence and

loading condition, (6) the level of residual stresses in

the conduit, due to cold forming, welding etc, and (7) the

inherent geometric imperfection of the conduit.

An extensive review of buckling of buried conduits

conducted by Leonards and Stetker (197B) revealed that buck-

ling is an important failure mode, especially for pipe arches

and can occur at deflections less than 5% of the pipe diameter.

It is, therefore, necessary to take into account the possible

occurrence of buckling in numerical modelling of soil conduit

system.

In order to obtain realistic results for problems that

involve buckling, large deformation theory .is generally

D
 14

required in numerical model? to accommodate geometric non-

'----------
linearity. However, this results in a far'more complex for-

mulation and much greater computational effort than those

formulated on the small displacement theory. A computer

, ,

code written in terms of large deformation theory which can

readily be used to investigat~' soil-conduit interaction

problems including such important effects as construction

sequence, interface slip etc. is not cUI:rently ~vailable.

In the realm of small displacement formulation; however,

part of the e~fects of geometric n~n-lineapity can be a~c-

ounted for by updating the geometry of the soil-conduit

system after each load increment.

In most numerical- methods developed on the basis of

small displacement theory, it is tacitly assumed that the-

load carrying capacity of the conduit can be reached before

the occurrence of buckling. For design, it. is' mandatory to

incorporate conservative buckling criteria to ensure that

the load carrying capacity of the conduit is not overesti-

mated. This can be done by incorporating stability functions

in the stiffness matrix for the conduit walls.

Construction quality and sequence of backfilling aff-

ect the performance of the stiucture significantly. A pro-

cedure for simulating sequential construction of soil masses

commonly used in finite element analysis was proposed by

Goodman and Brown (1963).

 1 :0

Effect of compaction prays an important role in the

performance of soil conduits but has been little studied.

To date only approKimate methods of dealing with soil com-

paction have been cOnsidered. Katona (1978) proposed a

simplified procedure to simulate the effect of compaction

by successively applying "and removing a uniform surcharge

along the surface of each compacted soil lifts.

2.4 SELEctION CRITERIA FOR SOIL MODEL FOR ANALYSIS OF

SOIL-CONDUIT INTERACTION PROBLEMS

poo~ representation of the stress-strain characteris-

tics of soil can lead to calculated modes of behaviour which

are completely different from the actual ones. Inspite of

considerable work, as mentioned previously, which has been

done in this area, a general and versatile way of represen-

ting the stress-strain characteristics of soils has not yet

been established. The problem is very complex and simplifi-

cations are essential for practical purposes. Accordingly,

in the selection of a soil model a compromise between

accuracy and simplicity is necessary.

Assumption of linea"r elastic behaviour of soil is

unrealistic, because soils never behave as a linear elastic

material (Rahman, 1978). Non-linear elastic soil models

have been found to provide an expedient, and often satis-

factory, means for solving many geotechnical engineering

problems (Nobari and Duncan, 1972; Desai, 1974). The cubic

 1b

spline function representation-was found to provide better

simulation of stress-strain cutves compared with other

functional relationships for non-linear elastic model

(Desai, 1971,1974; Leonard a,"!dRoy, 1976; Rahman, 1978).

Higher order plasticity models are not suitable for

routine use, as response parameters fo"r,the models are not

of ~nique value and they cannot be directly related with

commonly used soil properties (Desai, 1971).

Plasticity models of soil usually produce u8symmetric

stress-strain matrix. In addition plasticity model does not

assure uniq~eness and stability of the ~olution (Leonards

et aI, 1982). For routine USe this model can notberecommen-

ded.

2.5 NO-TENSION BEHAVIOUR OF SOIL MASS

In soil-conduit interaction problems, tensile stress

may ~evelop in the soil mass as well as at the soil-conduit

interface. A simple empirical approach often used for acco-

mmodating low (or zero) tensile strength of soil is to assign

arbitrarily a small stiffnass to those elements in which

tensile stress is induced. This approach, however, depends

on how the small stiffness is selected. If this stiffness

is too low, convergence problem and artificially rapid pro~

pagation of failure zones may develop; if it is too large,

the effects of local failures in the soil mass will be

poorly simulated.
 17

Zienkiewicz et aI, U 96-a) developed a stress transfer

(or relaxation) methorl to accommodate the no-tension beha-

viour of geologic media, When a particular soil element goes

into tension during load inc~ement, the effect of the por-

tion of the load increment, that produce"d the tensile stress

is redistributed throughout the surrounding soil mass.

Most of the conventional approaches to accommodate no-

~tension behaviour are either inaccurate or inadequate because

they consider cracking as a zone of material weakness. Majid

and AI-Hashimi (1976) pointed out that a crack does not change

the material properties~ It only introduces a physical sepa-

ration of the two parts of the material on either side. They

introduced a method to accommodate their view. The separation

was carried out by first introducing initially inactive

Joints to be associated with every active joint. These were

then activated each time a crack occurred. This was done by

separating the elements on one side of the crack from the

parent joint and rejoining them to the new joint. For this

purpose plane-strain triangular and isoparametric quadri-

lateral finite elements were employed. Soil-cement samples

with a constant elastic modulus in compression were considered.

An incremental technique was used to fOllow the crack propa-

gation upto and including failure. Cbnnel~(1974) also used

the same technique with two dimensional isoparametric quadri-

lateral elements to analyse similar problems.

 ,u

This approach offerst~e possibility of initiation"

extension, bifurcation, widening and_closure of any pattern

Of cracks in the finite element mesh. It also means that

the crack width can be calc~lated at any stage of the

loading. The logic of the method 'ii easily programmable

and an automatic crack propagation scheme is easily adap-

table. This method-constructs and solves the stiffness

equation repeatedly as the loading progresses; The number

of equations to be solved increases as new joints are acti-

vated. In this manner, as the cracks develop the system

becomes mere flexibl(. This scheme also implicitly intro-

duces the interface Slippage.

2.6 FINITE ELEMENT COMPUTER CODES FOR ANALYSING SOIL-CONDUIT

INTERFACTIONS

Four finite element computer programs for analyzing

soil-conduit interaction problems are reported in litera-

ture. These are (1) Finite element isoparametric, non-linear,

with interface interaction and no-tension program (FINLIN)

developed by Roy (1976) at Purdue University, (2) Culvert

analysis and design program (CANOE) developed by Katona

et al,(1976) at the U.S. Navy Civil Engineering laboratory,

(3) Soil-structure interaction program (SSTIP) developed by

Duncan et aI, (1970) at the University of California at

Berkley, and (4) Non-linear soil-structure interaction prog-

ram (NLSSIP) also developed by Duncan et al,(197o) at,the

University of California at Berkley.

 In all the four codes, small displacement formulation
----
is adopted, time independent response is assumed, the soil-

conduit interaction is treated as plane strain problem, and

the technique of si~ulating sequential construction is in-

corporated.

FINLIN was designed to deal with the investigation of

problems in which construction in layers is simulated, slip

and no-tension at the soil-conduit in~erface is accounted

for and allowance is made for the possible development of

tensile stresses in adjacent soil elements. The investiga- ..

tions were carried out using the most realistic non-linear

elastic soil model that could be developed (fitting actual

plane strain test data with cubic spline functions and cal-

culating incremental values ofE and v as functions of octa-

hedral normal and shear stress levels, accounting fully for

dilatancy effects upto the development of shear failure).

The soil weight of the construction layer was applied to the

system in specified number of increments. At this stage

yielding in the conduit wall was not accommodated.

It was found by Leonard et aI, (1982) that in FINLIN

Code (1) the procedure used to simulate sequential construc_

tion was defective, (2) difficulties with convergence were

frequently encountered when attempts were made to account for

the development of tensile stresses, in the soil mass, and

(3) numerical instabilities developed when the conduit stiff-

nesses were in a range n~rmally encountered with corrugated

metal conduits.
 <:u

In view of these and the fact that FINLIN does not

accommodate buckling and yielding in the conduit wall and

also due to the fact that relaxation method introduces

artificially rapid propagation ,of tension cracks, FINLIN

is not judged to be a suitable code:

CAfliOEwas designed to investigate p'r,oblemsin which

sequential construction procedure is simulated, relative

:'movement at the soil conduit interface is accounted for and

non-linear behaviour in the conduit wall (including initia-

'tion of cracking in concre,te) is accommodated. Four soil

'models (linear ,
elastic, overburden
' . dependent, two . forms of

extended Hardin model) are available for characterization

of soil ,behaviour. For each constructicin layer, iterative

procedures were employed to deal with the non-linear system

responses. An automatic mesh generation scheme (for circular

and elliptical conduit) was incorporated.

It was found by Leonard et al,(1982) that (i) CANOE

was more gene~al and better documented than the other codes,

the automated mesh generation provided a convenient and

efficient tool for use of the code, (2) the soil models in-

corporated in CANOE are less satisfactory than those in other

codes, (3) difficulties with convergence were encountered

when attempts were made to account for relative movements

at the soil-conduit interface, the difficulties increased

in frequency and severity when nOh-linear soil models were

used, especially when local failure in the soil mass occured

('
,
and (4) the ,formulation to accommodate non-linear behaviour

of the conduit wall incorporated in CANOE satisfied equili-

brium kinematics and stress-strain relatiohships at each

load st ep; however, once yie.lding of a wall sect ion was

initiated, the method of calculating be~ding moment in the

wall section, which was the sum of increment of moments

.t

about different axes, was misleading, as it was used incor-

ectly to calculate stress distributions in the conduit wall,

moreover, the use of summed bending moments is not appro-

priate for defining conditions corresponding to a fully

plastic hinge.

SSTIP code was designed' to deal with the investiga-

tion of problems in which in~situ st~esses (pre-existing

stresses) in the soil and the conduit are accommodated, and

construction in layers is simul~ted. The Duncan-Chang model

was employed to represent the-behaviour of the soil. A 'one-

iteration' procedure for accommodating non-linear behaviour

was adopted. Relative movements at soil conduit interface

were not allowed, and the stress-strain relationship of

conduit material was assumed to be linear elastic.

It was found by Leonard et al, (1982) that (1) the

Duncan-Chang soil model used in SSTIP was found to ,be ger,',

rally suitable for simulating behaviour of soil around buried

conduits, although in its present ~orm it is incapable of

dealing with unloading conditions and eprors of unknown

magnitude may develop when the state of stress approaches,

 22

or exceeds, a failure condition; a'nd (2) since no direct

check for ~onvergence is made, load increment (soil weight

of construction layers) must be carefully controlled, spe-

cially during backfilling between the springline and 0.75

times the vertical diameter above the springline.

