GROUNDWATER & HYDRAULICS (15CV742)

MODULE 4
GROUND WATER EXPLORATION
The demand of groundwater for drinking water and other requirements of the man is expected to
increase tremendously with rise in population. Hence, the engineer has to equip himself with
latest technologies available for exploration and exploration of this resource. And, as in other
fields, good progress has been made for quicker and more reliable identification of aquifers over
larger areas using satellite imageries.

Prospecting for groundwater is a complicated process. It involves a detailed geological

study of the area followed by more elaborate geophysical investigations on the one hand and a
very careful analysis and interpretation of the data obtained from different sources, on the other
hand.

Geophysical exploration is the scientific measurement of physical properties of the earth’s crust
for investigation of mineral deposits or geologic structure. Today many organizations concerned
with groundwater employ geophysical methods. The methods are frequently inexact or difficult
to interpret, and they are most useful when supplemented by subsurface investigations.
Geophysics, in the past few years, has reached a place of vital importance to the scientific
development and protection of the world’s precious groundwater supply. Geophysical
investigations of the buried strata can be made either from the land surface or in a drilled hole in
the formation.

Geophysical methods detect differences, or anomalies, of physical properties within the

earth’s crust. Density, magnetism, elasticity, and electrical resistivity are properties most
commonly measured.

Surface Geophysical techniques

The surface methods include

(i) Electrical resistivity

(ii) Seismic refraction and reflection
(iii) Other survey methods like soil temperature, magnetometer, gravity, remote sensing
etc.
4.1 SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD
Seismic reflection methods provide information on the deep seated strata (750 m) while the
seismic refraction methods cover only a few hundred meters below the ground surface.
Hence, the seismic refraction method is used in ground water investigation. The elastic
waves caused by the detonation of explosives near the ground surface or a sledge hammer
striking a metal plate on the ground, travel downwards into the various rock layers and are

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refracted back to the surface from the junctions between different rock layers. The waves are
picked up at various points on the ground surface by a geophone, fig. 8.7, and recorded. This
record shows when the energy commenced and when it was picked up at the surface. By
knowing the arrival times of different waves at different distances from the energy source,
the velocity of propagation of the wave through each rock layer can be calculated. The
velocities are characteristic of particular rocks in particular conditions, i.e; dry, jointed,
saturated with water, weathered, etc. The refracted waves arrive at the surface only on the
condition that the velocity of the propagation in the underlying layer is higher than that in
the overlying area. Each layer through which the refracted wave travels horizontally must
have a thickness that is great enough to permit transmission of the wave. The deeper a
horizon is buried, the thicker it must be to properly refract the shock wave.
A time travel curve (time versus distance from source to geophone) is drawn, fig.
8.7 and by knowing the distance 𝑋1 to the first point on the curve where a change in slope is
indicated, the depth to the rock layer can be computed from the equation.
𝑋1 𝑉𝑉
1 2
𝑍1 =
2
√𝑉 +𝑉 ……………………………………………………………………………(112)
1 2

Where 𝑉1 and 𝑉2 are the velocities of propagation through the earth and the rock layer
respectively. Using the intercept time 𝑡1 , the depth 𝑍1 is given by the equation
𝑡1 𝑉2𝑉1
𝑍1 = …………………………………………………………………………(113)
2
√𝑉22 −𝑉12

The depth 𝑍2 of the second layer is given by

𝑡2 √𝑉3 2 −𝑉12 𝑉3𝑉2

𝑍2 = ( − 𝑍1 ) …………………………………………………….(114)
2 𝑉3 𝑉1
√𝑉32 −𝑉22

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The critical angle 𝑖𝑐 is given by

𝑉1
sin 𝑖𝑐 = …………………………………………………………………………….(115)
𝑉2
For angles of incidence greater than critical, there are no refractions into the deeper layers
but the waves are totally reflected. Travel time is usually measured in milliseconds. The
disturbances commonly amplified are recorded photographically on a moving film.
By moving the source of the shock wave along a line, a profile of the underlying
bed rock surface (or other layer, such as the water table) can be obtained. The refraction
method is faster and often finds application in
 Locating the ground water table.
 Determining depth to bed rock or impermeable layer and configuration (volume of
material)
 Locating a buried stream channel (cut into bed rock).
 Locating faults that could act as ground water barriers.

