TRANSDUCER

Definition of Transducer
Transducer is any device that converts energy in one form to another energy. The majority either
convert electrical energy to mechanical displacement or convert some non-electrical physical
quantity, such as temperature, sound or light to an electrical signal.

Functions of a Transducer
1. To sense the presence, magnitude, change in, and frequency of some measurand.
2. To provide an electrical output that, when appropriately processed and applied to readout
device, gives accurate quantitative data about the measurand

Measurand
Transducer Electrical output

Excitation

Measurand – refers to the quantity, property or condition which the transducer translates to an electrical signal.

Electrical Signal Characteristics

- Electrical signal can be transmitted from place to place more easily than mechanical
signals. (All you need is a pair of wires)
- Electrical signals are easier to amplify and filter than mechanical signals.
- Electrical signals are easy to manipulate to find out such things as the rate of change of
the variable, the time integral of the variable, whether the variable has exceeded some
limits.

Classification of a Transducer
Transducer can be classified according to their application, based primarily on the physical
quantity, property, or condition that is measured.

The transducer can be categories into:

a) Passive transducer
- requires an external power
- output is a measure of some variation, such resistance and capacitance. (e.g.
condenser, microphone)
b) Self-generating transducer
- not require an external power, and they produce analog voltage or current when
stimulated by some physical form of energy. (e.g. thermocouple)
Selecting a Transducer
1. Operating range 5. Minimum sensitivity measurand.
2. Sensitivity 6. Accuracy
3. Frequency response and resonant 7. Usage and ruggedness
frequency 8. Electrical parameter
4. Environmental compatibility

The most common transducers are those in which a force applied to the system:
1. Capacitive 6. Photoelectric
2. Differential Transformer 7. Signal converters
3. Inductive 8. Potentiometric
4. Piezoelectric 9. Thermocouple
5. Piezoresistive – the strain gauge

Transducers to be covered:
1. Potentiometer 6. Pressure Transducer
2. LVDT 7. Capacitive Transducers
3. Bourdon tube and Bellow 8. Temperature Transducers
4. Strain Gauge 9. Photoelectric Transducer
5. Displacement Transducers

RESISTIVE POSITION TRANSDUCERS

The principle of the resistance transducer is that the physical variable under measurement causes
a resistance change in the sensing element.

A common requirement in industrial measurement and control work is to be able to sense the
position of an object or distance it has moved.

One type displacement transducer uses a resistance element with a sliding contact or wiper
linked to the object being monitored. Thus, the resistance element depends on the position of the
object.

Figure 1 shows the construction and typical method of a displacement transducer uses a
resistance element with a sliding contact or wiper linked to the object being monitored.
The output voltage depends on the wiper position and therefore is a function of the shaft position
Consider Fig 1 (b), if the circuit is unloaded, the output voltage V0 is a certain fraction of VT,
depending on the position of the wiper:

𝑽𝟎 𝑹𝟐
=
𝑽𝑻 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐

This equation shows that the output voltage is directly proportional to the position of the wiper,
if the resistance of the transducer is distributed uniformly along the length of travel of the wiper.

Sample Problem
A displacement transducer with a shaft stroke of 4 in. is used in the circuit of figure 1(b). R1 +R2
is 1000 Ω and VT = 4 V. The wiper is 1.5 in from B. Find V0?

LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIABLE TRANSFORMER (LVDT)

It consists basically of a primary winding and two secondary windings, wound over a hollow tube and
positioned so the primary winding is between two secondaries. In figure shows the construction of the
LVDT.

An iron core slides within the tube and therefore affects the magnet coupling between the primary and the
two secondaries. When the core is in the center, voltage induced in the two secondaries is equal. When
the core is moved in one direction from center, the voltage induced in one winding is increased and that in
the other is decreased. Movement in the opposite direction reverses this effect
BOURDON TUBE
A Bourdon tube is a deformed metal tube with an oval cross section. It is open at one end and
sealed at the other end. The fluid whose pressure is being measured is admitted to the inside of
the tube at the open end, which is mechanically anchored. The tube then deflects by an amount
proportional to the magnitude of the pressure. This deflection is mechanically transmitted to the
wiper of a potentiometer or to the core of an LVDT to provide an electrical signal.