Use of SSTI~ is simple and economical in terms of

computational efforts. However, as it is unable to accommo-

date yielding in the conduit wall, it is considered inade-

quate for prediction of collapse.

The basic structure of the NLS5IP code is the same

as'SSTIP code. In NLSSIP code, however, yielding of conduit

wall was accommodated, by deriving an approximate moment-

curvature relationship
, on the basis of bilinear stress-

strain relationships. A modified (Duncan) soil model (in

place of Duncan-Chang mOdel) was used to characterize the

behaviour of the soil.

It was found by Leonard et aI, (1982) that (1) the

derived moment-curvature •
relationship may not always approxi-

mate the effects of plastic yielding with sufficient preci-

sion, (2) NLSSIP does not accommodate slip at the soil conduit

interface, and (3) as NLSSIP also adopts a 'one-iteration'

scheme in dealing with non-linear effects, errors of unknown

magnitude,are incorporated in the golution.

H •
 CHAPTtR 3

ANALYTICAL MODELS

~.1 INTRODUCTION -

-From discussions in the previous chapter it can be

concluded that within the current state-of-art, the best

analytical model for soil-conduit interactions compromising

between precision and computational diffic~lty shou~d inclue

the following:

1) Buckling of conduit wall prior to yielding

2) A method of fitting actual test data for non-

linear behaviour of soil by cubic spline function,

3) Tension separation within the soil mass and at

the soil-conduit interface

4) Sequential construction ~rocedures_ and

5) Compaction of soil during construction.

None of the currently available computer codes incor-

porates ~ll of the above mentioned features. In addition

institutional limitation did not permit the author to obtain

available computer codes. So, it is necessary that a com-

puter code be developed that incorporates all of the.above

features. But within the limited scope of this thesis it is

not possible to incorporate all these features. As a first

step towards the development of a comprehensive computer

software, a program has been developed with the following

features.

,-
 24

Two basic types of el~~en~s are employed in the computer

code developed for representating soil-steel structures.

(i) Straight b~am-column element, with three degrcRs

of freedom (horizontal and vertical displacement and a rot3-

tion) at each node, was used to simulate the conduit.

(ii) Isopara~etric quadrilateral element,. with two

degrees of freedom (horizontal and vertical displacements)

at each node, was used to represent the. soil.

Th~ ~rogramcdeveloped in this thesis employed spline

functions for simulation of stress-strain characteristics

of soil. The values of.shear. modulus during each increment

of loading were determined on ths basis of bctahedral shear

strain and initial octahedral normal stress for each element.

The stress-strain characteristics of conduit material

were assumed to be ~~near elastic. Geometric non-linearity

of conduit wall was-incorporated in the form of stability

functions.

An incremental solution technique was used for the

nonlinear analysis of soil-conduit systems. The analytical

method developed is described in detail in this chapter.

3.2 BEAM-COLUMN ELEMENT

Stiffness of a two node beam-column element (Fig.3.1)

with three degrees of freedom at each node (axial and trans-

verse displacements and rotation) in local co-ordinates is

 25

FIG.3.1 BEAM --COLUMN ELEMENT

 26

given by Cout,es et aI, (1972) as follows:

EA a EA
K =
T a - T IJ a (3.1)

a ll<p El'
2' <P2 a EI <P ll<p
L3 1 L -;? 1 L2 2

a EI<p EI a, EI <P
T <p4 ll<p
L2 2 -~ 2 L 3

-r-EA a a
T
EA
a a

a _ll <p EI <P

a ll<p _ll <p .
L3 1 -~ 2 L2 1 L2 2

a _ll<p EI <P EI
L2 2 r- 3 0 - :2 <P2 ll<p
L 4
L

in which the stability functions are

<P1 = 2 <P2/m

<P2 = <P3 + <P4

<P3 = <P4 C

<P4 = S

where S = G1 (1 -2G1 /tanh( 2G )) / (tanh

1 G1-G )
1

C = (2G1-sinh(2G ))/(sinh(,2G )-2G

1 1 1
m = 2S(1+C)/(2S(1+C)_~2p)

and G
1
= ~
"2 r:-n
- p

where p cr = Euler's critical load

For the local axes system x '-y 'making an angle e with the

global axes system xy" the 't'ransformation matrix can be

written as

T = cose sine' 0 0 0 0 (3.2)

-sine cose 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 0 1

0 0 0 cose sine 0

0 0 0 .-sine' cose 0

0 0 1 0 0 1

When stiffness matrix for an element in local axes

ahd transformation mdtrix with respect to global Cartesian

axes is known, stiffness matrix in global co-ordinate can

be qbtained from following equation.

( 3."

It should be. noted that values of modulus of elasti-

city for simple tension and plane strain analysis are not

the same. An expression of modulus of elasticity for plane-

strain case can be derived as follows.

For plane-strain case

EE:
x = a
x
va
y vaz

EE: y = ay vax va z

EE:
z = az va y vax = 0
 2B

In addition when load is applied in x direction a is

y
equal to zero. Therfore,

EE: = a va
x x z

EE: = .0 va - 0
z z x

or, a =vo
z x

or, EE: = a
x x

Ox E
or, E: = --2 = E'
X 1-v

E' is the apparent Yang's modulus for the plane-strain case

.
and should be used in place of E in Equation 3.1.

3.3 iSOPARAMETRIC QUADRILATERAL ELEMENT

Zienkiewicz (1977) derived an expression for stiffness

matrix of plane elements as

K = t f [BJT [oJ [BJ d(Area) (3.5)

For plane-strain case,-the 0 matrix is given as

2 ( 1-v) 2v
0 = G o (3.6)
(1 -2V) (1-v)(1-2v)

2v 2 (1 -v )
o
(1-v)(1-2v) (1 -2v)

I
U 0 1
I
L- _-.J'
 29

Timosh.enko et aI, (1970) have given the strain dis-

placement relationship for small displacement analysis as

follows

au a 0 u ( 3."
{Ed = E:
x = ax = ax
av a
E: 0 v
y 7Y ay

.a!:!. + ~ .-2. a
~
Yxy ay ax ay ax

Irons and.Ahmad (1980) proposed the expression for

displacement of a four noded element as follows

( -'.,

:]
= 0 N2 0 N3 0 N 8
u 4 1 . ,)
.

v ~' N
1
0 N
2
0 N3 0 v
1
u2

v
2
u3

v3

u
4
v4

where N ,N ,N and N
4 are the sh~pe functions for node
1 2 3
1,2,3 and 4 respectively.

u , u , u and u are the displacements along

1 2 3 4
,x-direction of nodes 1,2,3 and 4 respectively,
 30

v1' v , v3 and v4 are the displacements along

2
y-direction of nodes 1,2,3 and 4 respectively.

Shape function N in local co-ordinate I;,n (Fig. 3.2) are

g iv en as

N
1 = .1.(
4
1 -I; ) ( 1- n)

N2 = .1.( 1 +1;)(1':'n)
4

N3 = t( 1+1; ) (1+n)

1
4 = '4( 1-I;
N ) ( 1 +n )

From equation 3.7 and 3.8

{d a
= dX 0 [N] {O}
a
0
ay

.L a
ay ax
or, (s) = [8J {oj (3.9)

l1!here
aN aN 0 gi~3 aN.
4 .04
1 2 0 0 (3.10)
[8J = ax
0 -
ax ax ax

aN aN aN 3 aN
1 2 4
0 0 0 0
ay ay ay ay
aN aN aN aN aN ,aN3 aN
1 1 2 2 3 a~4 4
ay ax ay ax- ay ax- 3Y ~

Since shape functions are in terms of local co-ordinate

(I; • 1l) and equation 3.10 contain derivatives in global

 31

It
y

11 = 0
- - - - - -- - - - _.-l--~-----+-~- __
Vl I
I

-LuI
1
I
I
I
I
1= ::()
.J

FIG.3.2 FaUn NODED OUADRILATEI1A~ ELEMENT

( -

•••
 32

Cartesian xy co-ordinates, transformation of the deriva-

tives is necessary.

Considering 'any function (jl(s,T)),.thechClin rule or'

differentiation in matrix form can be written as

tOO/a,} a(jl
la x

{"'I"]
= J
O~d" a'/a~
a(jl
Ian ax tan ay/~n a(jl/ay a(jl
la y

where J. the Jacobian .matrix is g iv en by

aN aN" aN3 aN 4 x1 Y1
1 2
J = """'dr ~,
~.
~
x2 Y2
a N1 a 1\12 aN3 aN4 Y3
X3
drl drl drl all 'x4 Y4

J thus obtained is inverted numerically, giving

a(jl
la xl a(jl/as}.

a(jl/a
y { a (jl la II
\

and in particular the following array can be evaluated

a N1
ax ax ax
aN1
aN2

aN2
aN3

aN3
aN4
ax
aN4
= J -1 aN
ar
aN1
1
aN2
ar
aN2
aN3
ar
a r" 3
~;~l
a~;
ay ay ay ay an an an dri~J

(3.11)

With the Cartesian derivatives known, 8 matrix can be

obtained by equation 3.10 and K matrix can be obtained from

equation 3.5 by numerical integration.
 33

The procedure for evaluating the stiffness matrix pre-

sented here can ~asily be extended to eight and nine noded

elements. The only change necessary is in the shape ~unctian

matrix. The computer program developed in this thesis inc-

ludes provision for calculating stiffness matrix for eight

and nine noded elements in addition to four noded elements.

3.4 RtPRESENTATION OF NON-LINEAR PROPERTIES BY SPLINE FU~:TIONS

The analysis of a structure buried in soil by the

finite element method r,equires an ex'plicit representation

of the soil properties. A.t.

_each stage of loading, properties

like E, v.and G maybe non-linear, but should be kept unique-

ly defined. This is because the stiffness matrix of the

individual elem~nts must be constructed explicitly before

the analysis can proceed.

It is, therefore, necessary to convert sample test

results to smooth and representative functions. These func-

tions should be sufficiently accurate so that the finite

element analysis gives acceptable results. This is particu-

larly needed when an incremental analysis is carried out and

the soil properties are defined by more than one graph. In

this section a method to repr~sent the non-linear and dis-

continuous soil behaviour is presented. This makes use of

the highly efficient 'spline' functions. While the mathe-

matics involved in the derivation of these functions is

advanced, they are originated from the draughtman's spline,

 34

which is a strip used to draw smooth graphs of variable

curvature.

