Definitions

Temperature

Temperature scales are a way of describing how hot a substance is. A lump of matter contains energy. There are many
forms of energy, one of them is Kinetic energy and measuring temperature is a way of measuring how furiously the
molecules contained in a lump of substance are moving about. This molecular activity causes what we perceive as the
temperature of an object. A refrigeration mechanic must be able to deal with temperatures in various scales.
Traditionally the English system has been used (Fahrenheit degrees) and a whole series of familiar capacity
measurements like Horse Power, BTU's, Tons, and PSI have been the norm. However the metric system which is
supposed to be easier to work with is encroaching in many locations. In both systems there are standard and absolute
temperature scales. Try playing with the above temperature converter. Type a value in any one of the input boxes and
click on the Convert Button. Here are several interesting values to try: -40 튔, 0 튣, 40 튔, 373 튚, 21 튏
Fahrenheit
The Fahrenheit temperature scale was developed by no less than Fahrenheit himself back in the early 1700's. It was
based on scientifically observable occurrences such as human body temperature and melting ice. Those points were
assigned arbitrary values which made sense at the time. The newly created number scale was widened for easier
reading and when boiling water was measured at 212 degrees, Fahrenheit changed the value of freezing water from 30
to 32 degrees to achieve the more attractive scale of 180 degrees between water's freezing and boiling points. There are
180 degrees in 1/2 of a circle and this was a temptation too great to resist.

Celsius

In theory the Celsius scale should be much easier to work with. It is based on calling the freezing point of water zero
and the boiling point of water 100. There are therefore 100 degrees between those 2 points. The Celsius temperature
scale is also referred to as the "Centigrade" scale. Centigrade means "consisting of or divided into 100 degrees. I
wonder what a comfortable room of 70?F would be in Celsius? If you don't happen to have a conversion calculator at
your disposal you can always rely on the following 2 formulae:

Kelvin

Scientists use the Kelvin scale, which is based on the Celsius scale, but has no negative numbers. Instead of basing it's
zero point on the freezing point of water, it bases it's zero point on Absolute Zero. which is the theoretical temperature
where all heat has been removed from a substance. Hence any amount of heat added creates a positive temperature.
Negative numbers can mess up a scientist's mathematical calculations. You will find that in refrigeration, we too must
use absolute temperature scales for some things. At Absolute Zero scientists believe that molecular motion would stop.

Rankine

Rankine is the English version of an absolute temperature scale. Add 460 degrees to Fahrenheit temperatures to obtain
the Rankine temperature. Input 0?in the Rankine box on the calculator above and you will see why.
Heat

Temperature is a qualitative measurement. Heat is a quantitative measurement. The

temperature "quality" of a object describes how hot it is but not the total amount of heat it
actually contains. Here's a silly example which makes clear the distinction. Let's say we have
two blocks of iron. One is a mere cubic inch, the other is 10 feet cubed. We heat each of them
to 150?F and you verify this with some sort of thermometer. They both have the same
temperature but do they both contain the same amount of heat? When you throw the little
cube in your swimming pool nothing noticeable happens to the temperature of the pool water
but when you toss in the huge iron chunk the pool water can be measured to rise somewhat
over time. If there was a noticeable amount of heat transfer from the large chunk of iron but
not from the small chunk of iron then surely the large chunk contained more heat than the
small one even though they were at the same temperature. The temperature of an object is a
reflection of the kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules that make it up. Fast molecules =
high kinetic energy = high temperature. On the other hand heat represents the total amount
of kinetic energy in an object. Heat is measured in BTU's. Recall that 1 BTU is the amount of
heat required to change the temperature of 1 Lb. of water through 1?F. So it would take 2 BTU
to raise the temperature of 2 Lb. of water through 1?F. And it would take 30 BTU to raise the
temperature of 3 Lb. of water by 10?F. BTU's (or their metric counterparts) are the
fundamental unit of heat used in the refrigeration industry. Larger quantities of heat are
described with the term Ton. 12,000 BTU = 1 Ton. A building might have a 3 Ton Air
Conditioning system which would be equivalent to 36,000 BTUH.

