First Edition - 2010 Communication Theory Dr. J. S. Chitode Sd tES, SAILS, Vf Technical Publications Pune’ ' ™"Communication Theory Pe RNS Sa Dr. J. S. Chitode ME. (Electronics), Ph.D. Formerly Professor & Head, Department of Electronics Engineering Bharati Vidyapeeth University College of Engineering, Pune Price Rs. 230/- Visit us at: www.vtubooks.com asl Technical Publications Pune®Communication Theory ISBN 9788184317633 All rights reserved with Technical Publications. No port of this book should be reproduced in any form, Electronic, Mechanical, Phatocopy or any information storage ond retrieval system without prior permission in writing, from Technical Publications, Pune. Published by = ‘Technical Publications Pune” ‘#1, Amit Residency, 412, Shaniwar Peth, Pune - 411 030, Indie. Printer : Alert DTPrinters Seno, 10/3 Shaped Road, Rine = 417 041Chapter-1 __ Amplitude Modulation Systems (1-1) to (1-120) Chapter-2 __Angle Modulation Systems (2-1) to (2-48) Chapter-3 Noise Theory B-4)t0(3- 136) Chapter-4 __ Performance of CW Modulation Systems (4-1) to (4-32) Chapter-§ Information Theory (6-1) 10 (5-148) ‘Appendix-A Mathematical Relationship (A-1) to (A-8) Appendix-B _ Schwarz’s Inequality (B-1)t0(B-2) ‘Appendix-C Fourier Transform Relations (C-1)to(C-2) Appendix-D__ Error Function (0-1) t0(D-2) Appendix Functions (€-1) Appendix-F' Probability Density Functions -1) References (R-1)to(R-2) * Large number of solved examples. %& More detailed and modular representation of chapters. ' % Use of informative, self explanatory diagrams, plots and graphs. ' | * Excellent theory well supported with the practical examples and illustrations. |Unit-1 Amplitude Modulation Systems Review of spectral characteristics of periodic and non-periodic signals; Generation and demodulation of AM, DSBSC, SSB and VSB signals; Comparison of amplitude modulation systems; Frequency translation; FDM; Non-linear distortion. Unit-2 Angle Modulation Systems Phase and frequency modulation; Single tone, Narrowband and wideband FM; Transmission bandwidth; Generation and demodulation of FM signal. Unit-3 Noise Theory Review of probability, Random variables and random process, Guassian process, Noise - Shot noise, Thermal noise and White noise; Narrow band noise; Noise temperature, Noise figure. Unit-4 Performance of CW Modulation Systems Superheterodyne radio receiver and its characteristics; SNR, Noise in DSBSC systems using coherent detection; Noise in AM system using envelope detection and its FM system; FM threshold effect; Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis in FM; Comparison of performances. Unit -5 Information Theory Discrete messages and information content, Concept of amount of information, Average information, Entropy, Information rate, Source coding to increase average information per bit, Shannon-Fano coding, Huffman coding, Lempel-Ziv (LZ) coding, Shannon's theorem, Channel capacity, Bandwidth S/N trade off, Mutual information and Channel capacity, Rate distortion theory; Lossy source coding. ERISTable of Contents (Detail) 1.1 Communication System... 1.1.1 Modulation and Demodulation in Communication System 1.1.2 Baseband and Carrier (Passband) Communication . . . 4.1.3 Electromagnetic Waves : The Carriers of Electric Signals 1.1.4 Communication Channel... . 1.1.5 Analog Verses Digital Communication ..... 1.1.6 Transmission Media............... 1.1.6.1 Co-axial Cable sree ingrenpes tps 1.1.6.2 Fiber Optic Cable (FOC) . ws eee oe 1.4.6.3 Microwave Transmission. 1.2 Review of Spectral Characteristics of Periodic and Non-periodic Signals. 4.2.1 Continuous Time Fourier Series (CTFS) Representation . 1241.1 Trigonometric Fourier Series... ss. 1.2.4.2 Compact Trigonometric Fourier Series. 