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Generally water table delineation is confined to loose alluvium. In the Deccan, the
alternation of soft and hard layers, however, limits the method to obtaining depths and
velocities down to the first high velocity layer.

The velocity of propagation varies from as low as 120 m/s in dry top soil to more
than 6000 m/s in very dense rocks such as granite, limestone and basalt. The velocities in
saturated strata are somewhat greater than in unsaturated strata. The average velocities of
seismic waves in different formations are given in table 8.4.

For groundwater the most widely observable anomalies (i.e; changes in the properties of
rocks due to the presence of the water) are electrical conductance of the rock and velocity of
sound through particular rock types. As such resistivity and seismic methods are widely
employed and are also relatively cheap. Electrical resistivity surveys are generally used for
preliminary exploration of rather large areas. The interpretations based on such surveys
should be confirmed by test drilling.

4.2 ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD

In the electrical resistivity method, the electrical resistance determined by

applying an electric current (𝐼 ) to metal stakes (outer electrodes) driven into the ground and
measuring the apparent potential difference (𝑉 ) between two inner electrodes (non-
polarising d.c. type, i.e; porous pots filled with CuSO 4 solution, and metal stakes in a.c.
type) buried or driven into the ground; Fig. 8.1, gives an indication of the type and depth of
the subsurface material. Changing the spacing of electrodes changes the depth of penetration
of the current and the apparent electrical resistivity 𝜌𝑎 , obtained at different depths b
𝑉
measuring the resistance 𝑅 (= ), is plotted on a semi-log or log-log paper against the
𝐼
depth. The depth at which current enters a formation of higher or lower resistivity is

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signaled by a change in the resistivities recorded at the ground surface. By proper

interpretation of the resistivity data from the field curves so obtained and matching them
with standard curves available (master curves), it is possible to identify the water bearing
formations and accordingly limit the depth of well drilling.

Resistivity or the inverse of electrical conductivity is an important measure of the

capacity of a rock to allow an electric current through it. Dry rocks and sediments, dense
compact and poreless rocks will offer a greater resistance to the electric current compared
to loose , porous and wet, saturated samples of these very materials. In the other words, they
will have lower resistivity to an electric current.

This simple fact is used in the field to determine the nature of rock at certain depths with
the help of an induced electric current. There are two variations of the resistivity method.

(a) Electrical sounding

This techniques is used to determine variation in the nature of the subsurface materials
with increasing depths.
(b) Electrical profiling
It is used to determine the areal extent of various formations up to the same depth.

In electrical resistivity method, there are mainly two common systems of electrode
arrangement. (a) Wenner method and (b) Schlumberger method. In the Wenner system, the
electrodes are spaced at equal distances, 𝑎, fig. 8.1(a), and the apparent resistivity 𝜌𝑎 for a
𝑉
measured resistance 𝑅 (= ) is given by
𝐼

∆𝑉
𝜌𝑎 = 2𝜋𝑎𝑅 = 2𝜋𝑎 …………………………………………………………….(116)
𝐼

and the field curve is plotted on a semi-log paper ‘𝜌𝑎 versus 𝑎’ , 𝜌𝑎 being in ohm-meters in
logarithmic scale and 𝑎 in meters in arithmetic scale.

In Schlumberger system, fig. 8.1(b) the distance between two inner potential electrodes ′𝑏′
is kept constant for some time and the distance between the current electrodes (𝐿 ) is varied.
𝑉
The apparent resistivity 𝜌𝑎 for a measured resistance 𝑅 (= ) is given by
𝐼

𝐿 2 𝑏 2
(2 ) −(2 )
𝜌𝑎 = 𝜋 𝑅, 𝐿 ≫ 𝑏…………………………………………………..(117)
𝑏

𝜋𝐿2
𝜌𝑎 = 𝑅, if 𝐿 > 5𝑏…………………………………………………(118)
4𝑏

𝐿 𝐿
And the field curves is plotted on a log-log paper 𝜌𝑎 versus , 𝜌𝑎 being in ohm-meters and
2 2
in meters.

