Chapter 3

Thermal-electrical analogy

Thermal systems are those that involve the storage and transfer of heat. Heat stored in a material
object is manifested as a higher temperature. For example, a hot block of metal has more heat
stored in it than an equivalent cool block. Heat flows between objects by one of three
mechanisms: conduction, convection (or mass transfer), and radiation. Conductive heat transfer
occurs when a temperature difference exists across an object. An example is the flow of heat that
occurs through the wall of a building if the temperature inside is higher (or lower) than the
temperatures outside. Convective heat transfer involves the flow of heat in a liquid or gas, as
when a fan blows cool air across a hot object; the air carries away some of the heat of the object.
Radiative heat transfer, like conductive transfer, is caused by a temperature difference between
objects, does not require a physical medium for heat flow (i.e., radiative heat can flow through a
vacuum). The Table 3.1 (system elements) gives a description of the building blocks of these
system (thermal resistance, capacitance and fluid flow).

Fundamental Quantities SI unit

Time t second (s)

Energy w Joule (J)

Power (or heat flow) q Watt (J/s)

K
(note we will generally be interested
in temperature differences.
Temperature T Since temperature differences are
equal on Kelvin and Celsius
scales, we will generally use °C
instead of K)

Thermal Resistance R K/W

Thermal Conductance KT W/K

Thermal Capacitance C J/K

Mass flow rate - G kilogram/sec (kg/s)

Specific heat - cp J/(kg-K)

Table 3.1: Thermal elements and units of measure.

x.1 Elements of thermal system

There are two fundamental physical elements that make up thermal systems, thermal resistances
and thermal capacitance. There are also three sources of heat, a power source, a temperature
source, and fluid flow.

A note on temperature
In practice temperature when we discuss temperature we will use degrees Celsius (°C), while SI
unit for temperature is to use Kelvins (0°K = -273.15°C). However, we will generally be
interested in temperature differences, not absolute temperatures (much as electrical circuits deal
with voltage differences). Therefore, we will generally take the ambient temperature (which we
will label Ta) to be our reference temperature, and measure all temperatures relative to this
ambient temperature. We will also assume that the ambient temperature is constant. Thus, if the
ambient temperature is =25°C, and the temperature of interest is Ti=32°C, we will say that Ti=7°
above ambient. Note: this is consistent with electrical systems in which we assign one voltage
to be ground (and assume that it is constant) and assign it the value of zero volts. We then
measure all voltages relative to ground.

Thermal resistance
Though heat transfer through via conduction and heat transfer via convection occur as a result of
very different mechanisms, the resulting mathematical relationship is identical. Therefore, we
will cover both mechanisms here.

Heat transfer via conduction

Heat flow through an object is determined by several quantities including the thickness of the
object (in the direction of heat flow), the area through which heat can flow, and the thermal
conductivity (measured in units of W/(m-°K)). We will consider only objects of uniform cross
section, with heat flow in one direction (perpendicular to the cross section). Consider the circular
cylinder shown below.

Figure 3.1: Heat transfer via conduction.

A is the area of the cylinder, l is the length of the cylinder, and 𝜆 is the thermal conductivity of
the cylinder. One end of the cylinder is at temperature T1 and the other is at T2. The heat flow
from face 1 to face 2 is given by
𝑇# − 𝑇$
𝑞#$ = (3.1)
𝑅#$
where
𝑙
𝑅#$ = (3.2)
𝜆𝐴
Note that the resistance increases with length (it is harder for heat to flow), decreases with area
(there is more area for the heat to flow through) and decreases with conductivity. Materials like
styrofoam have high resistance to heat flow (they make good thermal insulators) while metals
tend to have high low resistance to heat flow (they make poor insulators, but transmit heat well).
Consider the situation in which there is a wall, one side of which is at the interior temperature,
Ti, with the other sider at ambient temperature, Ta. The wall has a thermal resistance of Ria. This
is depicted in Figure x.2 in two different, but equivalent, diagrams.

Figure 3.2: Thermal-electrical analogy of conduction heat transfer.

Heat transfer through convection

When a fluid impinges on a solid surface that is at a different temperature, heat will flow between
them (from hot to cold). If we have a fluid at temperature T1 impinging on an object at
temperature T2, then we model the heat flow from the fluid to the object as
𝑇# − 𝑇$ 1
𝑞#$ =        with        𝑅#$ = (3.3)
𝑅#$ ℎ𝐴
where A=area of the object, and h=coefficient of convective heat transfer (W/(m²·°K)). The
coefficient of convective heat transfer is a function of the fluid used (e.g., air and water have very
different coefficients) as well as the velocity of the fluid (the coefficient generally increases with
the velocity of the fluid).
Thermal capacitance
In addition to thermal resistance, objects can also have thermal capacitance (also called thermal
mass). The thermal capacitance of an object is a measure of how much heat it can store. If an
object has thermal capacitance its temperature will rise as heat flows into the object, and the
temperature will lower as heat flows out. To understand this, envision a rock in the sun. During
the day heat goes in to the rock from the sunlight, and the temperature of the rock increases as
energy is stored in the rock as an increased temperature. At night energy is released, and the rock
cools down. We represent a thermal capacitance in isolation in diagrams (and equations) as
shown in Figure 3.3 (in the drawing at the left the coil represents a power source and the stippled
object is the thermal capacitance). In the thermal analogy, one end of the capacitor is always
connected to the constant ambient temperature.