Specific Heat

Different substances have different heat holding capabilities and thermal properties. Just
because 1 Lb. of water will change precisely through 1?F when 1 BTU is applied to it does not
necessarily mean that the same thing will happen with 1 Lb. of copper or 1 Lb. of steel or 1 Lb.
of ice cream. There is a need to be able to specify those differences and the method utilized is
to compare all substances to water. Water is given a specific heat value of 1. This means that
it that 1 BTU is required to change the temperature of 1 Lb. of water through 1?F. The specific
heat of water can also be described in the metric system. The metric specific heat of water is 1
calorie per gram per degree Celsius. This value also works out to 1. In other words it would
take 1 calorie of heat to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water through 1 degree Celsius.
Specific heat is a dimensionless quantity. It is purely a number having no unit of measurement
associated with it. In Refrigeration specific heat values are used to calculate capacity
requirements for refrigerating known quantities of product. For example one might need to be
able to select refrigeration equipment capable of cooling 5000 Lb. of beef from 55?F to -20?F.
A calculation like that must take into consideration the fact that the specific heat of a
substance usually is different above and below it's freezing point.

Latent Heat

Latent Heat is the heat given up or absorbed by a substance as it changes state. It is called
latent because it is not associated with a change in temperature. Each substance has a
characteristic latent heat of fusion, latent heat of vapourization, latent heat of condensation
and latent heat of sublimation.
Sensible Heat

Sensible Heat is associated with a temperature change, as opposed to latent heat. This is so-
called because it can be sensed by humans. If the air in a building was to be heated from 60 튔
to 70 튔 only sensible heat would be involved. However, if the air in a building was to be cooled
from 80 튔 to 70 튔 and humidity was to be removed from the air at the same time, then both
sensible and latent heats would be involved.

Insulator

Electrical wires are coated with an insulating material so electricity stays in the conductor
(wire). Thermal insulation on the other hand tries to keep heat from transferring. Thermal
insulation does not stop heat transfer, it only slows down the rate of transfer. The greater the
amount and quality of insulation, the greater the insulating effect and the slower is the
thermal transfer. There is insulation inside cooler and freezer walls and in the perimeter walls
of conditioned spaces. If fiberglass batting is being used it should be noted that the glass
fibers are actually a poor insulator. It is the tiny pockets of trapped air in-between the fibers
that actually are responsible for the insulating effect.

Conductor

The chart below shows the specific heat values of several materials. Notice the very small
specific heat value that copper has. This means it would take a mere .093 BTU to raise 1 Lb. of
copper through 1 degree. Copper has a bigger temperature change for the same heat input
compared to many other materials. Copper transfers heat readily and would not make a very
good insulator, it conducts heat too well. The smaller the specific heat number, the better of a
conductor a material is. You can see why heat transfer devices like evaporators and
condensers are made from materials like aluminum and copper.

Material Specific Heat

(Btu/Lb./튔)
 Water 1.00
Air .24
Aluminum .22
Iron .12
Copper .093
Concrete .23
Glass .20
White Pine .67
Ice .50
Rock .20

Pressure

Pressure is what occurs when a force is applied over an area. More specifically, pressure is the
ratio of the force acting on a surface to the area of the surface. The equation for pressure
represents this rather straightforwardly; P=F/A This equation means that Pressure equals
Force divided by Area. Let's look at a couple of very simple examples. As is demonstrated in
the sketch below, the same weight can exert completely different pressures depending on how
much surface area it is spread out over. Note that when you multiply FT by Lb.s you get a unit
called FT Lb.. (pronounced Foot Pounds) This is a legitimate unit of pressure however in
refrigeration we use pounds per square inch not pounds per square foot. This is abbreviated to
PSI. Just as with temperature, pressure has many different scales that can be used and can be
described with the English system or the Metric system. The remainder of this book will be
referring to the English system of measurements. We seldom deal with gravitational forces as
shown in the diagram although it is an important concept to be aware of. Rather, we deal with
the pressures and temperatures of gases and that is what the next section is all about.
 Controls