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There are basically two types of instruments to conduct the electrical resistivity survey:

i. NGRI resistivity meter, a d.c. type meter manufactured by the National Geophysical
Research Institute, Hyderabad. In this instrument, 𝑉 and 𝐼 are separately measured to obtain
𝑉
the resistance 𝑅 (= ). Generally battery packs with different voltages of 15, 30, 45 and 90
𝐼
volts are employed.
ii. Terrameter, an a.c. type of instrument manufactured by Atlas Copco ABEM AB, Sweden.
The output is 6 watts at 100, 200 or 400 volts using low frequency (1 -4 Hz) square waves.
The terrameter directly gives the resistance 𝑅 in ohms. It is a good instrument for
conducting rapid electrical resistivity surveys for locating sites for drilling borewells.

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DEPTH SOUND AND TRAVERSING

Two methods of investigation are generally employed in the electrical resistivity method of
traversing.

i. Resistivity depth probing or sounding to detect vertical changes. Here the centre of the
electrode spread remains fixed and the spacing between the electrodes is progressively
increased until the maximum required depth is reached, Fig. 8.2.
ii. Traversing or profiling method. Here the electrode separation is kept constant for two or
three values (say 𝑎 = 10 m, 15 m, or 20 m) and the centre of the electrode spread is moved
from one station to another station (grid points) to have the same constant electrode
separations. Traversing or profiling is used to detect subsurface changes in horizontal
direction or the lateral spread. Profiling can be carried out along a series of parallel lines and
a resistivity contour map of the area showing isoresistivity lines can be prepared. This will
indicate areas of high resistivity and will be useful in identifying aquifer formations, Fig.
17.6.

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USE OF ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD:

Some of the geophysical investigations that can be done by the electrical resistivity
method for ground water studies are:

i. Correlating lithology and drawing geophysical sections.

ii. Bed rock profile for subsurface studies.
iii. Fresh water-salt water interface by constant separation profiling.
iv. Contact of geological formations.

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v. Water quality in shallow aquifers and ground water pollution as in oil field brine pollution,
pollution by irrigation waters and pollution by sea water intrusion, which cause change in
electrical conductivity.

4.2.1 MASTER CURVES FOR LAYERED MEDIA

Resistivity data may be interpreted from master curves for a small number of earth layers
assuming them as horizontal of uniform thickness and resistivity. They are prepared for
particular electrodes configuration, like Wenner, Schlumberger, various thickness and
resistivity ratios being assumed for the individual layers.
Resistivity curves for 3-layers are generally divided into four type as:

𝜌1 > 𝜌2 < 𝜌3 High-low-high H-type

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𝜌1 < 𝜌2 < 𝜌3 Low-low-high A-type

𝜌1 < 𝜌2 > 𝜌3 Low-high-low K-type
𝜌1 > 𝜌2 > 𝜌3 High-low-low Q-type

Such ideal conditions like horizontal beds of uniform thickness and that the lowest bed
extends in depth to infinity may not exist in the earth, but they are of help for comparison
and interpretation of filed curves obtained.
Two-layer case: For a layer of thickness ′ℎ′ overlaying an infinitely thick homogeneous
substratum of resistivity 𝜌𝑎 , a family of curves is given by Tagg (Tagg master curves,
1934), Fig. 8.4,
𝜌1 ℎ
vs. for 𝜌2 > 𝜌1 , 𝑘 = positive
𝜌𝑎 𝑎
𝜌𝑎 ℎ
vs. for 𝜌2 < 𝜌1 , 𝑘 = negative
𝜌1 𝑎
Where 𝜌1 = 𝜌𝑎 as 𝑎 → 0 i.e; at small electrode spacings
𝜌2 = resistivities for various electrode spacings by Wenner configurations

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𝜌2 −𝜌1
Resistivity coefficient 𝑘 = ……………………………………………………(119)
𝜌2 +𝜌1
𝜌1 ℎ
For particular value of 𝑎 and , the values of are read form the ‘master curves’ for
𝜌𝑎 𝑎
ℎ
different values of 𝑘. Multiplying the values by the corresponding 𝑎, ℎ values are
𝑎
obtained. These are plotted as ′𝑘 vs ℎ′ , (see fig. 8.6)