1.2.1.3 Exponential Fourier Series ‘e 1.2.1.4 Convergence of Fourier Series - Dirichlet Conditions . 1.2.2 Properties of Fourier Series. 1.2.3 Fourier Transform... .. 1.2.3.1 Definition of Fourier Transform... 2... . 1.2.4 Properties of Fourier Transform . 1.2.5 Fourier Transform of a Periodic Signal. 1.3 Principles of Amplitude Modulatior 1.3.1 AM Envelope and Equation of AM Wave . 1.3.2 Modulation Index and Percent Modulation . 1.3.3 Frequency Spectrum and Bandwidth ...1.3.4 AM Power Distribution 1.3.5 AM Current Calculations . 1.3.6 Amplitude Modulation by Multiple Sine Waves. 1.3.7 Transmission Efficiency... .. 1.3.8 Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) 1.4 AM Modulator Circuits. 1.4.1 Low Level AM Modulator. 1.5 AM Transmitters...... 1.5.1 High Level Transmitter 1.5.2 Low Level Transmitter. 1.5.3 AM Broadcast Transmitter using Partially Modulated Driver ings. 1.6 Single Sideband Modulation 41.6.4 Suppression of the Carrer. ... 1.6.1.1 Balanced Modulator or Ring Modulator using Diodes... 1.6.1.2 Balanced Modulator using FETs . 1.6.2 Suppression of Unwanted Sideband... 1.6.2.1 Filter Method to Produce SSB... 1.6.2.2 Phase Shift Method to Generate SSB... ss 1-82 1.6.3 Frequency Translation. 1.7 Vestigial Sideband Transmission 1.7.1 Modulator and Demodulator of VSB . 1.7.2 Magnitude Response of VSB Filter . . 1.7.3 Applications and Advantages of VSB 1.8 AM Receivers... 1.8.1 Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver . 1.8.2 Superheterodyne Receiver 1.8.3 Performance Parameters of Receivers . . . 1.8.3.4 Image Frequency Rejection... 1.8.4 AM Detector Circuits 1.8.4.1 Diode Detector or Envelope Detector...1.9 Suppressed Carrier System (DSB-SC). r 1.9.2 Synchronous Detection of DSB-SC Signal 1.9.3 Detection of SSB-SC Signals 1.9.4 Phasor Representation of AM-SC Signal . 1.9.5 Effect of Frequency and Phase Error. 1.9.6 Demodulation of DSB-SC Signal using Costas Loop. 1.10 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) 1.11 Comparison of Various AM Systems... 1.12 Short Answered Questions ...... 2.1 Angle Modulation .. 2.1.1 Definition. : 2.1.2 Relationship / Difference between FM and PM 2.1.3 FM and PM Waveforms . . 2.1.4 Phase Deviation, Modation Index and Frequency Devito. 2.1.5 Frequency Spectrum of Angle Modulated Waves 2.1.6 Bandwidth Requirement 2.1.7 Average Power in FM and PM Modulators. 2.1.8 Narrowband FM 2.1.8.1 Phasor Diagram of Narrowband FM... 2.1.8.2 Generation of Narrowband FM 2.1.10 Nonlinear Effects in FM . 2.1.11 Comparison between AM and Angle Modulation 2.1.12 Comparison between FM and PM 2.2 FM and PM Modulators... 2.2.1 Direct FM...22.4.4 PET Reactance Modular. eee 2-20 2.2.1.2 Frequency Modulation using Varactor Diode . 2.2.2 Indirect FM z 2.2.3 WBFM Generation using Indirect Method (Armstrong Method) ..........0eee0+ee 2-22 2.3 FM Transmitters....... 2.3.1 Automatic Frequency Correction (AFC) 2.3.2 Direct FM Transmitters. e 2.3.2.4 Crosby Direct FM Transmitter (Broadcast Band FM Transmitter)... .... . 2-25 2.3.3 Indirect FM Transmitter - Armstrong Method . 2.4 FM Receiver... 2.5 FM Demodulators .. 25.1 Round-Travis Detector or Balanced Slope Detector (Frequency Discriminator) . 2.5.2 Foster-Seeley Discriminator (Phase Discriminator) . 2.5.3 Ratio Detector. 2.5.4 PLL FM Demodulator . 2.6 FM Noise Suppressior 2.7 FM Stereo Multiplexing .. 2.7.1 Multiplexer of FM Stereo Transmitter 2.7.2 Demuttiplexer of FM Stereo Receiver. 2.8 Short Answered Questions .. 3.1 Introduction ... 3.2 Review of Probability 323 Event 3-2 3.2.4 Definition of Probability. . 3.2.5 Axioms (Properties) of Probability 3.2.6 Conditional Probability ..... 3.2.7 Bayes’ Rule or Bayesian Policy .. 3.2.8 Probabilities of Statistically Independent Events . 