BELLOW
A bellows is essentially a series of metal diaphragms connected together. When subjected to
pressure, a metal diaphragm will distort slightly because of the elasticity of the material used to
construct it.

Sample Problem
Water flow is controlled from 20 to 50 gal./min. The flow is measured using Venturi tube of 10
cm inlet diameter, and 5 cm throat diameter. Bellows connected to LVDT are used to measure
flow such that its output is 1.8 volt / psi. Find the range of voltages that result from the flow rate.

Note: You can use this formula:

𝑸 = 𝑲√∆𝑷

𝟐
𝑲 = 𝑨𝟏 𝑨𝟐 √
𝝆(𝑨𝟏𝟐 − 𝑨𝟐𝟐 )
STRAIN GAUGE
The strain gauge is an example of a passive transducer that uses electric resistance variation in
wires to sense the strain produced by a force on wires. It is a very versatile detector and
transducer for measuring weight, pressure, mechanical force, or displacement.

The construction of a bonded strain gauge (see figure) shows a fine wire element looped back
and forth on a mounting plate, which is usually cemented to the member undergoing stress. A
tensile stress tends to elongate the wire and thereby increase its length and decrease its cross-
sectional area.

The combined effect is an increase in resistance:

𝝆𝑳
𝑹=
𝑨

As consequence of strain, 2 physical qualities are particular interest:

1) The change in gauge resistance
2) The change in length
The relationship between these two variables called gauge factor, K, is expressed mathematically
as:

∆𝑹/𝑹 ∆𝑹/𝑹
𝑲= 𝒐𝒓 𝑲 =
∆𝑳/𝑳 𝑮

From Hooke theory, stress, S, is defined as internal force/area.

𝑭
𝑺=
𝑨
Then the modulus of elasticity of material E or called Young’s modulus (Hooke’s Law) is
written as:

𝑺
𝑬=
𝑮

Sample Problem
A strain gauge with gauge factor of 2 is fastened to a metallic member subjected to a stress of
1000 kg/cm2. The modulus of elasticity of the metal is 2 x 106 kg/cm2. Calculate the percentage
change in the resistance of the strain gauge.

CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by:

𝒌𝑨𝜺𝟎
𝑪=
𝒅

Sample Problem
In a capacitance level gauge if the separation distance between the two square electrodes is 5 cm.
The capacitance C when the tank is empty is 20 x 105 pF. Certain quantity of liquid is poured in
the tank and the capacitance is dropped by 10 x 105 pF. If the fluid dielectric constant is 0.1 and
the air dielectric constant is 1. Find the height of the fluid in the tank if the width of the
electrodes is w.
TEMPERATURE TRANSDUCERS
Temperature transducers can be divided into four main categories:
- Resistance temperature detectors (RTD)
- Thermocouples
- Thermistors

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)

Detectors of wire resistance temperature common employ platinum, nickel or resistance wire
elements, whose resistance variation with temperature has high intrinsic accuracy. They are
available in many configurations and size and as shielded or open units for both immersion and
surface applications. The relationship between temperature and resistance of conductors can be
calculated from the equation:

𝑹 = 𝑹𝟎 (𝟏 + 𝜶∆𝑻)

Sample Problem
Find the length of an RTD made of Nickel wire, its diameter is 0.002 mm. Its resistance is 100 Ω
at 0°C. For Nickel, the resistivity is about 8.7 x 10-8 Ω-cm at 20°C and the temperature
coefficient α = 0.0068 /°C. Determine also the value of resistance at steam point.

Thermocouples
It consists of two wires of different metals are joined together at one end, a temperature
difference between this end and the other end of wires produces a voltage between the wires. The
magnitude of this voltage depends on the materials used for the wires and the amount of
temperature difference between the joined ends and the other ends.

The emf of the thermocouple:

𝑬 = 𝒄(𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 ) + 𝒌(𝑻𝟏𝟐 + 𝑻𝟐𝟐)

Seebeck Effect – is a phenomenon in which a temperature difference between two similar electrical conductors
produce a voltage difference between the two substances.