3.4.1 Representation of Three Dimensional Soil Properties

tn a.general three dimensional condition, most soils

undergo shear dilation accompanied by elastic strains •

.Utilization of stress dilatancy laws to predict such beha-

viour is possible. The associated mathematical problem,

:however, makes it unsuitable for practical. purposes.

A non-linear elasticity model has been used succeSS-

fully by many authors. The ~ependence of the state of stress

on time and on thehistory.of loading is excluded in this

approach. The state of stress.is thus assumed to be a func-

tion of the state of strain only.

Such a method is also utilized here. The essence of

the approach is that the stress-strain relationship is

assumed to tonsist of a series of elastic steps. The laws

of elasticity are, therefore, applicable in each of these

steps. The formulation of the laws of elasticity in a three

dimensional state is facilitated by the use of the octE

ral stresscompon~nts. For the sake of clarity and comp~

tness, the octahedral components of stress and strain are

derived in the following subsections.

3.4.2 The Octahsdral Components

sithBr ~y si «- t i,e .,t - ~'-f

.Jil'.~' .~3 in orthogonal directions
 35

or by three principal stresses and their direction cosines.

In Fig. 3.3, x,y,z are an arbitrary set ?f orthogonal axes

and ABC is a plane whose normal has direction cosines l,m,n

with respect to these axes. If X,Y and Z are the components

of stress on ABC along x,y and z axes respectively the'equi-

librium equation for the tetrahedron in Fig. 3.3 can be

written as
. .-
a
x
,xy ,xz I = X (3.12)

,xy a
y
,xz m Y

,xz a n
• " yz z Z

Where the stress notations are as shown in the figures. If

N is the resultant stress on plane ABC and a t and, t

oc oc
are its normal and shear components, then from equation

3.12.

a = Xl + Ym + Zn
oct
2 2 2
= a I +a m +a
x y z
n + 2,
xy
Im+ 2,
yz
mn+2T
xz
In ( 3. 1 3)

and ,oct = (N2 a

oct
2)
.. 1.

" (3.14)

where N = (x2 + y2 + Z2)""

Now, if the x,y,z axes are chfrsen to coincide with

the principal axes, so that

an d,
xy
=, yz
=, zx
= 0
 36

II

r[[;lJl<I' 1.3 -CI'tII'RAI. TIIREE 1l1~11"1SIUN;\1. SUII' Of STR'SS AT A rowl

The computeT pro~~rams dE'vebped i,n this

Sign COII~ion
thesis U5!' the right hand SC1CI'l nJ1{l ,lret tm soj.1 stresses

presented in diagrams in this thesi~ ccmsider lhat com{'Tessive

stresses:md strain5~re positive.

 37

where 01' °2 and °3 are the principal stresses, equations

3.13 and 3.14 can be written as

°oct -
°112 +
-0 m 2
2
0' 2
+ 3n (3.15)

and T oct = ~t,z12+_0/m2+03 2n2_(0112+02m2+03n2j2J_~ (3.16)

where I,m and~n are the direction cosines of the normal

to the plane ABC with respect to principal axes:

If the plane ABC is so chosen that OA=OB=OC, such

1 '. equa t ~ons
that l=m=n= ~~ . .3• 15 and 3.16 reduce
.' to
_ 13,
0'+0 +0
1 2 3
°oct = 3

I
= 1(2J 2
3 1 6J )" (3.18)
2

where J1 and J2 are the first and the second stress invari-

ants respectively. Such a plane A8C is called an octahedral

plane, because it forms one face of a regular octahedron

with vertices on the principal axes. The stresses 0 t and

DC

Toct are termed as the octahedral normal aNd the octahedral

shear stresses respectively.

Expanding the stress invariants in terms of the general

Cartesian co~ponents of stresses, equations 3.17 and 3.18

can be written as

o
°x +0
y
+0
z
oct 3 , (3.19)
and T
oct
= ':51(2J 1
2 _ 6J )'
2-

(3.20)

For plane strain case

ci +0 +v(o _+0 ) (Hv) (0 +0)

o x Y x Y x Y
oct
=
.3 = 3
(3.21)

,
+ 6T Xy~

Girija Vallabhan and Jain (197~) have shown that the

general state of s-tress at a point can be divided into a

hydrostatic component, responsible for tbe change in volume,

and a deviatoric component, responsible for the change in

shape of the body. The octahedral normal and shear stress

components give a measure of these two components, thereby

defining completely the general state of stress.

The strain components corresponding to the octahedral

stresses may be written as

E: +E: +E:.
x y z
= 3 (3.23)
 39

in terms of principal strains

and Yoct = ~[(E_E)2+ E 2 ~E) 2 + (E._E )2

3 x y y Z,. ,:Z X

- _ 1.

+ Z'(YXy
3 2+Y 2+Y 2LJ 2 (3.24)
yZ xz ~:_

in terms of general Cartesian strains.

For plane-strain case

Yoct =
2
'3 ~~x- E )2+ E 2+ E2 +.2.y -2J
2.
I

Y Y . x 2xy

=
2
'3 o
2(E 2+E 2 _E Ept_Y
x y x
3
2 xy
J2
,
(3.25)

The bulk modulus K, the ~atio of mean stress to

volumetric strain, and shear modulus G can be written in

terms of the octahedral stresses and strains as

(J (J
oct oct
K = 3E = --r- , where Ev is the volumetric strain
oct v
d T
. oct
and G = dYoct

3.4.3 Representation of Triaxial Test Results in Terms

Df the Octahedral Components

The most ideal way of representing the properties of

soil is of course , the determination of all the octahedral

parameters under arbitrary conditions by laboratory tests.

While it is possible to do so by sophisticated and extensive

 40

testing, the triaxial test results can be utilized to deve-

lop the octahedral parameters. The effect of ignoring the

intermediate principal stress in the triaxial test, on the

final result of the analysis, is not alarming, Girija

Vallabhan and Jain (1972). Substitutin"g ° 3 for ° 2 and E:3

for E: in equations 3.17, 3.18," 3.23 and 3.24, the octahed-

2
ral components can be derived from the triaxial test results.

Thu s,

= (°1+2°3)/3
°oct
T
oct = 12/3(°1-°3)

E: = (E:1+ 2E:3) /3 =E:v/3

oct

--r
2/2 2 12
(E:1 -E:3 I =3 ( 3E:1 _E:V
Yoct )

3.4.4 Application of the Cubic Spline Function to Describe

T oc t - ¥ oc t" Curves

Mathematical formulation of spline function is pre-

sented in detail by Rahman (1978). The concept of spline

function is presented in the Appendix." The versatility and

the flexibility of the cubic spline function make it readily

applicable to describe the T t -Y t curves in Fig. 5.2.

oc oc
The curves in this figure describe the stress-strain proper-

ties pf the sand used for the analysis reported in this

thesis. Each curve is for a particular initial value of

°oc to~ and each set of data requires a different spline formu-

lation. Some form of interpolation is necessary to predict

the T DC t - Y DC t behaviour for an intermediate value of ° DC

to.
1.
 41

Desai (1971), for instance, suggested the establishment of

a number of secondary splines between the tangent slopes

and aoc to1 for various values of stress or strain. It is
_

also possible to fbrmulate a bicubic spline in a three

dimensional space of "Tact' Y oc t' a oc to1 (Oesai,1971).

" Trial

solution revealed that the variation of the tangent slope

at a particular strain level between two consecutive values

of a oct1 was not far from linear.

0 It was decided, therefore,

to use a linear interpolation at any strain level to find

the shear modulous for an intermediate value of a to.

oc 1

3.5 NON-LINEAR SOLUTION TECHNIqUE

Incremental method of analysis is adopted in this

thesis for accommodating the non-linear behaviour of soil.

The non~linear soil properties are expressed in terms of

curves of octahedral shear stress and octahedral shear strain.

quadrilateral elements representing the soil have different

values of initial octahedral normal stress. This influences

their stress-strain behaviour under subsequent loading. The

curve shown in Fig. 3.4 represent the stress-strain proper-

ties of a typical soil element in the ~esh.

In the incremental method of analysis, the total load

on the structure is divided into a number of small increments.

The system of load displacement equation is solved repeatedly

with each of these incremental loads. The stiffness matrix

is obtained each time by substituting the values of the shear

 42

.-.

-r
,,

I y
-I
__ L

--1------ ____ JJ

,-
g
0
<:

-T "."
"
E

"
.'
r:
g ,oct.

.c '0

I r:

I
----~
-II ,t
~
C
"v,.
':-

..,-
v

I '- ~
I-~ """ -! "
 43
;----.

modulus, G, that correspond to currEnt level of the octa-

hedral shear strain in each element.

Initia~ly at any depth, h,.

yh+2kYh
(Joeti = 3

where, K = co-efficient:of earth pressure:~t rest and

y = the unit weight Of soil.

With (J .t. known, init:ial tangent shear modulUS, Go fOr

oc J.

ea.ci'!
element is calculated frOm a spline function represen-

tation Of the T - Yoct curve in Fig; 3.4a. This is used

oct
tocd~struct the initial stiffness matrix, Ko' Fig. 3.4b.

A small increment Of load, llL , is applied and the resulting

1
displaceme6ts are .obtained by sOlving the equation.

( llL) 1 = Ko { II X }1 ( 3.26 )

The increments of strain due to this increment of load are

calculated from

{llE} 1 = 8 ( llX).1 (3.27)

The incremental stresses are calculated from the incremental

strains as

{M } 1 = 0o (3.28)

The elastic properties matrix Do in 8?uation 3.28 is

obtained by USillg the initial shear moduli, Go,of .each

 .' 44

element. For the soil element whose T - Yoct curve is

oct
represented by Fig. 3.4athe increments of the octahedral

shear stress and the octahedr'al shear strain due to the

is OTocti and oYoct1 respectively'. These

repres~nt the point A' on, the_figGre. The point on the

deflectiort diagram of Fig.3.4b obtained after application

. r t,

/ of the f~:,:.t'
incremental load,' lIL , is al.l'O,iot_B_C9Ir,esponds
1
to the strain OOoct1 on the actual T DC t - Y DC t curve in
Fig. 3.4a. The amount AA' is thus the error in the thoere-
i
\
tical Toct of this element. The corresponding error in the,

load deflection diagram is the amount aa' in Fig. 3.4b.

The tangent slope of the T ' -

oct Yoct curve at point
'R,is evaluated by the spline functions. The value G'1' thus

obtained, gives the tangent shear modulus of the element at

the current layer of Yoct' These new values of the shear

modulus for each element are substituted into-the stiffness

matrix to obtain a new matrix. A further increment of load

lIL2 is now applied and the structure and the soil are reana-

lysed with this new stiffness matrix. Such an analysis gives

a new set of displacements lIx for th~ increment of load

2
lIL2 alone. Equation 3.27 and 3.28" applied to this increment,

gives the increments of strains and stresses respectively.