3.3 Random Variables .3.3.1 Discrete Random Variables . . . 3.3.2 Continuous Random Variables. 3.3.3 Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF), 3.3.3.1 Properties ofCDF.... 2... 3.3.3.2 Calculation of CDF for Discrete Random Variables mee veeuds «3-29 3.3.4 Probability Density Function (PDF) 3.34.1 PropetiesofPDF 2... 1. eee ee ee 3.3.4.2 Caloulation of POF ‘ 3.3.4.3 Mean/Average or Expected Value. 3.344 Momentsand Variance... ee ee 3.4 Mathematical Definition of Random Process 3.4.1 Definition of a Random Process. . 3.4.2 Difference between Random Variable and Random Process 3.4.3 Mathematical Representation of Random Process 3.5 Stationary Proces: 3.5.1 Definition. 3.5.2 Mathematical Explanation . . 3.6 Mean, Correlation and Covariance Function 3.6.1 Mean of Random Process 3.6.2 Autocorrelation Function. 3.6.3 Autocovariance Function 3.6.4 Properties of Autocorrelation Function . 3.6.4.1 Property 1 : Mean Square Value a 3.6.4.3 Property 3: Maximum Value. 3.6.5 Crosscorrelation Functions. 3.7 Ergodic Process 3.7.4 Ensemble Averages and Time Averages 3.7.2 Definition of Ergodic Process 3.8 Gaussian Process. 3.8.1 Definition of Gaussian Process 3.9 Noise... 3.9.1 External Noise 3.9.1.1 Atmospheric Noise3.9.1.2 Extraterrestrial Noise . 3.9.1.3 IndustrialNoise 2 2... 3.9.2 Intemal Noise 3.9.2.1 Thermal or Thermal Agitation or Johnson Noise. 3.9.2.4 Low Frequency or Ficker Noise... ee 3.9.2.5 High Frequency or Transit Time Noise... . . 3.10 Noise due to Several Amplifiers in Cascade... 3.11 Noise Factor .. 3.11.1 Noise Figure. 3.11.2 Cascade Connection of Amplifiers (Friss's Formula). 3.12 Noise Temperature 3.13 White Noise .... 3.14 Frequency Domain Representation of Noise .... 3.15 Spectral Components of Noise 3.16 Superposition of Noises... 3.17 Linear Filtering .... 3.17.1 RC Low Pass Filter . . 3.17.. Ideal Low Pass Filter . 3.17.3 Ideal Bandpass Filter 3.18 Noise Equivalent Bandwidth .. 3.19 Narrowband Noise... 3.19.1 Quadrature Components of Narrowband Noise ...........seeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 3.19.2.Representation of Narrowband Noise interms of Envelope and Phase Components 3-127 3.19.3 Sine Wave Pulse Narrowband Noise - 3-129 3.19.4 Properties of the Components of Narrowband Noise . - 3-130 3.20 Short Answered Questions .. 4.1 Introduction ... 4.4.1 Output Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR), 4.4.2 Channel Signal to Noise Ratio(SNR)_..........escseesseeeesseeentseeeeeees 4-4 BRE SSeS OE4.1.3 Figure of Merit 4.2 Receiver for AM Signal .. 4.2.1 AM Receiver Model .. 4.2.2 Noise in SSB-SC Receiver. . 4.2.3 Noise in DSB-SC Receiver . 4.2.4 Channel SNR for AM Signal... 4.2.5 Output SNR for Envelop Detection. 4.2.6 Figure of Merit for Envelope Detection. 4.2.7 Threshold Effect. 4.3 FM Receivers... 4.3.1 FM Receiver Model . . 4.4 Noise in FM Receivers. 4.4.4 Output Signal Power. 4.4.2 Output Noise Power 4.4.3 Output Signal to Noise Ratio 4.4.4 Channel Signal to Noise Ratio . 4.4.5 Figure of Merit 4.4.6 Capture Effect... 4.5 FM Threshold Effect. 4.5.2 FM Threshold Reduction or Extension (FMFB Demodulator) 4.6 Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis in FM. 4.6.1 psd of Noise and Signal .... 4.6.2 Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis 4.7 Hilbert Transform and its use for Representation of Noise. AEN UniMon a Ssscsas ease oats caus TIaee Tacs 4.7.2 Use of Hilbert Transform to Relate Quadrature Components of Noise 4.8 Comparison of Performance of AM and FM Systems. 4.9 Short Answered Questions ... 5.1 Introduction... 5.2 Discrete Messages and Information Content.5.2.1 Discrete Information Source. ...........6ceceeceeeeeeneneseeeeeseeeenenenes 5.2.2 Discrete Memoryiess Source . . 5.2.3 Stationary Source. 