Thermocouple Laws:
1. Law of homogenous materials
2. Law of intermediate materials
3. Law of successive or intermediate temperatures
Sample Problem
During experiments with a copper-constantan thermocouple it was found that c = 3.75 x 10-5
mV/ᵒC and k = 4.5 x 10-5 mV/ᵒC. If T1 = 100ᵒC and the cold junction T2 is kept in ice, compute
the output voltage.

Thermistors
A thermistor is a semiconductor made by sintering mixtures of metallic oxide, such as oxides of
manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper and uranium. Thermistors have negative temperature
coefficient. That is, their resistance decreases as their temperature rises.

𝟏 𝟏
𝜷( − )
𝑹𝑻 = 𝑹𝑻𝟎 𝒆 𝑻 𝑻𝟎

Sample Problem
A thermistor is placed in 212°F environment, and its measured resistance is 20 kΩ; the thermal
constant is 3650. If the thermistor is used to measure a particular temperature; and its resistance
is measured as 500 kΩ, determine the thermistor temperature point.
Advantages of a Thermistor
- Small size and low cost
- Fast response over narrow temperature range
- Good sensitivity in Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) region
- Cold junction compensation not required due to dependence of resistance on absolute
temperature.
- Contact and lead resistance problems not encountered due to large resistance

Limitations of Thermistor:
- Non-linearity in resistance vs temperature characteristics
- Unsuitable for wide temperature range
- Very low excitation current to avoids self-heating
- Need of shielded power lines, filters, etc. due to high resistance

BIMETALLIC STRIP
A bimetallic strip is used to convert a temperature change into mechanical displacement. The
strip consists of two strips of different metals which expand at different rates as they are heated.

The different expansions force the flat strip to bend one way if heated, and in the opposite
direction if cooled below its initial temperature. The metal with the higher coefficient of
thermal expansion is on the outer side of the curve when the strip is heated and on the inner
side when cooled.

Sample Problem
Copper and zinc strips have the same length of 20 cm at a temperature of 20°C.
(a) What will be the difference in length of the strips at a temperature of 100 °C?
(b) The strips were rivetted together at 20 °C and formed a so-called bimetallic strip. Assume
that it bends into an arc when heated. Determine which metal will be on the outer side of the arc
and what will be the radius of the arc at 100 °C. Thickness of each strip is 1 mm.
What’s Photoelectric Effect?
It is the emission of electrons from matter upon the absorption of electromagnetic radiation, such
as ultraviolet radiation or x-rays. It also refers to the emission, or ejection, of electrons from the
surface of, generally, a metal in response to incident light.

Electrons are held in a metal by attractive forces, and so removing them from the metal requires
light of a sufficiently high frequency (which corresponds to sufficiently high energy) to break
them free. Shining a beam of light onto a metal surface can be thought of as shooting a beam of
particles—photons—at the metal atoms. If the frequency of photons is such that hf is exactly
equal to the energy that binds the electrons in the metal, then the light will have just enough
energy to knock the electrons loose. If we use light of a higher frequency, then not only will the
electrons be knocked loose, but they will also acquire some kinetic energy. This situation is
summarized by the equation.

𝑲𝑬 = 𝒉𝒇 − 𝑾

Sample Problem
The work function of cesium metal is 3.42 x10^-19 J.
(a) Calculate the minimum frequency of light required to release electrons from
(b) Calculate the kinetic energy of the ejected electron if light of frequency 1 x 10^15 hz is
used for irradiating the metal.
PHOTOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER
Can be categorized as: photoemissive, photoconductive, or photovoltaic.

Types Characteristics
Photoemissive Radiation falling into a cathode causes
electrons to be emitted from cathode surface.
Photoconductive The resistance of a material is change when
it’s illuminated
Photovoltaic Generate an output voltage proportional to
radiation intensity.

Sample Problem
Determine the open circuit voltage of photovoltaic cell at 25 Wm2 if it produces 0.33 V open-
circuit voltage when illuminated by 10 W/m2 radiation intensity.