Figure 3.3: Thermal-electrical analogy of thermal capacitance.

The electrical model will always have one side of the capacitance connected to ground, or
345 647
ambient. Also, we could write the equation as 𝐶# = 𝑞# but since Ta is constant, it can be
38
removed from the derivative. The thermal capacitance of an object is determined by its mass and
specific heat
𝐶 = 𝑚𝑐; (3.4)
where C is the thermal capacitance, m is the mass in kilograms, and cp is the specific heat in J/(kg-
°K). It is always assumed that the capacitor is at a single uniform temperature, though this is
obviously a simplification in many cases.
Example
The specific heat of water is 4.2 kJ/kg-°C.
-   What is the thermal capacitance of 5 liters of water?
-   If the water starts at θc=25°C, how hot will it be if it is heated with a 1 kW heater for 1
minute?
Solution.
a) C = m·cp, and 5 liters of water has a mass of 5 kg. So C = 5·(4.2·103) = 21 kJ/°C.
b) First, calculate the rate of increase of temperature
 𝑘𝐽
𝑑𝑇= 𝑞 1𝑘𝑊 1 𝑠 1 °𝐶
= = = = 𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 21 𝑘𝐽 21
𝑘𝐽 21
°𝐶 °𝐶
then find the total increase:
𝑑𝑇= 1 °𝐶
∆𝑇= = ∆𝑇 = 𝑠 ∙ 60𝑠 = 2.9°𝐶
𝑑𝑡 21
so the final temperature is
25 + 2.9 = 27.9°𝐶

Power source (or heat source)

A common part of a thermal model is a controlled power source that generates a predetermined
amount of power, or heat, in a system. This power can either be constant or a function of time.
In the electrical analogy, the power source is represented by a current source. An example of a
power source is the quantity qi in the diagrams for the thermal capacitance, above. In practice a
power source is often an electrical heating element comprised of a coil of wire that is heated by
a current flowing through it. Therefore, we use a diagram of a coil of wire to represent the power
source. An ideal power source generates power that is independent of temperature. Examples of
power sources you might be familiar with are electric hair dryers (typically on the order of 1000
W) and space heaters for individual rooms (typically several hundred Watts).

Temperature source
Another common source used in thermal systems is a controlled temperature source that
maintains a constant temperature. An ideal temperature source maintains a given temperature
independent of the amount of power required. A refrigerator is an example of such a source.
Another such source is the ambient surroundings. We will assume that the temperature of the
ambient surroundings is constant regardless of the heat flow in or out (we will also take ambient
temperature to be our reference temperature, i.e., Ta = 0°).

Mass transfer (fluid flow)

If fluid with specific heat cp J/(kg-°K) flows into a system with a flow rate of G kg/sec and a
temperature of Tin °C above ambient, and flows out at a temperature of Tout °C below ambient
then the rate of heat flow into the system is given by
𝑘𝑔 𝐽 (3.5)
𝑞NO = 𝐺 ∙ 𝑐; ∙ 𝑇NO − 𝑇TU8 °𝐶 = 𝐺𝑐; 𝑇NO − 𝑇TU8 𝑊
𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑘𝑔  𝐾
We can cancel the K and °C since a temperature difference (Tin-Tout) is the same in Kelvin or
Celsius.
If you carefully observe this equation, it makes sense intuitively. Heat into a system goes up with
mass flow rate into the system (increased mass flow, yields increased heat flow). Heat into a
system also goes up with the specific heat of the mass (higher specific heat indicates increased
capacity to store heat). Finally, heat into a system increases with an increased inflow temperature,
or a decreased outflow temperature (if the temperature difference between inflow and outflow
increases, more heat is being taken from the fluid). Note: the mass flow rate at the input and
output must be equal or the mass (and thermal capacitance) of the system would be changing.
This is not allowed for the systems being studied (time-invariant systems).

The energy balance

To develop a mathematical model of a thermal system we use the concept of an energy balance.
The energy balance equation simply states that at any given location, or node, in a system, the
heat into that node is equal to the heat out of the node plus any heat that is stored (heat is stored
as increased temperature in thermal capacitances).
Heat in = Heat out + Heat stored
To better understand how this works in practice it is useful to consider several examples.