Part 1

Refrigeration systems require operating controls so they can cycle on and off to maintain a certain temperature. They
also require safety controls to stop operation if unsafe conditions occur. There are many varieties of controls.
Different types respond to temperature, pressure, humidity, liquid levels, other controls, manual intervention and
other things.
Thermostatic Control
 Lets add a basic control system to a refrigeration system. First we
need to know what loads there are to be controlled. The image on
the left shows a small split system for a walk in cooler with 3
electrical devices; a compressor, condenser fan motor and
evaporator fan motor. Those 3 electrical devices are represented on
the ladder schematic shown below. This type of wiring diagram has
branch runs all shown as parallel circuits going from the left line
(L1) to the neutral line (N). They look like the rungs in a ladder
hence the name ladder schematic. The EFM (Evaporator Fan Motor)
must run all the time so that the box temperature stays uniform and
the thermostat senses the average box temperature not some pocket
of stratified air. Press the Off Cycle Button to see the circuit through
the EFM. Now Press the On Cycle Button to close the T-Stat and
call for refrigeration. The T-Stat "makes" on a rise of temperature.
Notice that the COMPR (compressor) and the CFM (Condenser Fan
Motor) both come on. A T-Stat that "makes on a rise" is a cooling T-
Stat. A T-Stat that "makes on a fall" is a heating T-Stat.

Also note that just because the wiring on the left side of the T-Stat is not coloured red when the T-Stat is open, that
does not mean there is no electricity there. There is a full electrical potential on that line and if you were to come
along an stick your finger at that point you would be shocked. The red coloured wiring indicates the logical flow
routes. Non red wires are not necessarily without voltage potential.

The graph below shows how an operating control cycles. The control is set to start
refrigeration if the box warms up to 40 튔. That's called the Cut In point. The system keeps
running until it reaches the Cut Out point which is 37 튔 where it shuts off and awaits the
next call for cooling. In this example there is a 3 degree differential between the 2 points.
The differential must be wide enough that the equipment does not short cycle. Short cycling
means to turn on and off too rapidly. Starting is hard on the equipment, so you want to keep
the number of starts per hour to a reasonable amount, not an excessive amount. The 40 튔
point is a very special temperature. It is the standard cut in point for most refrigeration
systems. Above 40 튔, bacteria growth rates in stored food increase dramatically. Below 40
튔, bacteria growth rate is subdued.

The cut out point is more of a compromise than anything else. Some products may store
better at colder temperatures but colder temperatures might adversely affect other products
in the same box. There is also a concern about keeping the evaporator from icing up. There
is no active defrost system in a standard refrigeration system. (defrost systems are only a
standard item with freezers) If you forced a refrigeration system to CI at 36 튔 and CO at 33
튔, the evaporator would be operating about 10 튔 colder than each of those points and you
would have forced the evaporator to operate in the temperature range of 26 튔 to 23 튔.
Since the freezing point of water is 32 튔, you can see that moisture in the air is going to
sublimate onto the evaporator surface and grow into thicker and thicker layers of ice. Not
only does ice act like an insulator and reduce thermal transfer, it can totally block airflow
through the evaporator fins and virtually stop thermal transfer. Some people try to push this
wall a little and it is possible to squeak out a degree or 2 colder than a 40 튔 cut in point.
However, anything more than a couple of degrees will risk icing the evaporator.

A countering force is the "off cycle defrost" effect. Since a refrigerator is designed to have a
temperature of 40 튔, the recirculating air will tend to melt ice build up on the evaporator
during the times it has it has cycled off. There are of course refrigeration systems that are
designed to operate in the 35 튔 (and colder) range. However these typically have some
form of defrost system. Systems that are designed to operate below 32 튔 are freezers and
they typically operate in temperature ranges like 0 튔, -10 튔, -15 튔 as well as much colder.
 The adjustment knob on a commercial T-Stat sets the cut in point.
The differential is adjustable by setting a slider inside the enclosure.
Thermostatic controls are manufactured with an wide range of
variations. They have fixed differentials, adjustable differentials,
different operating ranges and various accuracy 뭩 , various
electrical load ratings, different types of sensors, electro-mechanical,
electronic etc.

The sensing bulb of the control should be mounted so that it senses the evaporator inlet air. During the off cycle the
constant fan recirculates the air in the box. The temperature of the air becomes an average of the product
temperature, the wall temperature, any infiltrated air and any other loads such as caused by a person entering the
box. When the air temperature reaches the cut in point of the control it brings on refrigeration.