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If the curves for different electrode spacings ′𝑎′ intersect near a point, it can be
assumed as a simple two-layer case, and the coordinates ℎ and 𝑘 of this point can be
read. From this 𝑘, the resistivity of the substratum can be obtained from
1+𝑘
𝜌2 = 𝜌1 ………………………………………………………………………(120)
1−𝑘
and
ℎ = thickness of the surface layer
The limitations of this method are:
i. The value of 𝜌1 obtained at small electrode spacings (𝑎 → 0) may not truly
represent the resistivity of the top layer unless it is homogeneous and isotropic.
ii. It involves numerous steps and is time consuming.
4.3 GEOPHYSICAL TECHNIQUES
The geophysical techniques inside a drilled hole include
a. Electric logging - electrical resistivity and spontaneous potential
b. Radioactive logging
c. Induction logging
d. Sonic logging
e. Fluid logging-temperature logging, fluid resistivity logging, flow meter and tracer
logging
f. Well construction and completion measurements – defining hole alignment, caliper
logging, cement bond logging and water level measurements.

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g. Downhole photography

4.3.1 ELECTRICAL LOGGING

A four electrode arrangement is commonly employed in measuring resistivity
from bore holes similar to the four electrodes used in surface resistivity method. A
current (𝐼 ) is passed between the electrodes 𝐴 and 𝐵 while voltage is measured
between electrodes 𝑀 and 𝑁. One current electrode is always on the ground
potential and its effect can be taken as negligible. Conventionally there are two
systems of electrode arrangements called the ‘normal’ and ‘lateral’, Fig. 8.10. In
the normal arrangement, the distance 𝑀𝑁 is large compared to the distance 𝐴𝑀. If
𝐴𝑀 is small, say 40 cm, it is called a ‘short normal’ and if it longer, say 160 cm, it
is called a ‘long normal’. In the lateral arrangement 𝑀𝑁 is very small compared
to the distance 𝐴𝑀. If 𝑂 is the midpoint of 𝑀𝑁 and 𝐴𝑂 is 1.8 m, then it is called
1.8 m lateral. Usually in electrical logging both normal and lateral devices are
used to obtain maximum information. The lateral measures the resistivity of the
formation beyond the zone of invasion, Fig. 8.11.

INVASION:
During the drilling operations, the mud in the borehole is usually
conditioned so that the hydrostatic pressure inside is greater than the pressure of
the formations. The mud filtrate pushes the interstitial water of the formation up
to a certain distance called ‘flushed zone’ though its influence is still further up to
what is called the ‘invaded zone’, beyond which the formation is uncontaminated.
The solid particles of the infiltrating fluid are deposited on the wall of the
borehole forming a mud cake, which considerably reduces the infiltration. The
different zones and their resistivities are shown in fig. 8.11.

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In actual logging, the logging tool with three electrodes built up in it (one
being on the ground surface) called the ‘sonde’ is connected to a multiconductor
cable passing over a sheave and via winch and electronic recorder mounted on a
truck to a power source. The sonde is lowered into the hole, Fig. 8.12, and the
recorder with moving pen traces the electrical resistivity on graph paper

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continuously with depth, as the sonde is withdrawn. This resistivity is the

apparent resistivity 𝑅𝑎 . Different sondes are used for electrical resistivity, S.P.
(spontaneous potential) and radioactive logs. Oklahoma Logmaster, USA was
used in UNDP investigations in South India and it recorded separate graphs for
resistivity – short and long normal, lateral, SP and gamma logs. An idealized
electric log is shown in Fig. 8.13 which will help to read the electric logs correctly
and locate the different zones encountered down the drilled hole.

FORMATION FACTOR:
The formation resistivity factor 𝐹 depends on the lithology of the aquifer
𝑅0
𝐹= ……………………………………………………………………….(121)
𝑅𝑤
Where 𝑅0 = resistivity of the rock saturated with conducting fluid (assumed equal
to true formation resistivity 𝑅𝑡 ) and 𝑅𝑤 = resistivity of the saturating fluid
𝑎
Also 𝐹 = …………………………………………………………………(122)
𝜙𝑚
Where 𝑎, 𝑚 = constants depending on rock property and mineralogical
composition, and 𝑚 is called the cementation factor and 𝜙 =effective porosity
1
Archie’s formula 𝐹 = ……………………………………………………(123)
𝜙𝑚
0.81
For sands 𝐹 = ……………………………………………………………(124)
𝜙2

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In compacted formations (limestone and dolomite)

1
𝐹= ………………………………………………………………………...(125)
𝜙2
For granular rock (Humble’s formula)
0.62
𝐹= ………………………………………………………………………(126)
𝜙2.15
𝐹 is usually consistent for a given sedimentary unit within a depositional basin
and may be determined by laboratory analysis of samples or from the equation
(121), when both resistivity logs and formation water samples are available.
Effective porosity may also be determined from the electric logs.