5.2.4 Analog Source .. 5-3 5.3 Definition of Information (Measure of Information, 5.3.1 Properties of Information 5.3.2 Physical Interpretation of Amount of Information . 5.4 Entropy (Average Information)... 5.4.1 Properties of Entropy. 5.5 Information Rate ... 5.6 Extension of Discrete Memoryless Source .... 5.7 Source Coding Theorem (Shannon’s First Theorem) 5.7.1 Code Redundancy 5.7.2 Code Variance 7 5.8 Data Compaction (Entropy Coding 5.8.1 Prefix Coding (Instantaneous Coding) . . 5.8.1.1 Properties of Prefix Code. 5.8.2 Shannon-Fano Algorithm . . . 5.8.3 Huffman Coding 5.8.4 Lempel - Ziv (LZ) Coding . 5.8.5 Comparison between Huffman Shannon Fano & Prefix Coding. 5.9 Discrete Memoryless Channels 5.9.1 Binary Communication Channel. . 5.9.2 Equivocation (Conditional Entropy) 5.9.3 Rate of Information Transmission Over a Discrete Channel . 5.9.4 Capacity of a Discrete Memoryless Channel 5.10 Mutual Information 5.10.1 Properties of Mutual Information . 5.10.2 Channel Capacity..........cccceccseecseeeseeeecseeeeseeeetseeeneees 5.11 Differential Entropy and Mutual Information for Continuous Ensembles 5.11.1 Differential Entropy. 5-7 ELLOS LAELABNE LELE P LOO RLS5.11.2 Mutual Information 5.11.3 Channel Capacity Theorem and Capacity of Continuous Channel 5.12 Shannon's Theorems on Channel Capacity .... 5.12.1 Channel Coding Theorem (Shannon's Second Theorem) 5.12.2 Shannon Hartley Theorem for Gaussian Channel (Continuous Channel) 5.12.3 Trade-off between Bandwidth and Signal to Noise Ratio...........eseeeeeeeee 5.12.4 Rate/Bandwidth and Signal to Noise Ratio, 2 Trade-off lo (Implications of Information Capacity Theorem) ..........+.s0ceeeseeeeeeuee 5-125 5.13 Rate Distortion Theory .. 5.14 Short Answered Questions .BSC BW BPSK BFSK Abbreviations | ‘Alternating cycle voltage or current ‘Amplitude Modulation ‘American National Standards Institute ‘American Standard Code for Information Interchange. Adaptive Delta Modulation Amplitude Shift Keying Analog to Digital Converter Additive White Gaussian Noise Bit Error Rate Bandpass Filter Binary Symmetric Channel Bandwidth Binary Phase Shift Keying Binary Frequency Shift Keying Consultative Committee for International Telegraph & ‘Telephone Continuous Wave Code Division Multiplexing Code Division Multiple Access ‘Cumulative Distribution Function Decibel direct current or voltage Discrete Fourier Transform Delta Modulation Differential Pulse Code Modulation Differential Phase Shift Keying Double Sided Modulation error function Complementary error function exponential (e) energy spectral density Frequency Modulation Frequency Division Muliplexing Frequency Division Multiple Access Fast Fourier Transform Frequency Shift Keying Fourier Transform ca OWE He HE Ist ISDN LPF In log us Modem MSK QPSK Hentz High Frequency Inter Symbol Interference Integrated Services Digital Network Inverse Fourier Transform ‘Low-Pass Filter ‘natural logarithm / log to the base e’. log to the base 10. millisecond rmicrosecond Modulator-demodulator Minimum Shift Keying Nonreturm to Zero On-off Keying Pulse Amplitude Modulation Pulse Duration Modulation Phase Modulation Probability Density Function power spectral Density Phase Shift Keying Phase Locked Loop Pulse Position Modulation Pulse Width Modulation ‘Quadrature Amplitude Modulation ‘Quadrature Phase Shift Keying Radio Frequency Retum to Zero root mean square Second Signal to Noise Ratio Signal to Noise Ratio ‘Short Time Fourier Transform ‘Time Division Multiplexing ‘Time Division Multiple Access Voltage Controlled Oscillator Voltage Controlled Clockimage not availableAmplitude Modulation Systems 1.1 Communication System We are going to start the study of Data Communications. Before that, we will revise some of the important con cepts of communication. What is Communication ? Communication is the process of establishing connection (or link) between two points for} information exchange. In our day to day life we come across many ways of communication. For communication to take place, three essential things must be present ie,, 1) Sender or Transmitter : It sends information. For example TV transmitting station or radio transmitting stations are “senders’, since they transmit information. 