Carbohydrates are the sugars, starches and fibers found in fruits, grains, vegetables and

milk products. Though often maligned in trendy diets, carbohydrates — one of the basic food
groups — are important to a healthy life.

"Carbohydrates are macronutrients, meaning they are one of the three main ways the body
obtains energy, or calories," said Paige Smathers, a Utah-based registered dietitian. The
American Diabetes Association notes that carbohydrates are the body's main source of energy.
They are called carbohydrates because, at the chemical level, they contain carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen.

There are three macronutrients: carbohydrates, protein and fats, Smathers said. Macronutrients
are essential for proper body functioning, and the body requires large amounts of them. All
macronutrients must be obtained through diet; the body cannot produce macronutrients on its
own.

The recommended daily amount (RDA) of carbs for adults is 135 grams, according to the
National Institutes of Health (NIH); however, the NIH also recommends that everyone should
have his or her own carbohydrate goal. Carb intake for most people should be between 45 and 65
percent of total calories. One gram of carbohydrates equals about 4 calories, so a diet of 1,800
calories per day would equal about 202 grams on the low end and 292 grams of carbs on the high
end. However, people with diabetes should not eat more than 200 grams of carbs per day, while
pregnant women need at least 175 grams.
Lipids are organic compounds that contain the same elements as carbohydrates: carbon,

hydrogen, and oxygen. However, the hydrogen-to-oxygen ratio is always greater than 2:1. More
important for biological systems, the carbon-to-hydrogen bonds are nonpolar covalent, which
means that lipids are fat soluble and will not dissolve in water. There are four biologically
important lipids:

 Fats
 Waxes
 Phospholipids
 Steroids
 Fats

Fats are large molecules that are composed of three fatty acid molecules bonded to a glycerol
molecule. The fatty acid molecule is a long chain of covalently bonded carbon atoms with
nonpolar bonds to hydrogen atoms all along the carbon chain with a carboxyl group attached to
one end. Because the carbon-hydrogen bonds are nonpolar, the chain is hydrophobic, meaning
they are not water soluble. Glycerol is a three-carbon-chain compound that bonds with the fatty
acids to create a fat. Typically, each carbon in the glycerol molecule bonds via dehydration
synthesis to the first carbon atom from a fatty acid molecule so that the resulting fat molecule
appears to have a glycerol head with three fatty acid chains streaming from it. This resulting
molecule is called a triglyceride. Because carbon-hydrogen bonds are considered energy rich,
fats store a lot of energy per unit. In fact, a gram of fat stores more than twice as much energy as
a gram of a polysaccharide such as starch. Fats are lipids that are used by living organisms for
stored energy.

A saturated fatty acid has hydrogen atoms bonded to all available carbon atoms. An unsaturated
fatty acid has one or more carbon atoms double-bonded to the neighboring carbon atom so that
fewer hydrogen atoms are needed to create a stable electron cloud. With fewer hydrogen atoms
attached, the molecule is considered unsaturated with hydrogen atoms. So saturated fatty acids
have more hydrogen atoms attached than unsaturated fatty acid chains. Through their
metabolism, plants generally produce triglycerides that contain unsaturated fatty acids such as
peanut oil or olive oil, whereas animals generally produce triglycerides that contain saturated
fatty acids which humans sometimes convert into butter and lard.
Proteins are organic compounds that contain the element nitrogen as well as carbon,

hydrogen, and oxygen. Proteins are the most diverse group of biologically important substances
and are often considered to be the central compound necessary for life. In fact, the translation
from the Greek root word means “first place.” Skin and muscles are composed of proteins;
antibodies and enzymes are proteins; some hormones are proteins; and some proteins are
involved with digestion, respiration, reproduction, and even normal vision, just to mention a few.

Amino Acids

There are obviously many types of proteins, but they are all made from amino acids bonded
together by the dehydration synthesis. By continually adding amino acids, called peptides, two
amino acids join together to form dipeptides; as more peptides join together, they form
polypeptides. Proteins vary in length and complexity based on the number and type of amino
acids that compose the chain. There are about 20 different amino acids, each with a different
chemical structure and characteristics; for instance, some are polar, others are nonpolar. The final
protein structure is dependent upon the amino acids that compose it. Protein function is directly
related to the structure of that protein. A protein's specific shape determines its function. If the
three-dimensional structure of the protein is altered because of a change in the structure of the
amino acids, the protein becomes denatured and does not perform its function as expected.

Protein Structure

The three-dimensional geometry of a protein molecule is so important to its function that four
levels of structure are used to describe a protein. The first level, or primary structure, is the linear
sequence of amino acids that creates the peptide chain. In the secondary structure, hydrogen
bonding between different amino acids creates a three-dimensional geometry like an alpha helix
or pleated sheet. An alpha helix is simply a spiral or coiled molecule, whereas a pleated sheet
looks like a ribbon with regular peaks and valleys as part of the fabric. The tertiary structure
describes the overall shape of the protein. Most tertiary structures are either globular or fibrous.
Generally, non-structural proteins such as enzymes are globular, which means they look
spherical. The enzyme amylase is a good example of a globular protein. Structural proteins are
typically long and thin, and hence the name, fibrous. Quaternary structures describe the protein's
appearance when a protein is composed of two or more polypeptide chains. Often the
polypeptide chains will hydrogen bond with each other in unique patterns to create the desired
protein configuration.