SINGLE POINT RESISTIVITY:

In this method, only two electrodes are employed, one in the tool and one on the
ground. A current is passed between the two electrodes. The amount of current
that will flow will be a function of the resistivity of the material close to the
electrode in the borehole. Thus the measurement of current flow under a constant
applied voltage will enable resistivity measurements to be made. The simplicity
and economy of the equipment is an advantage of this method. The limitations of
this method are
i. It is not usually possible to determine the true resistivity accurately
enough for quantitative interpretation in terms of porosity or lithology.

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ii. The measured resistance is seriously affected by variations in the diameter

of the well and the mud resistivity.

SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL:

The spontaneous or self-potential (SP) in a drill hole is due to electrochemical and

electrokinetic or streaming potentials. Electrochemical potentials are due to
differences in concentrations of activities of the formation water and the mud
filtrate, called the liquid junction potential, and membrane potential due to the
presence of shale layers. The streaming potential is due to electro-filtration of the
mud through the mud cake.

If the permeable function is not shaly, the electrochemical potential (static

SP or SSP)
𝑎𝑤
𝐸𝑐 = −𝐾 log ………………………………………………………………(127)
𝑎𝑚𝑓

Where 𝑎𝑤 , 𝑎𝑚𝑓 =chemical activities of the interstitial water and mud filtrate,
respectively and 𝐾 = coefficient proportional to the absolute temperature of
formation (𝐾 = 71 at 25°C).

The chemical activity of a solution is related to the salt content and hence
to the resistivity. The 𝑆𝑃 due to electrochemical activity may be written as
𝑅𝑚𝑓
𝑆𝑃 = −𝐾 log …………………………………………………………….(128)
𝑅𝑤

Where 𝑅𝑚𝑓 =resistivity of the mud fluid and 𝑅𝑤 = resistivity of the formation
water

The SP curve generally provides the best logging approach to the determination of
water quality.

The SP log is obtained by recording the potential differences, against

depth, between a fixed surface electrode and a movable electrode in the borehole.
Since the potentials associated with shales and clays are normally the least
negative, the SP curve is a straight line called the ‘shale baseline’. Opposite the
permeable formations the SP curve shifts either to the left (negative) or to the
right (positive) depending on the relative salinities of the formation water and the
mud filtrate.

The shale baseline is drawn through as many deflection minima as

possible. A sand line may then be drawn through negative deflection maxima and
if fluid salinity is constant these lines will be parallel to each other and the zero

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baseline. The boundaries of the permeable formations are located at points of

maximum SP slope rather than half amplitude as on many other logs.

The SP curve may be used to calculate formation water resistivity, locate

bed boundaries, distinguish between shales and sandstone or limestone in
combination with other logs, and for stratigraphic correlation. The SP is affected
by hole diameter, bed thickness, water or mud resistivity, density and chemical
composition, and cake thickness, mud filtrate invasion and well temperature.

STATIC SP:

The SP currents flow through the borehole, the invaded and the non-invaded part
of the permeable formation and the surrounding shales. In each medium the
potential along a line of current flow drops proportionately due to the resistance
encountered by the SP current. If the SP currents could be prevented from flowing
by insulation plugs, the potential difference in the mud equals the total e.m.f. The
SP curve which would be recorded in such idealized conditions is called the static
SP or SSP opposite clean formations.