Examples involving only thermal resistance and capacitance

Example: Two thermal resistances in series
Consider a situation in which we have an internal temperature, Ti, and an ambient
temperature, Ta with two resistances between them. An example of such a situation is your
body. There is a (nearly) constant internal temperature, there is a thermal resistance
between your core and your skin (at Ts), and there is a thermal resistance between the skin
and ambient. We will call the resistance between the internal temperature and the skin
temperature Ris, and the temperature between skin and ambient Rsa.
a) Draw a thermal model of the system showing all relevant quantities.
b) Draw an electrical equivalent
c) Develop a mathematical model (i.e., an energy balance).
d) Solve for the temperature of the skin if Ti, =37°C, Ta =9°C, Ris=0.75°/W; for a patch of
skin and Rsa= 2.25°/W for that same patch.

Solution.
a) In this case there are no thermal capacitances or heat sources, just two know temperatures
( Ti, and Ta), one unknown temperature (Ts), and two resistances ( Ris and Rsa.)
b) Temperatures are drawn as voltage sources. Ambient temperature is taken to be zero
(i.e., a ground temperature), all other temperatures are measured with respect to this
temperature).

c) There is only one unknown temperature (at Ts), so we need only one energy balance (and,
since there is no capacitance, we don't need the heat stored term).
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡  𝑖𝑛 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡  𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡  𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑇N − 𝑇] 𝑇] − 𝑇^ 𝑇]
= =
𝑅N] 𝑅]^ 𝑅]^
Note: the first equation included Ta, but the second does not, since Ta is our reference
temperature and is taken to be zero.

d) Solving for Ts
𝑇N − 𝑇] 𝑇]
=
𝑅N] 𝑅]^
𝑇N − 𝑇] 𝑅]^ = 𝑇] 𝑅N]
𝑅]^
𝑇] = 𝑇N
𝑅N] + 𝑅]^
Note: you may recognize this result as the voltage divider equation from electrical circuits.
We can now solve numerically (we use 28°C for the internal temperature since it is 28°C
above ambient (37°-9°=28°)
 𝑅]^ 2.25
𝑇] = 𝑇N = 28° = 28 0.75 = 21°
𝑅N] + 𝑅]^ 0.75 + 2.25
This says that Ts is 21°C above ambient. Since the ambient temperature is 9°C, the actual
skin temperature is 30°C.
Note: If Rsa is lowered, for example by the wind blowing, the skin gets cooler, and it feels
like it is colder. This is the mechanism responsible for the "wind chill" effect.

Example: Three thermal resistances in series

𝑇N 𝑥=0
𝑇# 𝑥 = 𝑥#
𝑇$ 𝑥 = 𝑥$
𝑇^ 𝑥 = 𝑥a
𝑥# − 𝑥b = 𝑙N#            , 𝑥$ − 𝑥# = 𝑙#$            , 𝑥a − 𝑥$ = 𝑙$^
𝑙N# 𝑙#$ 𝑙$^
𝑅N# =            ,             𝑅#$ =            ,             𝑅$^ =
𝜆N# 𝐴 𝜆#$ 𝐴 𝜆$^ 𝐴

𝑇# − 𝑇N 𝑇$ − 𝑇# 𝑇^ − 𝑇$
𝑞=− =   − =−
𝑅N# 𝑅#$ 𝑅$^

𝑇# − 𝑇N 𝑇$ − 𝑇# 𝑇^ − 𝑇$
              =           =    
𝑅N# 𝑅#$ 𝑅$^

1st 2nd 3th

𝑇^ − 𝑇N
𝑞 = −𝜆de
𝑙N# + 𝑙#$ + 𝑙$^

1fg =   2hi  
2hi =   3gk    
 𝑇# 𝑇N 𝑇$ 𝑇#
− − + =0
𝑅N# 𝑅N# 𝑅#$ 𝑅#$
𝑇$ 𝑇# 𝑇^ 𝑇$
− − + =0
𝑅#$ 𝑅#$ 𝑅$^ 𝑅$^

1 1 1 1
+ 𝑇# − 𝑇$ = 𝑇
𝑅N# 𝑅#$ 𝑅#$ 𝑅N# N
1 1 1 1
− 𝑇# + + 𝑇$ = 𝑇
𝑅#$ 𝑅#$ 𝑅$^ 𝑅$^ ^

1 1 1 1
+ − 𝑇
𝑅N# 𝑅#$ 𝑅#$ 𝑇# 𝑅N# N
=
1 1 1 𝑇$ 1
− + 𝑇
𝑅#$ 𝑅#$ 𝑅$^ 𝑅$^ ^

𝐴 𝑇 𝐵

𝑇 = 𝐴6#  𝐵

Example: Three thermal resistances in parallel

𝑞N^ = 𝑞# + 𝑞$ + 𝑞a
𝑇N − 𝑇^ 𝑇N − 𝑇^ 𝑇N − 𝑇^ 𝑇N − 𝑇^
− =− − −
𝑅de 𝑅# 𝑅$ 𝑅a
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝑅de 𝑅# 𝑅$ 𝑅a