The corresponding increments in Toct,and Yoct in the single

element are OT oct2 and oY oct2 respectively. The total octa-

hedral shear strain is the SUm of
T oct1 and Y oct2' The
tangent shear modulus at point 8 on the T -"Yoct curve
oct
 45

corresponding to the current total Yoct is obtained. This

defines the stiffness matrix for the next increment of the

load. The procedure,is repeated for successive increments

of load until. all .the loads have been applied or m'athematical

failure has been reached.

In general, the iAcremental analysis number J is per-

formed with the incremental load {6L }"' and with the
. J
tangent stiffness matrix [KJj-1 corresponding to the shear

moduli values at the end of the last increment. The dis-

placements, the strain .aFldthe stresses are successively

aGcumulated to give the current state of these values.

 CHAPTER 4

THE FINITE ELEMENT COMPUTER PROGRAMS

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The essentiaL.features of a soil-steel structure inter-

action problem have beeh discussed in Chapter 2. In Chapter 3

finite element idealizaiion_ of the problem and methods of

considering non-linearity have been described. The purpose

of this chapter is to 'utilize these methods and develop

finite element programs cof a structure together with the

soil. The nature of the program is general and the program

can be used to solve any plane-strain soil-structure inter-

action- problem. The program described here were written

in FORTRAN and were run on the IBM 370 computer at BUET

computer centre.

4.2 THECHNIQUES OF ANALYSIS

The non-linear analysis was performed by two distinct

methods. For soil, the material properties were assumed to

be given by an explicit set of T t - Y t curves and the

DC DC

incremental method described in Chapter 3 was used.On the other

hand, for geometric non-linearity in the structural member,

an interactive technique was followed. For each increment

of load culvert stresses from the previous increment of load

were used in the first iteration as axial stresses for

calculating stability functions. On subseo~~nt iteration,

 47

-----
stresses in ith iteration for calculating stability functions

were taken as thoie calculated from the,,(i-1)th iteration •

.,
At the very beginning, of, analys'is, however" stress in all

the members were assumed to be zero.

4.3 STORAGE OF THE STIFFNESS MATRIX

T~oclassical computer probl~ms associated ~ith the

displacement method ofanaly~is of larg~ structural problems

are the storage of the istiffnessmatrixand the mill time

required for the solution 'of the simultaneous equations.

The analysis of soil-structure interaction problems gives

rise to a lcirge, sparse, sy~metric and positive definite

stiffness matrix~
'.
Therefore, the scheme of storage of the

stiffness~matrix was carefully~selected to reduce the use

of the storage space without an undue increase in the exe-

cut ion time.

The stiffness matrix ofa structural system is symme-

trical containing a large number of zeros. The non-zero

elements are concentrated near the leading diagonal, as

shown in Fig. 4.1. Advantage is frequently ,taken of these

features by storing the lower triangle of the matrix. As a

further improvement Jennings (1966, 1977) proposed a variable

band width storage scheme in which only the elements between

the first non-zero and the leading diagonal element in each

row are stored. This~isachieved by storing the elements in

a continuous row-by-row sequence. Thus only the area of the

,
 48
---.

~'lIf l)JIIJ 1,-,d~h --1

Note; Each X inJicl1'tCS a IlTI-zer:i (!h~lnent

FTGUr:E 1,.1 LAYOIJT OF 1\ '_'YrJ('\L,STlrrIH::~S tlXrr:IX

ROl.J No.
- syrmletri':al
-
1

2
, 3

3 1 5

4 6 7 8

5 9 10 11

17 13 1 ~;
6
'" 16

18
7
"
o .9 ~ I) 21 2 ;' 23 ~4
-
Column No.
-
2 3 ., 5 o 7 o
 49

---.
stiffness matrix bounded by the full stepped lines in Fig.4.1

is stored. This compact

,
storage scheme is also adopted,
here.

The saving in storage'of this. scheme over a fixed band width

scheme is evident in the figure.

The compact storage scheme is illustrated in Fig. 4.2,

in which each. blank square indicates a zero elemertt which is

disregarded. The-numbers in this figure indicate the address

locations in the one dimensional squencein which the ele-

mentsare stored. For example, the elemeht in'row 6 and

column 4 is stored at address 14. To loc~te an element of

the stiffness matrix~n the storage array, it is necessary

to know the address of the diagonal element in each row. A

one dimensional diagonal address sequence array, OAS was

declared to hold these addr~ss., The array OAS for the matrix

in Fig. 4.2 is

OAS = ~ 3 S 8 11 16 18

The length of this array is equal to the number of rows

in the stiffness matrix •.Thus the location, I, of the element

in row i and column j of the matrix is given by

1 = OAS(i) - i + J

4.4 CONSTRUCTION OF THE STIFFNESS MATRIX

Element stiffness for inidividual quadrilateral and

frame member elements are first constructed and stored in

 50_

backing storage uRits 5 and 4 respectively. Overall stiff-

ness matrix is constructed by joint by joint method. The

global stiffness matrix is constructed-in two phases. In

the ~irst phase, all the beam-column elements having one

of their nodes connectedecto. a particular common joint are

considered i~ turn. Their stiffness contribution, to this

--
joint -are-evaluated- and superimposed on -the st-iffness mat:six.

The process is replaced for all the joints, where at least

one node of the beam-column element is connected. In the

second phase of the construction-, the quadrilateral element

connected to each joint is considered in turn. Their

stiffhess contributions to each-joint are evaluated and

superimposed on the stiffness matrix in the core.

It is noticed here that this method considers an

element more than once during the construction of the stiff-

ness matrix. However,. the stiffness.-terms- of-the-elements

are evaluated once and for all. Therefore the method does

not involve any extra computation. As the element stiffness

matrices are kept in backing store, the number of transfers

is somewhat increased.

4.5 THE SOLUTION ROUTINE

A program for the solution of simultaneous linear

equations by Gaussian elimination technique modified to suite

the compact storage scheme developed by Rahman (1978) is used

in this thesis without any modification. {

,
 51

4.6 THE USE OF SPLINE FUNCTIONS

In the incremental analysis, the non-linear Toct - Yoct

curves.of the soil arB represented by spline functions. A

subroutine was written to formulate the spline fOnction for

a set of T t - Y t curves as described in Chapter 3. For

DC DC --

any particular set of curves obtained for a given soil, this

subroutine is.ru~ only once and the output is used repeatedly

for all the analyses with this soil. The output of the sub-

routine consistsnfthe nodal values of T DC t - Y DC t and the

second derivati~es. of the curve.

A subroutine GVALUE was written to calculate the value

of T and G for any value of Y • The roOtine is entered

oct oct
before each increment of the load to obtain the instantaneous

Bhearmodulus of each solid element.

The flow chart of the subroutine GVALUE is shown in

Fig.~4.3. For a particular solid element the routine first

establishes.twb,- T
bct - Y t curves in the immediate
DC

neighbourhood of the ° DC
t"~ value of the element. For each

of these curves the two node i and j to the left and to the

right of the given Yoct value in the elements are determined.

By using the input values of ." and ." together with the
~ J
values of Y DC t at the nodes i and j, the value of the shear

modulus is calculated as the first Derivative of the spline

function for the given value of Yoct. A linear interpolation

of the values of G obtained for the two curves gives the

shear modulus for the required value of 0ucti.

••
 52

Read no. of curves; -d~~t~i aR-d no. of

hode;; foi -ea2titJr(j~j 'oct'Yoct and
~ values at each node

Enter routine to compute G and 'oct

for any Yoctand 00cti level

Select two curves neighbouring

this value of
-
°octi;--

Interpolate foi maximum , oc t on the

curve corresponding to the 0 t"
oc 1.

-Is' oct from analysis ~_, maximum , oc t?

No

For each curve selected, find nodes

neighbouring .this Y t and compute
G and ,oct oc

Calculate G and, t for this 0 t"

oc oc 1.

and Yoct by linear interpolation

Return

Fig. 4.3 Flow chart for subroutine GVALUE.

 53

4.7 THE STRUCJURE OF THE COMPUTER PROGRAM

The Computer Program was developed by a logical combi-

nation of a number of subroutines. The va~ious subroutines

us~d can be classified into four groups according to their

functions. These are described belowy

?) Control routines:

Main Segment: This segment of the program is used

to control the overall method of the analysis.

Subroutine INPUT: This subroufin~ is used to read .

most of the in~ut data fbr the problem. These include joint

co-ordinates, element connectivity,

.
initial material proper- .
ties etc.

Subroutine ASSEM: This subroutine performs the cOns-

truction of the global stiffness matrix. It callstw;:other

subroutines INSTAL and INSTAM to install quadrilateral and

beam-colum~ element stiffnesses into the global stiffness

matrix.

Subroutine CONTRLi After each increment of the loads,

this subroutine alters the material properties of the non-

linear elements to conform with the current level of stresses.

b) Ancilliary routines:

The subroutines in this category are listed in Table 4.1

with a note on each of their functions.

.
.
 54

Table 4.1 Element Subroutines

Name Functions .

UNO Generation of 1east joint number connected to

each joint ..

FRMDAS To form ..
diagonal address sequence array
. ..

LOADS To construct the rig ht hand side vector after each

.'

increment of load Dr each cycle of ..

iteration

DrSVEC Formulation of joint displacement matrix from the

solution vector
'.

STFUNC To calculate the stability function for. beam-

column element at diff erent level of stress

STRESS To calculate incremental and total stress for

quaerilateral elements

BSTRES To calculate incr ement al and total stress for.

beam-column elements

SELFW To calculate self weight. for quadri-lateral

element and to aSsociate it with nodal degrees
of freedom

BSEL F To calculate self weight for beam-column element

and to associate it with nodal degrees of
freedom

GVALUE To calculate the instantaneous value of G from

the splin e functions of 1
oct - Yoct curves for
the incremental program
 55

c) Element subroutines:

Two subroutines STIFF and PSTIFF were used to formulate

el~mentsti5fness fcir beam-column elements and quadrilateral

elements respectively.

d) Speciafity Subro~tines:

Subroutine SOLVE: This subroutine solves the system

of equations L = K X by using the compact storage scheme

by the method of Gaussian elimination.