4.3.2 RADIOACTIVE LOGGING

Radioactive logs are of two general types – those which measure the natural
radioactivity of formations (gamma ray log) and those which detect radiation
reflected from or induced in the formations from an artificial source (neutron
logs). Radioactive logs can be used in cased holes where most other types of
logging will not work.
GAMMA RAY LOGS:
The minerals in shales and clay emit more gamma rays than the minerals in
gravels and sands. Thus gamma logs can be used to differentiate between sands,
shales and clay. The probe is essentially a Geiger counter or scintillometer and
can be run in open or cased holes, fig. 8.16 (a).
GAMMA-GAMMA:
The gamma rays from a source in the probe is scattered and diffused through the
formation. Part of the scattered gamma rays re-enter the hole and are measured by
an appropriate detector. The higher the bulk density of the formation, the smaller
the number of gamma-gamma rays that reach the detector. The count rate plotted
on a gamma-gamma log is an exponential function of bulk density. By knowing
the bulk density, the porosity of the formation (𝑛 ) can be determined (uncased
holes only) from the equation
𝜌𝑔 −𝜌𝑏
𝑛= …………………………………………………………………..(129)
𝜌𝑔 −𝜌𝑓
Where 𝜌𝑔 = grain density
𝜌𝑏 =bulk density and

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𝜌𝑓 =fluid density
In a logging equipment used by Geological Survey of Canada 10 to 35
millicuries of cobalt 60 is used as gamma source attached below a sodium iodide
detector.
NEUTRON LOGGING:
Neutron rays are useful in determining the porosity of formations. A ‘fast
neutron’ source is sued to bombard the rock. When any individual neutron
collides with a hydrogen ion (of a water molecule), some of the neutron’s energy
is lost and it slows down. A large number of slow neutrons, as recorded by a slow
neutron counter, indicates a large amount of fluid, i.e; high porosity.
Each radiation produces a pulse in the circuit. The number of pulses per
unit time is recorded. This can be done in cased or uncased holes, Fig. 8.16(b).
The gamma ray log does not indicate casing or presence of fluid while the neutron
log is sensitive to both casing and fluid in the hole as well as in the formation, fig.
8.16(c).

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4.3.3 INDUCTION LOGGING

Induction logging measure the conductivity (reciprocal of resistivity) of
formations by means of induced alternating currents. Insulated coils (for
induction), rather than electrodes, are used to energise the formations, and the
bore hole may contain any fluid or be empty but the hole must be uncased. It is
specially used to investigate thin beds because of its focusing abilities and its
greater radius of investigation. It is a superior method for surveying empty holes
and holes drilled with oil based mud.
4.3.4 SONIC LOGGING
The sonic log records the time required for a sound wave to travel through
a specific length of formation. Such travel times are recorded continuously
against depth as the sonde is pulled up the bore hole. The sonic log is
recorded as transit time (∆𝑡) in microseconds per metre, with zero on the
right. The speed of sound in subsurface formations depends on the elastic
properties of the rock, the porosity of the formation (𝑛 ) and their fluid
content and pressure. The sonic log enables the accurate determination of
porosity of the formation.
1 1
−
𝑉 𝑉𝑚
𝑛= 1 1 ……………………………………………………………(130)
−
𝑉𝑓 𝑉𝑚

Where 𝑉𝑚 =velocity matrix;

𝑉𝑓 =velocity fluid and
𝑉 =velocity formation
1
Since the transit time ∆𝑡 =
𝑉
∆𝑡𝑙𝑜𝑔 −∆𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥
𝑛= …………………………………………………..(131)
∆𝑡𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 −∆𝑡𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥
This log will also give an indication of rock type and fracturing.

4.3.5 FLUID LOGGING

Fluid logging include the use of sondes to measure the temperature,
quality and movement of fluids in a drill hole. (These characteristics of the fluid
column may or may not truly reflect conditions in the aquifer system.)

TEMPERATURE LOGGING:
The rate of increase of temperature with depth (geothermal gradient) depends on
the locality and heat conductivity of the formations. Temperatures encountered in
drill holes are dependent not only on the natural geothermal gradient but also on
the circulation of the mud. Temperature logs may be used to identify aquifers or
perforated sections, contributing water or gas to a well, to provide data on the
source of water, as an aid in identifying rock types and for calculating fluid
viscosity and specific conductance from fluid resistivity logs.

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 GROUNDWATER & HYDRAULICS (15CV742)

Temperature log can be used to distinguish moving and stagnant

water in a well and identify the source of recharge or injected waste water.
Temperature logging can also be used to verify that the cement on the outside of
the casing has formed a proper bond because cement generates a great amount of
heat as it sets, fig. 8.17. Higher temperatures are usually recorded in caved
sections where greater volumes of cement are deposited, permitting correlation
with electric logs.

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