2) Receiver : It receives information. For example all TV sets and radios are receivers. They get information from transmitter. 3) Communication Channel: This is the path through which the signal propagates from transmitter to receiver. Fig. 1.1.1 shows an example of communication system. ‘Communication channel ‘Sender or ‘Transmitter Tranemiter Fig. 1.1.1 An example of communication system (1-1)image not availableimage not availableimage not availableCommunication Theory 1-5 Amplitude Modulation Systems As shown in Fig. 1.15, the parcel rides over the bus and is transmitted from source to the destination. Similarly in electrical communication, the message signal is converted to an electrical signal and given to the transmitter. The transmitter allows the signal to ride over some electrical carrier. At the receiver, the information signal is separated from the carrier. The information signal is then converted to the required format. We will now introduce modulation and demodulation. Modulation : Whenever the message or information signal rides over the carrier, it is called modulation. Consider for example a sinusoidal carrier signal. Then message signal can ride over this carrier (sine wave) in three ways - 1) It can ride over the amplitude of the carrier. 2) It can ride over the phase of the carrier. or 3) It can ride over the frequency of the carrier. In electrical sense, the operation of riding over the amplitude of carrier means to alter (or modulate) the amplitude of carrier. This is called Amplitude Modulation of the carrier. Thus the message signal becomes the modulating signal and it is transmitted by variations in the amplitude of the carrier. Similarly when message (or modulating) signal rides over the phase of the carrier it is called Phase Modulation. And in case frequency Modulation, the frequency of the carrier is altered by message signal Fig, 1.1.6 shows an example of Amplitude modulation. (See Fig. on next page) Modulation is the process of placing the message signal over some carrier to| make it suitable for transmission over long distance. The carrier signal is basically of higher frequency than that of message. And it has the ability to travel over long distance. We will come back to the discussion cf modulation later on. Now we will first see what is demodulation. Demodulation : The modulated carrier signal is transmitted by the transmitter. The receiver receives this carrier. It separates the message signal from the modulated carrier. This process is exactly opposite to that of modulation at the transmitter. Demodulation is the process of separating message signal from the modulated [carrier signal. Continuous Wave (CW) Modulation : The sinusoidal carrier modulation discussed above is called Continuous Wave or CW modulation. The CW modulation is used by most long distance communication. The CW modulation produces frequency translation. We will not go into much detailsa You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.a You have either reached 2 page thts unevalale fer vowing or reached your ievina tit for his book.Communication Theory 1-9 Amplitude Modulation Systems light intensity and generates the message signal. The fiber optic communication has advantages such as wide bandwidth, low