4.B'LIMITATIoNS OF THE 8RoGRAM

The computer program developed by the author does not

consider the effect of location o.f water table within the

soil mass and the flow of water through the culvert. In

addition, base material and fill ~aterial have been assumed

to be of the same p,roperty,.

_These_ represent some idealized

condition, which may be quite different from the field condi-

tion. However, these are not considered to effect the analy-

ses in so far as the o~jective of getting an insight into

the interaction of soil-steel structures is concerned.

4.9 CONCLUDING REMARKS

The finite elemerit computer program described in this

chapter is of a versatile nature and can be used to solve a

wide variety of structure-soil interaction problems. It can

 55

,
also be used to analyse isolated system of structures or

soils. The finite el~~ents included i~ the program can be

,
applied in. any arbitrary co~bination ta:represent many
x
physical .problems.

\
.

•
 CHAPTER' 5

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

5.1 FINITE ELEMENT OISCRETIZATION AND BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

To analyze a problem by the finite element method, a

set of geometric boundaries and the condition at these

boundaries have to be properly defined. However, many geo-

technical engineering problems involve soil masses that

extend large distances beyond the locale that is of interest

and approximations have to be made to establish the boundary

conditions.

In soil conduit interaction problems the effect of

loading (or. disturbance) decrease with increasing distance

from the conduit. It is thus possible to determine the

._extent of.ti:le_soiL_medium that need. to be included in the

finite element mesh of a soil_conduit system through a

series of sensitivity ..analyses. By varying,the. extent of

the boundaries and studying the resulting effects upon

conduit responses, the significant mesh boundaries can be

determined.

Alternatively, past experience gained by other inves-

tigators considering similar problems may be assimilated

to establish the finite element me~h. Past experience reveal-

ed (Leonard and Roy, 1976; Carat is et aI, 1974; Oesai,1971)

that the~r~fluence on a conduit buried in a homogeneous mass

became insignificant if the lateral boundaries of the mesh

r
'-/
 58

were located at a horizontal distance of six conduit radii

from the centre line of the soil-conduit system. The bottom

boundary of the mesh need be placed only three to four con-

duit radii Ilertically below the springline to simulate an

infinite depth of homogeneous soil mass.

Fig. 5.1 shows configuration of the finite element

discretization of the soil-conduit sy~tems adopted in thi3

thesis. It should be noted that finer mesh sizes were us'd

for soil adjacent to the conduit and ~ear the point of

application of load, due to the more ~ronounced vallation

in stresses in those regions.

Once the significant extent of the soil mass is

aSCertained, the condition along the boundary must be

idealized. Lateral boundaries are usually restrained agai-

nst horizontal m00ement, and are free to displace vertically.

If both the geometry and the loading of a soil-conDu~t_system

is symmetric., it is only necessary to discretize the system

on one side of the centre line. In this case, the center-

line should also be restrained against horizontal displace-

ment and be free to move vertically. The bottom boundary

can be either completely fixed or constrained only against

vertical movement. In this thesis the bottom boundary has

been assumed to be fixed.

5.2 VERIFICATION OF THE COMPUTER CGUES

Verification of finite elernent computEr codes may ~e

 59

•
o
a
a
~
u
•
;;
"
c
•
"ca
uu
-'~ g
c~
-o"
>-
.
c
,
a ~
o L

w -e

0'I
r-

o
td
V\
OJ

I
U1

-----/~/
oj
~
./ ,-
,
/" ' Z
OJ
::E
0'
~
0'
,d
,-
z
'f\/ //
u:

r__~__l::~r-
f-,--------~ ~-,-----I
 60

------
made through comparison of the results obtained with one

of the ,following four conditions: (i) controlled test

results,(ii)' availabl'e'closed form solutions, (iiiJresults

obtained from other finite element codes, and (iv) results

obtained by other numerical methods.

For soil~conduit_ interaction problems, only the com-

parison with ~~ntrolled test results can provide ultimate

verification of a computer code., However,con,trolled,tes,t, res-'

ults with detailed ~ea~urement of soil properties and soil
.-,. --- ---- -'. - -.

conduit responses are not currently available.

Verific~tion of the computer codes developed by the

author were made with closed form solutions of simple cases.

Analyses of simple problems have shown that except for

local discrepancies due to applied load, results are

-satisfactory.

5.3 LOADI.NG _USED IN THE ANAL-YSIS

Long ~pan,_culvert~struct~res frequently carry signi-

ficant live loads due to highway or railway traffic, which

increase both axial force and the bending moments in the

structures. As these traffic loads are transmitted down

through the fill to the culvert structure, the load spreads

out along the structure and across its width. Therefore,

the intensity of loading on the structure decreases as the

depth of cover over the structure increases.

Two-dimensional analysis of the type described in

this thesis represent slice of unit thickness , through the

 - 61

"7-_.-

culvert and the backfill. The values of equivalent conti-

nuous loading employed in the anal~ses described in this

thesis were taken as ~~ovided by Duncan (1979). These

values were determined by calculating the intensity of the

continuo~s load that produce~ the ~ame peak vertical

stress on the crown of the culvert as does the HS-2D

v~hicle. (AASHTD, 1960). The stresses induced by both t~pes

of load were calculated using co-efficients based on

Boussinesq elastic theory (Davis and Poulos, 1974). The

resulting values.of eRuivalent continuous line loads rep-

resenting HS-2D vehicle are listed in Table 5.1. The loads

act at th~ suiface of the back-fill. Duncan (1979) opined

Table 5.1 Equivalent lane load for HS.-2o vehicle

Cover depth in feet Live load -in kip/ft

3 3.6

7 2.4

10 2.0

20 1.3

40 0.75

that this procedure for representing the traffic load effects

is conservative because analyses performed using these loads

represent the most heavily loaded section along the length

of the structure. Accordingly, it is not necessary to Lkcease

the loads given in Table 5.1 for the effects of impact.

 52

Dead loads of the soil and culvert material are

calculated within the program. Only unit weight Df the

soil and. the structural material are to be supplied.

-
5.4 MATERIAL PROPERTIES

For all the analyses in this thesis culvert. materials

are assumed to be~ava linear elastically having a modulu~

5
of elasticity of 29x10 psi.

Soil properties are to be obtained.fromunconsoli-

dated undrained test. Throughout this thesis soil proper-

ties are obtained from the set of octahedral shear stress

and octahedral shear strain curves shown in Fig. 5.2.

Although the curveS shown in this figure are tentative-.

they represent a set of practical v~lues o~ soil proper-

ties. These were used in the absence of test results for

a particular type of soil surrounding a given culvert.

For all the analyses Poisson's ratio of soil was used as

0.45 unless otherwise stated.

For all the culvert analysed in this thesis, the

section shown in Fig. 5.3 have been used. The only varia-

tion was in the thickness of plate~

5.5 SUMMARY OF ANALYSIS SCHEME

It was decided to study the effect of a few struc-

tural parameters such as structural stiffness, depth of

Cover above crown, shape of culvert, size of.culvert etc.

 63

-._---
3.1'.15 -

0"oc~i =2.00851<s'

2.175', - //
/ •••. .-------------
'T oeti = 1.3715 ksf

.•....... ------
..
/'

---
1.1..503 -
(foeti =0.,7',30 ksf
.------

(f" I' =O.'ol~10k>r

OC.I

---------
O.715B ~-

o 0.05 0.10 0.15

Y () et

FIG. 5.2 loel-Yael CUn'vES USED IN TilE At.fAlYSIS.

 64

--------pilch':: 6"

-r
Depth of
'o"ration ,2"

----_._-- ..----_.__ .. _. --"'---'---

FIG. 5.3. CULVERT SECTION USED IN THE ANALY

 55

and Poisson's ratio of soil. To achieve this goal, a set

of computer runs were obtained by varying the data to

incorporate variation~ ~f soil and structural parameters.

To study the effect of structural stiffness a 20 ft

by 30 ft elliptical culvert with its major axis in horizon-

tal direction was chosen. Material properties were kept

constant a~ described in Art. 5.4. Moment of inertia of

4
the culvert material was varied from 0.725 in /ft to

1.9'90 in4/ft for two different depths of cover, 20' ft and

40 ft. The results of the analyses are presented in Art.5.5.

To study the effect of depth of cover above crown

on the culvert performance, the same 20 ft by 30 ft culvert

was chosen. Depth of cover over the culvert was varied from

5 ft to 40 ft, which is considered to bg the practical range

for 8angladesh~ Results of the analyses are-present~d in

Art. 5.7.

Effects of shape of culvert were studied for culverts

with a constant cross-sectional area of 1885 square feet.

The results of theanalysies are presented in Art. 5.8.

To study the effect of size of culvert, the size of

a culvert was varied keeping the shape ,and depth of cover

above the crown constant. The~results of the analyses are

;.,..,~

discussed in Art. 5.9.

Effects of Poisson's ratio of soil were studied on a

20 ft by 30 ft elliptical culvert by varying the value of

 66

Poisson's ratio from 0.15 to 0.45, while keeping all the

other factors constant. Result:s of these analysis are

presented in Art. 5.1D.

A list of the different data used for the analysis

is presented in Table 5.2.

5.6 EFFECT OF STRUCTURAL STIFFNESS

Buried conduits are historically cl~ssified as 'rigid'

(e.g. concrete) and flexible (e.g. corrugaied metal) with

separate design procedure for each group. Rigid conduits

are those for which the change in geometry prior to rupture

is assumed to be too small to influence the resulting soil

pressure distributions. Flexible conduits, on the otherhand,

are designed on the basis that sufficient deflection of the

conduit will occur to mobilize additional lateral resis-

tance from the surr_ounding soiLmass •.Schematic ...

diagrams

of the deflections usually associated with flexible and

rigid conduits are shown in Fig. 5.4(a) and (b), respectively.

The differences in deformation suggest that the stresses

and strains in the soil mass will be different, hence the

machanism of interaction in the two soil-conduit systems

will not be the same.