When refrigeration is operating, 40 튔 air passes through the evaporator and drops in
temperature several degrees. That's why the sensor can not be placed in or near the
discharge air stream. If it was placed there, the control would think that the whole box was
cold and shut off the system as soon as it started. It is the average box temperature that
should be monitored, not the discharge air temperature.

Some thermostatic controls are designed with a capillary line temperature sensor which is
intended to be inserted between the evaporator fins on units that have a tendency to ice up.
An example might be a commercial cooler in a hot environment which is constantly being
accessed. That type of control forces an off cycle defrost at the end of each run cycle. The
control will remain open until the evaporator has reached a temperature which indicates
that any frost accumulated during the previous run cycle has been melted. This type of
control is used in appliances like beverage coolers. Adjusting the knob on this type of control
changes only the Cut Out setting, the Cut In setting remains fixed. They are known as a
Constant Cut In Control and also as a beverage cooler control.

Controls

Part 2

Pressure Control as Operating Control

A Pressure control can also be used as an operating control. The electrical circuitry is the same as with a temperature
controller as can be seen by clicking the Buttons. The LPC makes on a rise of pressure.
The graph below shows what is happening. The control is set to start refrigeration if the box warms up to 40 튔.
However when using a pressure control the Cut In, Cut Out and differential are in PSIG not 튔. The corresponding
pressures must be determined for the refrigerant being utilized and the differential must be wide enough so that the
equipment does not short cycle.

Cut In and Cut Out set points can be adjusted by screws on the top
of an LPC. Some LPC's provide Cut In and Differential adjustment
screws instead. The sensing line of the control must sense constant
low side pressure and the evap fan must be left running
continuously. The recirculating air imposes a load on the evaporator
which is sensed by the LPC.
Operating and Safety Controls
A Pressure control can also be used as a safety control. The electrical circuitry shown below has two controls in
series. Therefore, if the LPC trips, the compressor will not run even if the T-Stat is calling. The LPC in this example
is set to protect the system from a loss of refrigerant charge and is set to cut out at a pressure that is lower than
anticipated operating low side pressure. The compressor should not be allowed to operate with an undercharge as the
windings can overheat and other types of damage can occur as well. Unless there is a loss of charge the LPC will
therefore remain permanently closed during all off cycles and run cycles. The LPC's contacts are therefore said to be
normally closed (NC). Small leaks cause a gradual loss of refrigerant and a LPC might only trip once in a while
during the initial stages of a refrigerant leak. As time passes the safety will trip more and more often and can
eventually get to the point where the system will only run for a few seconds before cutting out. After a short time the
high and low side pressures will equalize and the system will try starting once again. This is called short cycling. It's
not good for the system but is certainly better than letting the compressor destroy itself by operating indefinitely
with an undercharge or no refrigerant.

More safety controls can be added such as a High Pressure Control. If high head pressure
occurs for any reason the switch will open protecting the compressor. Controls can be
automatic reset or manual reset. If the manual reset type trips, a little button pops out and
the unit will not restart until the button is manually reset. This is to force attention to the
fact that there has been a safety trip.
 An LPC and a HPC are available in a single unit called a
dual pressure control. It's easy to recognize the low
pressure capillary at a glance because it ties into a larger
bellows assembly. The low pressure gas needs a larger
bellows area to activate the linkage whereas the high
pressure side exerts more force and can function
properly with a smaller

The Pump Down System

It is possible to have a system automatically pump down every time a run cycle ends. With Open type compressors
this is mandatory so that the off cycle pressure is not applied to the shaft seal. (When operating, the suction pressure
is relatively low but during the off cycle the pressures equalize and the low side pressure increases.) Pump downs are
also used to empty out the low side at the end of each run cycle. This eliminates the possibility of refrigerant from
the evaporator slugging the compressor at start up. It also eliminates the possibility of refrigerant migrating to the
compressor sump during the off cycle and washing out the oil at start up. The components of a pump down system
are a LPC, a T-Stat and a solenoid valve which is installed in the liquid line. When installed in that location it is
called LLSV for Liquid Line Solenoid Valve.

Note that the suction gauge decreases in pressure which is to be expected. However, do you know why the high side
pressure did not increase when the system is pumped down? The amount of refrigerant in the high side increased but
the pressure does not because of what you have learned about the PT relationship of refrigerants. When there are
saturated conditions the pressure will correspond to the pressure that the PT Chart predicts regardless of the quantity
of liquid refrigerant.