Example: Heating a Building with One Room

Consider a building with a single room. The resistance of the walls between the room and
the ambient is Rra, and the thermal capacitance of the room is Cr, the heat into the room is
qi, the temperature of the room is Tr, and the external temperature is a constant, Ta.
a) Draw a thermal model of the system showing all relevant quantities.
b) Draw an electrical equivalent
c) Develop a mathematical model (i.e., a differential equation).
Solution.
a) We draw a thermal capacitance to represent the room (and note its temperature). We
also draw a resistance between the capacitance and ambient.

b) To draw the electrical system we need a circuit with a node for the ambient temperature,
and a node for the temperature of the room. Heat (a current source) goes into the room.
Energy is stored (as an increased temperature) in the thermal capacitance, and heat flows
from the room to ambient through the resistor.

c) We only need to develop a single energy balance equation, and that is for the temperature
of the thermal capacitance (since there is only one unknown temperature). The heat into
the room is qi, heat leaves the room through a resistor and energy is stored (as increased
temperature) in the capacitor.
Heat in = Heat out + Heat stored
𝑇m − 𝑇^ 𝑑𝑇m
𝑞N = +𝐶
𝑅m^ 𝑑𝑡
by convention we take the ambient temperature to be zero, so we end up with a first order
differential equation for this system.
𝑇m 𝑑𝑇m
𝑞N = +𝐶
𝑅m^ 𝑑𝑡

Example: Heating a Building with One Room, but with Variable External Temperature.
Consider the room from the previous example. Repeat parts a, b, and c if the temperature
outside is no longer constant but varies. Call the external temperature Te(t) (this will be the
temperature relative to the ambient temperature). We will also change the name of the
resistance of the walls to Rre to denote the fact that the external temperature is no longer the
ambient temperature.
Solution.
The solution is much like that for the previous example. Exceptions are noted below.
a) The image is as before with the external temperature replaced by Te(t).

b) To draw the electrical system we need a circuit with a node for the external temperature
and a node for the temperature of the room. Though perhaps not obvious at first we still
need a node for the ambient temperature since all of our temperatures are measured relative
to this, and our capacitors must always have one node connected to this reference
temperature. Heat flows from the room to the external temperature through the resistor.

c) We still only need to develop a single energy balance equation, and that is for the
temperature of the thermal capacitance (since there is only one unknown temperature). The
heat into the room is qi, heat leaves the room through a resistor and energy is stored (as
increased temperature) in the capacitor.
Heat in = Heat out + Heat stored
𝑇m − 𝑇d 𝑑𝑇m
𝑞N = +𝐶
𝑅m^ 𝑑𝑡
(the ambient temperature is taken to be zero in this equation). In this case we end up with
a system with two inputs (qi and Te).

Example: Heating a Building with Two Rooms

Consider a building that consists of two adjacent rooms, labelled 1 and 2. The resistance
of the walls room 1 and ambient is R1a, between room 2 and ambient is R2a and between
room 1 and room 2 is R12. The capacitance of rooms 1 and 2 are C1 and C2, with
temperatures T1 and T2, respectively. A heater in in room 1 generates a heat qin. The
external temperature is a constant, Ta.
a) Draw a thermal model of the system showing all relevant quantities.

b) Draw an electrical equivalent

c) Develop a mathematical model (i.e., a differential equation).

In this case there are two unknown temperatures, T1 and T2, so we need two energy balance
equations. In both cases we will take Ta to be zero, so it will not arise in the equations.

The two first order energy balance equations (for room 1 and room 2) could be combined
into a single second order differential equation and solved.

Example: Cooling a Block of Metal in a Tank with Fluid Flow.

Consider a block of metal (capacitance=Cm, temperature=Tm). It is placed in a well mixed
tank (at termperature Tt, with capacitance Ct). Fluid flows into the tank at temperature Tin
with mass flow rate Gin, and specific heat cp. The fluid flows out at the same rate. There is
a thermal resistance to between the metal block and the fluid of the tank, Rmt, and between
the tank and the ambient Rta. Write an energy balance for this system.

Note: the resistance between the tank and the metal block, Rmt, is not explicitly shown.
Solution.
Since there are two unknown temperatures, we need two energy balance equations.

Aside: Modeling a Fluid Flow with and Electrical Analog

To model this system with an electrical analogy, we can represent the fluid flow as a voltage
source at Tin, with a resistance equal to 1/(Gin·cp). If you sum currents at the nodes Tt and
Tm you can show that this circuit is equivalent to the thermal system above.