In this thesis study has been made only with flexible

metal culverts. To ascertain the effect of relative stiffness

of soil and structure, stiffnesses of the culvert material

have been varied keeping that of the soil constant for an

 67

Table 5.2 List of analyses performed with elliptical

culverts

Analysis Size in ft Depth of Poisson's _ Moment of

No. (Vert.x Hor.) COver ratio of inertia of
above soil culvert
crown mater ial in
in.-ft 4 -
- in,.jft
- -

1 2Dx30 40 0.45 1 .990

2 20x 30 40 0.45 1 .758 _
3 20x30 40 0.45 1.523
4 20x30 40 0.45 1 .296
5 20x30 40 0.45 1.154
6 20x30 40 0.45 0.938
7 20x30 40 0.45 0.725
--
S 20x30 20 0.45 1 .990
9 20x30 20 0.45 1 .758
10 20x30 20 0.45 -1.523
11 20x30 20 0.45 1 .296
12 20x30 20 ., "-' 0.45 1.154
13 20x30 20 0.45 0.938
14 20x30 20 0.45 0.725
15 20x30 40 - ~ 0.40 1.990_
16 20x30 40 0.35 1 .990
17 20x30 40 0.30 1 .990
1S 20x30 40 0.25 1.990
19- 20x30 40 0.20 1 .990
20 20x30 40 0.15 1.990
21 30x20 20 0.45 1 .990
-
22 24.5x24.5 20 0.45 1.990
23 20x30 20 - 0.45 1 .990
24 17x 35 20 0.45 1.990
25 10x15 20 0.45 1.990
26 30x45 20 0.45 1 .990
27 40x60 20 0.45 1 .990
-
 68

-- --
-'- - ---
------- -........
--

------
'-.. ---- -~
--"' ...
\
\
I
J
I
/

"...•..•.::----
c •••• - - •• --
_/ "
(a) FLEXIBLE PIPE

--------~- ------._-----

\
\
"" -.._-
--:;,. '/

(b) RI(,ID FIPE

FIG, S,~ SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS OF THE DEFORMATION

OF (a) A FLEXIBLE PIPE MID (b) A RIGID
PIPE
 69

elliptical shape culvert (20 ft x 30 ft) at two different

depths of covel' (2d and 40 ft); Results of the analyses for

various conduit stiffnesses are summarized in Table 5.3

for a depth of cover of 40 ft and in Table 5.4 for a depth

of cover of 20 ft. The bending moments at crown for the two

depths of cover are plotted against the conduit moment of

Inertia in Fig. 5.5. Similar plots for moments at springlins

and invert are presented in Fig. 5.6 and Fig. 5.7 respectively.

Table 5.3 Summary of variation of culvert stresses with

culvert stiffness (cover depth 40 ft)

Moment of Momant at Axial ..stress at

inertia Crown Spr ing- Invert Crown Spr ing- Invert
4 line k-ft- ksf line ksf
in /ft -k-ft k~ft ksf

1.990 2.03 -0.095 0.50 -998.95 -108.56 -i (8.32

1.758 2.00 -0.095 0.50 -1096.06 -121.85 -1'11.73
1.523 1. 97 -0.095 0.-50 -1216.21 -139.19 - .11
1 .296 1.95 -0.095 0.53 -1369.47 -161.58 -238.42
1.154 1.93 -0.095 0.56 -1487.65 -180.29 -266.47
0.938 1. 92 -0.095 0.72 -1721.06 -219.63 -357.29
0.725 1 .93 -0.090 1 .305 -2056.48 -301.39 -550.03
- _._-------

Axial stresses at crown, springline and invert are plott,

against the conduit moment of inertia in Fig. 5.8, Fig. 5.9

and Fig. 5.10 respectively.

It has been found that bending moment at crown decreases

continuously with the decreasing stiffness of the conduit

nraterials. Moment at springline renlain more or Jess canstant~

 70

Table 5.4 Summary of variation of culvert stresses with

culvert stiffness (cover depth 20 ft)

f~oment of Moment at Axial stress at

inertia Crown Spr ing- Invert Crown Spring- Invert
in 41ft k-ft line k-ft ksf line ksf
k-ft ksf

1.990 1. 58 -0.085 0.47 -88.1.12 -78.67 -119.23

1.. 758 1 .55 -0.075 0.50 -972.06 -83.26 -142.12
1.523 1. 51 -0.066 0.54 -1085.58 -123.10 -172.52
1 .296 1.47 -0.057 0.60 -1233.15 -162.36 -242.10
1.154 1. 42 -0.045 0.64 -13.50.58 -196.29 -24o~_:3 ,

0.938 1. 39 -0.034 0.70 - -1400.68 -210.78. -345.68

I 0.725 1. 41 -0.023 1.05 -1480.78 -283.88 -415.88

MOment at invert increases continuously with decreasing con-

duit stiffness.

Axia~ stress at all the points, crown, springline and

invert, increases continuously with decreasing. stiffness of

conduit material. This trend has been found to persist for

both the depths of cover considered.

The increase in stresses with decreasing structural

stiffness may be attributed to the fact that less stiff

culverts try to shorten more vertically and flatten more

horizontally as shown in Fig. 5.1. This causes passive

pressure at the sides of culvert to bel built up as the

culvert flattens more and more.

 71

LEG EHO
x c'wer depth 20 n
~ Cover deplh (~Gft
. 2.50
Cl'i),,:m, SM ••'- d [dEpth of cover

:::
'nve;C?ll oC
...
~_l'L~ spnngl ne ~----.Q-
:: - 1.00 - ~~- " .o____--o-- --o- __ --O---~
z
3'
o
"
u

.,
0-
1.50 -
0-
Z
w
J.
0
J. I I -L __ "--L-----'I
LOll __ I 1.15 1.50 1.75 2.00
0.50 0.75 1.00
tIlOl.-"ENT OF If''EPlIAIFT (Ifhtt)

~ FIG. 5.:' EFFECT OF CULVUH ~;TlEFtIE:.s au M01.iEtH ~AT cnoW!'l.

~
w
z
~ :-0.10
z
DC
B:i _0.075 -

0.050
0-
Z
w
:! 0.025
o ,.75 1.00
J. (P5 1.00 '.25 '.50 I I
00.50 I I __ ._.1--~
___ '_t.Dt-1EtlT OF lUERT1A/Fl IllhltJ
SPRIN GlINE
FI G. S. 6 EFFECT OF CUl"(R'T .SlWFNESS or" MOMEHl AT

:::
~ 1.25

0-
n: 1.00 -
w
>

0- "., 1.7S -

0-
z 0.51':' -
w
::r 1.00 1.15 1.S0 1 175
0
::r
____ 1 -1- .
0.250.50
___ ~.~ HOHEtH or ltlEnT! A 1FT t 1nt./HI
CU1'/ERI S-"IFrrIFS': at'l t.I('MEIH OF n"YERT.
FiG. 5.7 EFFECT OF
 72
~_EGEtlQ
x Cever d-::r\h 2~J -\'
o Cover d"r.lh I,D H.

-2501" - cro;~:-~=it~plh of cover

z
>o Invell.~)\)'o' .
~ _2000- r-HL1 sJrmg [m~
u
~
~~--o
_ __
4 _!SOO--
-_Y._ ----0--
'"'"w -K- -0--
l(

d: _1000-
~
'"
.J
4 -500 -
I I
L I I 2.00
I ISO 1.75
o 0.75 '.00 1.25
0.50 (in/.lft)
'-lOMEHT OF lNERTIAIFl ~
FIG. S.8 EFFECT OF STIFFNESS .)U AXIAL STRE';S AT CROWH.

'"w
v>
-200 -
,-'"
v>
-100
1.75 1.5) 1. 75
0.75 l.OC !
00.50
[ L
• j-...fOt-1EUT OF lNERllA IFf (in/It)
SPAINGlItIE.
FIG.S.9 EFFECT OF CULVERT STlFFI~E3S ot~ AXIAL STRESS AT

-600
~
'"w> -500
z

-1,00 -
~
~,~
-300 -
------- -.."
~<. _______
-------
"0--_

.x'--..:::::::::~
-200'- '-~
0.75 '.10
J ~ 1.25 1'1'0
,._ ------~-----~ 1 jh \10
__100 0,50
____ I/O~-1EUT OF INERflA in ~.in/.tfl)
EFFECT OF CULVERT SllFFrlE~)S ON I,XIAl STRESS AT INVERT.
FIG. S.lO

.,',
 73

passive pressure

FIG. 5. 11 0 E FOR tvl E 0 ~,-I APE AND RES U LT I N G

PASSIVE PRESSURE
 74

5.7 EFFECT OF DEPTH OF~O~ER A80VE CROWN

To study the effect of depth of soil cover over crown

on the performance of buried culvert, depth of cover over a

20 ft by 30 ft elliptical culvert was varied from 5 ft. to

40 ft.

The results of the analyses are shown in Table 5.5

In Fig. 5.12 moment at crown i~ plotted against depth of

Tabl~ 5.5 Summary of variation of culvert stresSes with

depth of cover above crown

Depth of r'lomentat Axial stress ",",.

C over ~rown Spring- Invert Crown 'Spring-I.
above K-ft line k-ft ksf 'line k,
crown k-ft ksf
ft

5 2.1 7 -0.081 0.605 -1084.96 -104.89 -244.75

10 1.67 -0.075 0.56 -983.67 -94.32 -210.45
2U 1.58 -0.065 0.47 -881.12 -78.67 ~ .-1 .
30

40
1.88

2.03
-0.085

-0.095
0.48

0.50
-960.48

-998.95
-98. 78

-108.56
- -1

-1 't 'J
.J

'J

cover. Similar graphs for moments at springline and invert

are plotted in Fig. 5.13 and Fig. 5.14 respectively. Variation

of axial stress with depth of cover above crown is plotted

in Fig. 5.15, Fig. 5.16 and 5.17 re,spectively.

It has been found that for the size and shape Of the
•
culvert studied, there is an optimum depth of cover at which
 75

,
'"

...
z
w

"
o
" ,.0
5 10 1, .to- 2'5 10
I
35
I n"

1,0: ~

I;OVER
I,SOVE CROWl' I")
D EPTll OF.
--------------
FIG. ,.12 VARIATIOI! OF CROWl! MOMEtll' WITH DEP rfl OF COVER.

"
~ ....-0.10-
.J

'"zii o

---
<L
~ . ~.'
,.... -0.75
-<
... o

"~o .rO.O'\ I
I
15
_J
10
L.
15
--1__
3D
I
35
10
_____ • DER111 OF trHER ABOVE CRt WI! I III
FIG. ,.,3 VARrATlOl1 OF SPRIIIGC'I!E HCI.IEtH WITII DEPTH trF COVER.

1,00

,
0.15
"...
"'>
w
Z

. ~
~ 0.50- -o~-------_-o---
...;z.
w
>:
o
>: I L- _L L_. J._ I
35
10 15 ;0 2, 30
______ [IEPTI-f OF (O~E.R A[IO\'F.: cno'Nt~ (ft I
VARIArlt')tl or jtlVEHl HOt.1EII1 WITII )E:>TH ')F CO\iF..R.
 76

;:-
• -lln'}
'"
z
"
0
0:
u
-1lX)C! -
•...
.,
~
In
W

...
0:
~ -gar -
0

.,
..J

.,X ,
.--:BO{:t , I I ----l-_ t
, I
10 IS 20' 25 30 35 40
5

DEPTH OF COVER ,\ BtlV E CROWN I~

-=• :rIO.5.15 VARIATIOtl OF AXIh'_ STFIE:; :; AT CnoWH NITII CQV~R DEPTH.