The schematic below depicts a simple pump down system. Press the "Off Cycle" Button and
note that the evap fans are running constantly. The T-Stat is the operating control but does
not directly control the compressor. Press "T-Stat On" and see that it allows a circuit to the
LLSV. When the LLSV is energized it allows refrigerant flow from the high side to the low
side. When the low side pressure builds to the cut in point of the LPC, the Compressor and
condenser fans come on. (Press LPC on) The system operates until the T-Stat is satisfied.
Press "T-Stat Off" and note that the LLSV is de-energized but the compressor is still
operating. It will run until the cut out point of the LPC is reached and that has been set at 1
PSI. In other words, the low side of the system will pump down to just a slight positive
pressure at the end of every run cycle. Press "Off Cycle" to simulate the end of the pump
down. The next time the T-Stat calls the sequence repeats.
Relays

A relay is an switching device that activates if it's coil receives an

electrical signal. Relays can have one or many sets of contacts. It is
possible to perform multiple switching functions simultaneously.
They come in many shapes, sizes and capacities but they all work in
a similar fashion. They have an coil which when energized causes a
strong magnetic force to snap shut an assembly containing sets of
electrical contacts. Those sets of contacts can be Normally Open
(NO) or Normally Closed (NC) so different circuits can be turned on
or turned off at the same time.
 A relay is represented in a schematic diagram as shown in this
sketch. The relay is usually given a short name which is placed
beside the coil. In this case the CR stands for Control Relay. It's
contacts can be named as well and they are given the same name
with sequential numbers also added. The top contact, CR-1, is a
normally open contact. By "normal" we mean when there is no
power to the coil. The lower contact, CR-2, is normally closed. So
when there is no power to the coil CR-2 contacts have continuity.
The strike through the contacts pictorially represents the fact that the
contacts are closed and will allow electrical flow. There can be
several contacts and they can be scattered all over a schematic
diagram. That's why they must be named, so that the intended
operating sequence can be determined. When the coil is energized,
all of it's contacts reverse position. The open contacts close and the
closed contacts open. Press the On Button to see this demonstrated.
Time Delay Relays
A time delay relay is an switching device whose contacts make or
break after a time delay. Some timed relays initiate a delay when the
coil signal makes, other timed relays initiate a delay when the coil
signal breaks. The later are used as an "anti-short-cycling device."
For example when a system finishes a call, the timer starts the delay
and will not allow a signal through it's contacts until after the delay
period. So should a child for example try flicking a mercury bulb
thermostat on and off over and over again the equipment will not try
starting to all those signals. It will only try starting after the time
delay. The timer and switching is done by solid state circuitry so
these types of devices are typically pilot duty. In other words they
are used in control circuits and send signals to load rated relays and
contactors to do the actual switching of loads. Time delay relays are
available in many different configurations and are used for lots of
diversified purposes in HVAC/R control circuitry.
Time Delay relays usually indicate their contacts on schematic
diagrams with the letters TD for time delay or TR for timed relay.
Click the on button at the left to see the contact close. Don't forget to
wait for it...
The Non-Recycling Pump Down System
When a large system is pumped down sometimes a little liquid refrigerant is left over in a long liquid line
downstream of the LLSV and in drier shells. This liquid will evaporate and can build up the pressure to the cut in
point on the LPC. The compressor will restart and run for a few moments and pump down some more. Sometimes
this can happen several times in a row. If the compressor valves are a little worn and don't hold back properly,
discharge pressure can leak back and cause a pumped down system to short cycle indefinitely through what is
supposed to be an off cycle. It is not good to short cycle a compressor or for that matter any electrical motor. Valve
wear can of course be severe enough to warrant compressor repair or replacement but short of that there is a way to
address both of these situations with a control system. The Non-Recycling Pump Down control system makes use of
a couple of relays.
Diagram
Off Cycle: evap fan only
T-Stat On: call for cooling, NRR coil energised (Non-Recycling Relay), LLSV opens, pressure starts to rise
LPC On: power flows through NRR contacts and energizes HOLD coil...continued...
Compr and CFM also brought on
T-Stat Off: starts pumping down. circuit maintained through HOLD contacts even though NRR dropped out
LPC Off: system pumped down and awaiting call
LPC On (False Call from bleed back) held off by NRR contacts
You may not come across a non-recycling pump down very frequently but this circuitry is still a "must know". This
control circuitry introduced the:

Holding Circuit (The HOLD relay)

It demonstrated how a relay can be held in by it's own contacts. It also demonstrated how
complex functionality can be accomplished with a small number of controls.
Contactors
A contactor is like a large relay. Relays are generally used for
switching light loads like control circuitry and relatively small
motors. Contactors are used for bringing larger loads online like
compressors and large motors. Contactors can have 1,2,3 or 4 sets of
contacts. Contactors have NO contacts but can also have auxillary
contacts which can be NO or NC.

The buttons demonstrate how the contacts pull in

when the coil is energized. The schematic symbol also
toggles showing the contacts in the open and closed
conditions. Contactor coils are available in several
voltages, for example; 24 VAC, 120 VAC, 208 VAC,
230 VAC, or dual rated at 208/240. A typical use for a
contactor is using a 24 VAC control circuit to switch a
high voltage/high amperage load like a compressor.
Some larger contactors have changeable coils.

Although the contacts snap shut quickly, arcing occurs

between the contacts as they approach the closed
position. This arcing eventually wears out the
contacts. It is wise to inspect the condition of contacts
reasonably frequently and replace the contactor
before they become so pitted and burnt and carboned
up that the compressor (or what ever load) is placed
in danger. If contacts stick shut, a compressor can
continue operating regardless of any operating or
safety controls that may open. It can continue
operating in the absence of evaporator and/or
condensenser fan motors which can cause compressor
failure in short order.
Starters
"Starters have overloads, contactors do not". If you can remember that little phrase then you will remember the
difference between contactors and starters. The 3 phase schematic diagram below shows a circuit with a starter. The
starter has 3 sets of contacts and a coil just like a contactor. However it also has amperage sensitive heaters and
overloads which are placed in series with the coil. If any of the lines draw more amperage than the rating of the
heaters in series with the starter contacts, then the corresponding overload will open. Since all of the overload
switches are in series with the starter coil, any one that opens will de-energize the coil and stop the compressor. As a
matter of fact all the safeties are in series in this schematic and any safety that opens will stop the compressor.

Lock Out Circuits

Sometimes a manufacturer designs in a lock out circuit to protect the equipment. They group a particularly important
bunch of safety controls in series and surround the group with a lock out circuit. If any safety control within the group
opens, the compressor stops and will not restart even if the safety control resets. Press the Normal button. Note how ther
no electrical flow through the LO (Lock Out) coil even though it looks like there should be. That's because the LO coil i
high impedance coil (high resistance) and the electricity takes the route of least resistance through all the closed safety
controls. However if any of the controls in the group open the electricity has no choice than to flow through the LO coil
Press the Lock Out button and see this happen when the HPC opens. The LO coil becomes energized and it's NC contac
open. This forces the LO coil to remain energized which stops electrical flow to the group of safety controls permanentl
So even if the HPC was to reset the compressor would still be held off by the open LO contact which disallows a circuit
the compressor contactor (CC).

A lock out forces attention to a problem situation rather than allowing the equipment to cycle
indefinitely on a safety control and perhaps go unnoticed until damage occurs. Interrupting the
power will reset the lock out if the safeties are reset. However, if all the controls in a lock out
group have reset it is not possible to tell which one caused the lock out. An inspection of the
equipment may reveal the cause. For example a dirty condenser might indicate that the HPC ha
tripped and reset after the high pressure condition subsided (while the system was off).

If there are no visible indications there is a trick that can be used to determine which control is
opening. Wire a very small capacity fuse (1/100 AMP) in parallel with each of the safety controls
As long as nothing trips the electricity will once again take the route of least resistance through
the series of closed safety controls. However as soon as one of them opens, the electricity will
attempt to flow around the open control through the fuse which will blow instantly due to it's
extremely small rating. The next time the equipment is inspected it will not matter if all of the
safeties in the lock out group have reset. The fuses can be Ohmed out and the one that is blown
will indicate which safety opened.
[The CD-ROM controls section carries on with transformers, oil failure controls,
humidistats, defrost timers, fan delay stats, termination stats, bi-metal controls
and low voltage controls]