'" -12~ -
w

'"
..J
0
Z
0:
~
~ -10r- o
....,
~
~
W

...~
0:
-----------
o
.

- -75

.,
..J

.,
X
-50 I _---.L I L I I
5 10 15 20 2S 30 35 l,O
---._ DEPTH OF COVER ABOVE ':ROWH I HI
FIG. 5. '6 VARIATlOIl OF AXIAl. STRE~S AT SPr.1tlGlI:~E WITH COVER DEPTH.

:-25(1 -
••
'"
•...
0:
W
>
Z

,-.,
~
~
W
0:
•...
O'
., o~
..J

.,
X
---------------
o

~IOO
5 ,1,--- -,oL-----J~---L
2') 30 ,
I
35
I
40
----.,.- DEPTH OF COVER ABOVE CFOWtl 1ft I
FIe;,5.17 VhlllATIOil or AXIAL 5TRE';'; AT IIIVI:RT VITH COVER
OEPIIi.

O'Q
 77

moment and axial stress are less than those for the same

~ulvert with other depths of cover. For the 20 ft by 30 ft

elliptical culvert, optimum depth of cover has been found

to lie between 15 and 20 ft •
•
It would be possible to ascertain the relation between

the size and shape of the culvert and the optimum depth of

cover, by analysing culverts of various sizes with a wide

range of depths of cover:. Sut >within the limited scope of

this study such an extensive scheme of analysis could not be

undertaken.

Stress in structural members are due to the effect

both live and dead load. As the depth of cover increases

effect of dead load increases due to increasing soil pressure.

On the other hand, effect of live load decreases as the depth

of cover over the crown increases. This is due to the fa

that live loads are distributed-~o_\t.eLca

-LaTger--area=-wh-€n---
iepth

of Gover increases. Combination of divergent stress 'e:ondit,ions

due to dead load and live load is considered to be responsible

for yielding an optimum depth at which stresses are minimum.

5.8 EFFECT OF SHAPE OF CULVERT

To study the effect of shape of culvert, the ratio of

the major axis a to the minor axis b (Fig. 5.18)- for an
elliptical culvert of given crosS-sectional area (1885 square

ft) was varied, keeping the depth of cover constant at 20 ft.

Results of the analyses are shown in Table 5.5.

 78

20 II

------:::=:=:_-
/
----- . . ,

I~ a
••

FIG.S.18 ELLIPTICAL CULVEIH USED TO STUDY EFFECT

OF SIIAPE
 79

Table 5.6 Summary of va~iation 6f culvert stresses with

shape of culvert

Shape and .Moment. at Axial stress at

size Crown Spring- Invert Crown Spr ing- Invert
(Vert. x k-ft line k-ft ksf line ksf
Hor;) .. k-ft ksf
in ft
-

0
30x20 1.89 -0.166 0.81 -891.32 -111.37 -121.39.

0
24.5x24.5' 1.51 -0.065 0.34 -845.10 -158.48 -137.06
,
0
20x30
;

1.58
,
_ !3
-0.085 0.47 -881.12 -78.67 .. -

0
17x 35 1. 78 -0.015 0.58 -798.48 -143.18 -~J(J.71

It has been found ~hat at_a by b equal to unity, i.e.

for a circular cross..:section, stress dIstribution ~i;n:

c"~J"rt

is more favourable than at any other a by b ratio. For a

culvert whose a by b ratio is not unity, however, stress

distribution is more favourable when the major axis is in the

horizontal direction than when it is in the vertical direction.

When the major axis lies in the horizontal direction,

area subjected to direct vertical load effects is more than

•
when the culvert is placed with its -major axis in t'the Jertical
E

direction. On the other hand, when the major axis lies in the

vertical direction a greater area is subjected to the effects

of passive earth pressure acting on the sides of the culvert.

 80

The fact that culvert stresses are more favourable when"the

major axis is in the horizontal direction indicates that

the effects of later,a'l'

passive' earth pre~sure are more

pronounced than the direct pressure of vertical loads.

5.9 EFFECT OF ~IZE OF CULVERT

To study the effect of size of culvert, the size of a

culvert was varied keeping the shape (a by b ratio of 1.5)

and depth of cover constant (20 ft). It has been found that,

with increasing size the moments at all points increases.

Axial stresses have also been found to increase, at all tt",

points. The variation of stresses' are shown in Table 5.'7•

.• ~ ,':: <:

Table 5.7 Summary of variation of culvert stresses with

size of culvert

Size of Moment of
ellipse Axial stress at
Crown Spr ing- Invert Crown Spr ing-
ft k''-ft line Invert
k-ft ksf line ksf
k-ft ksf
10x15 1.41 -0.060, 0.27 .,413.28 -86.36 -122.72
20x30 1.58 -0.065 0.47 -881.12 -98.67 -219.29
30x45 2.82 -0.116 0.98 -907.69 -+50.86 -429.33
40x60 4.83 -0.265 't.23 -1058.39 -219.58 -537.06

As the size of the culvert increases, both the area

under direct vertical load and the area subjected to horizon-

tal passive earth pressure increases proportionally. Therefore,

 81

the culvert stresses increase with increasing size as would

be ordinarily expected.

5.10 EFFECT OF POISSON'S RATIO OF SOIL

As stated earlier all th~ analyses, described so far,

were performed for various culverts buried in the same soil

whose properties are given in Fig. 5.2. In each analysis

Poisson's ratio of the soil was kept constant at 0.45. It

was decided to observe the sensitivity of the interaction to

changes in Poisson's ratio of the soil arid examine the neCe-

ssity of incorporating P6isson's ratio as a variable in the

analyses.

Accordingly, Poisson's ratio of .the soil was varied

for a particular size (20 ft x 30 ft ellipse) of culvert at a

particular depth of cover (40 ft) above crown. The'results

o"f the 'analysesare shown in Table 5.8 •. V"a'ri"atiO"n

of crown ....

Jabls:5~8 Summary of variation of culvert st~esse~ witri

Poisson's Moment at
ratio Crown Axial stress at
Spring- Invert Crown
-" k~ft. line Spring- .Invert
k-ft. . ksf ... line
k-ft ksf
'. ksf
0.45 2.03 -0.095 - 0.50 -998.95 -78.56
D.40 .. , -271:3.56
2.14 ~0.055 0.92 -10gZ.30.: ~65.S6 -]87.41
0; 35. 2;21 -0 ~C45 1. 10 -1139;86 -60.31
0.30 -488 ~81
2.26 -0.035 1.20 -1169.43 -56.99 -577.90
0.25 2.30 -0.030 1 .27 -1191.26 -55.54
0.20 -586.01
2.33 -0.030 1.30 -1215.10 -57.50 -508.32
O. 15 2.36 -0.030 1.35 -1235.50 -51.12
,. -618.41
- -----------. __ J

\
 B2

moment with Poisson's ratio is plotted in Fig. 5.19. Similar

curves are plotted for variation of moment at springline and

invert in Fig. 5.20 and Fig. 5.21 respectively. Variation of

axial stress with Poisson's ratio at crown, springline and

invert 'are shown in Fig. 5.22, Fig. 5.23 and F.ig. 5.24 res-
pecbively.

It has bee'n foun.d that with decreasing Ppisson'~ ratio,

moment at crown and invert increases but at spring line it
decreases. Axi~l-s{res~at crown and inverf increases'with
decreasing Po'i~son's',ratio but.decr'eases a,t.springlihe.

Variation of Poisson's ratio of soil changes the elas-

ticity matrix D in equation 3.5, thus chahging.thestiffness

of the soil. Since the stiffness of the culvert material I-S

not Change, relative stiffness of the soil and culvert mate-

rial changes. This causes redistribution of stress in CUlvert.

However, due to a three fold variation of Poisson's ratio

(0.15 to 0.45) variation of axial stress at'c':cqwn._.(which

is

the governing stress) is only 19.15%. Hence, it may be con-

cluded that any reasonable estimate of Poisson's ratio will

give acceptable results.

5.11 DISTRIBUTION OF 5TRESSES IN THE SOIL

Study of the results Of the analyses shows that the-

stress pattern within the soil mass does not vary significantly

with the variation of the sailor structural parameters.

Variation of horizontal normal stress on a vertical

pl
ane above C~own
•
l'S sn'O'''n
w
l'n Table 5 • 9 ana' Fl'g
..~.,
~ 25 on

.-~,
 83

1.r,-

::
I --'~:)" . 5.;>;"9
" (
./' line
z 2,1,-
.~~
"'"
o
u
In"'l! rf

2.1

.2,n
0.15 0,20 025 0.,0 0.15
i
POISSON 5 RA 110
-0,13 -
•
fIG.5.19VARIATlOII OF CROW" '~OI-1EIIT" WI[1t 1'0ISS)II'S R"ATIO.

w
z
~.{'J.10 -
isz
"-'"
~
..,
I- -0.05-
>-
z
w
:r
0
:r
0 0.20 0,25 0.30 O.~5 O.'.C 0,45
0.1 S
FIJISSON'S RA 1C _
FIG. S.20 VARIATION OF SPRII1G'_IHE t-iOt-1Ettl \'11TH pcrSSON S RATIO.

~ o
I

"
I-
laO -
'"
w
>
Z

I-
~
I-
0.'50 -
'"
w
:r
0
:r
0.70 0.25 0.30 0.f.0 1).1,5
o O.IS
Pf-:i""50N'S RAlrl}

nO.5.21 YARJATlor.j or ItNERr "IOI-I£:/IT WIT-' POISSON.S R I. 110.

 84

-•
_..,...1501) -

.><

z
?:
0
"-
u
1100-

....
~
~
c''
"'
I" -1100 -
~
-'
-<
><
-<
-900
0.15 0.30 0,.35 o .1,0 OAS
0.15 0.10

POISSON'S 1!,~TI0t.

A. T:: CROWN WITH P(t1SS01-i'S RAM.

w
Z
./
-' .~/
'z"
[ -60-
~ ...J:,---- .
a ---"~----

_20
0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0,35 O.~O
--- •.....POISSON'S RfTlO
FIG. 5.23 VARIATIOll OF 'ICXIAL 5T/lESS AT SPRIHGLlHE I'/ITH POISSOH'S RATIO
;: ~800
•
.><

....
"-
ti.
>
--600
'~"
•...
"

'0

"'
"'
,. -~OU -
'"
~
-'
«
><
-<
-200
0.15 0.70 0)5 U JO 0,] 5 OJ.O 0.45
---.- POlS50N'S ~ J,TIO
FIG. 5.24 YAAIATIO~1 OF AXIAL S rRESS \r 1/l\'HIT WITf.t POISSON'S R.!tTIQ.

.<
 85

Table 5.9 Variation of horizontal normal stress on a

vertical plane above crown

Depth from Horizontal normal Stress that would

surface stress in ksf have been present
in ft • if there were no
culvert in ksf .
-

0 1.09 0.75
10 1.945 1. 25
20 2.585 1.75
3LJ 1.515 2.25
34 0,.64 2.45
37 0.62 .. 2.60
40 0.62 .2.75

a 20,ft by 30 ft elliptical cul~ert at a cover depth of 40 ft.

They also show-th~ soil stresses that would have been present

if there were no culvert buried in the soil. The lattSr stre-

sses have been calculated from 80ussinesq solution (Davis

and Poulo~, 1974) for el~stic semi-infinite mass with verti-

cal line load. Similarly, the var,iation for vertical normal

stress on a horizontal plane through springline is shown in

Table 5.10 and Fig. 5.26 along with the stresses that would

have been present if there were no culverts.

It has been found that stresses'near the vicinity of

the culvert is reduced from those that would have been present

if there were no culvert. This may be due to the movement

of the soil as shown in Fig. 5.27. Interior prism of soil

,.
 86

2
0
"- 5
0
a;
u

uJ
0
_. tD >
0
OJ
-<1:

Iv
Z
-<
-1.
c.
0

0 --'
tL
- ,.0
.~
"
>
~
.,. :> --'
.q
:>- U u
;:;
~. c-
;:; o-
n::
'-' 0
w
w
>

;:
L
-'" ~
~
---r
0 u
~ ~ "
IL
X
.q:

\
VI
III
lJ)
:J 0
Z

.J~
VI
'"
L- X
(J)

4_
~ 0> (J)
,.0
,1 L' CO uJ
\ --' n::
a E
(J
"
_0
'"
Q]
f-

\
E c.
'" (J)

'- I --'
0
.z
"
~ l-+ .t
tL
w
1:
a
a .•.. 0 '"
0
.~
r:
c 0
Z
0
0 C'<
.t~ '- .~ .. J
.{
0 0 I-
I .x z
0 0
z J t~

!
il'
<:>
uJ
_J
) ;<. -0
n:
0
~ ~ I

,.0

"" "'-- , ",

L'

..•....-...•........ ,.

.r
0 '"
"-
C'. C'J 0

•••
(I S)\I SS3tJJ 5 lYHUOtj 1YINOZIUOH
 87

Table 5.10 Variation of Vertical normal stress on a

horizontal plane through springline

Horizqnt al Ve'rtical normal Vertical normal stress

distance from stress (ksf) on horizontal plan~
spring line (ft) that would have been
present without culvert
(ksf)
0 -
-0.0500 5.75
4 0.5975 5.75
8 1.1312 5.75
14 2.6675 5.75
-
26 4.6775 ,
;..

, 5.75
39 5.3100 5.75,
50 5.5150 5.75
61 5.6750 5.75
81 6.0925 5.75

shown in Fig. 5.27 moves downwarcd relative to exterior, prism,

thus transferring part of the load to the exterior prism

through shear. It has been found in most of the analyses

that tensile stresses in soil occur below the culvert at

the area marked with crosses (x) in Fig. 5.27. This is sub-

stantiated by the deformation of the culvert structure. Oefor-

med shape of the culvert, as obtained by finite element analy-

sis is shown in Fig. 5.28.

50il can carry very small or no tensile stresses.

Presence of tensile stresses within the soil may reduce the

soil stiffness and thereby redistribute the stresses.

 10~
LEGEN D
~ vertical Normal stress w',th Cul\'ert
.j
.>:
-c--<>- Vert',cal Normal stress W,,'thout cuivert

7.5
Vl
Vl
w
c:: --e .-->(
>- o c c C o
" _.____'-- v

~ '5
<:
~ ~
c:: ,!
o
=
-'I
<:
::.5
u
>-
Gl::
w
;>

_I .L
30 ~o so ~r ~r'
I ',J 8G
HORIZONTAL DISTANCF FROM SPRINGlIr,E (ttl
•
Flf'.. '5.25 VERTICAL STRESS ON A HORILONTAL PLANE THROUGH CROWN

CD
CD
 " I

89

L egefld
x IndiGotes zone of tension In soil

---- --

~~~:I~'OR1j ~~,~,: R j I ~~,~;~,'0R

In

-----..
'~

4-'-._ CU LV E RT

/x
x
.._-;---
x
".'

FIG.S.27 MOVEMENT OF SOIL DUE TO APPLIED LOAD.

 90

FIG.5.28 DEFORMATION OF CULVERT.

 91

However, the tensile stresses present were less than 5% of

the maximum compressiv~ stress •.Effect of these tensile

stresses were, therefore, neglected in the analyses.

 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

6.1 GENERAL

Several features of a realistic interaction analysis

are listed in Chaptet' 1 and Chapter 2. One of them is that

non-linear behaviour of the system must not be ignored. In,

fact load-bending moment and load-deflection relationship

of structure are essentially non-linear. This is caused by

non-linear soil properti~s and geometric non-linearity of

structural membe.~.which must be adequately represented in,

the analyses.

The saving of tre ,computer time has been a major aim

in the development of the computer programs. The large finite

element mesh an.aly.sedin this thesis required a large computer

storage for stiffness matrix. To solve this problem element

stiffn~ss matrix was formed only once and stored oha di~ect

access device and used repeatedly by changing the shear modulus

obtained from octahedral shear stress - shear strain curve.

The global stiffness matrix was formed for one joint at a

time. The core memory requirement for this method was very

small cOffiparedto other conventional methods for forming

stiffness matrix.

0.2 CONCLUSIONS

Parametric studies involving various soil and structural

parameters were made to ascertain the perform~nce of buried

 93

conduits. The following conclusions are drawn from this

study for. the range of structure analysed in this thesis.

'I 1) The combination of maximum axial stress and moment

occur at-crown. Hence critical section for design is at crown.

2) Moments are negligible in comparison to axial stresses.

Hence axial stresses are the governing criteria for design.

3) With increasing stiffness of culvert material with

respect to surrounding soil mass, load carri~d by culvert

increases an~ that carried by soil around the culvert

decreases.

4) Variation of Poisson's ratio within the practical range

for soils does not affect significantly the results of the

finite element analysis of soil-steel structure interaction

problems. Hence, any reasonable estimate of Poisson's ratio

~ill give satisfactory results.

5) There is an optimum depth of cover above the crown at

which the stresses and moments are the smallest.

6) The shape and orientation of culvert affect the stress

distribution vis a vis the magnitude of stresses in the

culvert. Circular shape gives better performance than ellipti-

cal shap e.

7) Interior prism of soil moves downward relative to

exterior prism. This results in lesser stresses on culvert

than that would have been there if there were no relative

movement of prisms or if exterior prism moved downward.

 94

6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUT.URE RESEARCH

Analyses of the soil-conduit interaction problem have

shown that tensile stresses occur within the soil mass and

soil-conduit interface. But soil cannot carry any tension.

So, attempt should be made to incorporate a procedure to

simulate tension separation within the soil mass,and soil-

conduit interface.

Slip of soil material may ,occur at soil~conduit inter-

face in addition to tension separation normal, to structure

boundary. A situation in between a fully bonded and a fully

slipped condition may also develop. To accommodate these

features an interface element may be adopted.,

In the field, filling of soil material after proper

placement of conduit is very often accompanied by simultaneous

compaction. The compacting loads are repeatedly applied and

the construction proceeds in stages.' Attempt should be made to

accommodate these staged construction forces.

It has been observed that there is an optimum depth of

cover for any given size and shape of culvert. Future research

may be directed towards correlating the size and shape of

culvert to the optimum depth. This can be accomplished

by an extensive series of analyses of ,culverts of various

shapes and sizes buried under various depths of soil.

In order to verify computer codes for predicting per-

formance of buried conduits, controlled, full scale laboratory

 95

tests are imperative. Through comparison of predicted soil-

conduit system responses and extensive test measurement under

controlled conditions the predictive capability of th~ com-

puter codes can be assessed beyond question.

It is also mandatory to est~blish buckling and ultimate

load criteria for buried flexiblr conduits so that the com-

puter codes can be developed into design tools. These criteria

can best be established through SQntrolled, full-scaled

laboratory tests in which the conduits are loaded all the way

to collapse. Research in this direction is recommended.

 APPENDIX
SPLINE FUNCTION REPRESENTATION
-----

The cubic spl.ine function approximates a given set of

stress-strain data by a piecewise cubic polynomial such that

the polynomial along with its first ind second derivatives

is continuous over the entire range of the data. This is

accomplished by expressing a cubic polynomial, F( E ),(Fig.A.1)

in segment, (E.,
l E.l+ 1)' in terms of the known functional

values, o.
l and l+ l'
o. and second derivatives at the two ends,

Si and Si+1' as:

Fe E )

the co-efficients a., b., c. and d. can be obtained from the

l l l l
vAii
condit~on that first der~e of the curve on the two sides of

E.
l should be the same. Singb 'and,Sandler (1975) has given

the following expression for the co-efficients:

a. =
1
.l 2 -2h. 2h. 0 0 S.
12h. l l l
l
b. 2
l 6h. 0 0 0
l Si+1
c. 3 3
l -4h. -2h. -12h. 12h. o.
l l l l l
d.
l 0 2 12h. 0
, l °i+1

in which h. = E + -
and 5.,,_ and
E .
l i 1 l l Sh1 are the. second deri-
vatives of spline functions.
 97

V)
V)
UJ
0:
I-
V)

-F'OLY'lOM'ALS, F {E I

DATA POINT

-----------_._--- ..-
STIlAIN, €

. FIG. A.l SPLlt'IE FUtlCTIOtl REPRES~NTA-rION.

 98

The derivative of the. spline function, E( s ), for

the segment (si' si+1) can be evaluated simply by substi-

tuting a"111b. and c. in the expression for.F'(s), namely

E( s ) = 3a.(s-s.) 2
+ 2b.(s-s.)+c .. (A.3)
1 1 . 1 1 1

..
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