signal attenuation and reduced noise interference. Wireline Communication : The telephone network which we are using presently is an example of wireline communication. Normally wire pairs or co-axial cables are used for this purpose. The signals in audio, very low and low frequency range are carried on wire pair. The bandwidth of wire pairs is limited upto 300 kHz. The co-axial cables give comparatively larger bandwidth ie. upto 14 Hz. The cable television which we see today is on the co-axial cable only, and they use TV channels in the UHF and VHF range. Fig. 1.1.8 illustrates the frequency ranges of wireline, wireless and fiber optic communications. 10" He Optical Laser -6 fibers beams 10°m ‘a 10" Hz 100 mm 100 GHz 1 ao Waveguide 10GHz ‘10am Line of sight propagation] 5 gy, Frequency 1m 100 MHz 6 10m 3 Co-axial cable Sky wave : channels propagation! 19 ayy, 100m 1 MHz tim 100 kz 40km soKHe 100 km tite Fig. 1.1.8 Electromagnetic spectrum. Propagation modes and transmission mediaimage not availableCommunication Theory 4-11 Amplitude Modulation Systems a) Additive noise interference : This noise is generated due to internal solid state devices and resistors etc. used to implement the communication system. b) Signal attenuation : It occurs due to internal resistance of the channel and fading of the signal. ©) Amplitude and phase distortion : The signal is distorted in amplitude and phase because of nonlinear characteristics of the channel. d) Multipath distortion : This distortion occurs mostly in wireless communication channels. Signals comming from different paths tend to interfere with each other. There are two main resources available with the communication channels. These two resources are - a) Channel bandwidth : This is the maximum possible range of frequencies that can be used for transmission. For example, the bandwidth offered by wireline channels is less compared to fibre optic channels. b) Power in the transmitted signal : This is the power that can be put in the signal being transmitted. The effecte of noise can be minimized by increasing the power. But this cannot be increased to very high value because of the equipment and other constraints. For example, the power in the wireline channel is limited because of the cables. The power and bandwidth limit the data rate of the communication channel. As we know, the fiber optic channel transports light signals from one place to another just like a metallic wire carriers an electric signal. There is no current or metallic conductor in optical fiber. The optical fibre has following advantages : a) Very large bandwidths are possible b) Transmission losses are very small ©) Electromagnetic interference is absent d) They have small size and weight ¢) They offer ruggedness and flexibility 6) Optical fibres are low cost and cheap. Satellites essentially perform wireless communication. Mainly satellites are repeaters. Broad area coverage is the main advantage of satellites. The power requirement is also less, since solar energy is used by satellites. Global communication is very easily possible due to satellite channels. The interference on satellite channels is present but it is minimum.Communication Theory 1-12 Amplitude Modulation Systems 4.1.5 Analog Versus Digital Communication Presently most of the communication is digital. For example cellular (mobile phone) communication, satellite communication, radar and sonar signals, Facsimile, data transmission over internet etc. all use digital communication. Paractically, after 20 years, analog communication will be totally replaced by digital communication. Why digital communication is so popular 7 There are few reasons due to which people are prefering digital communication over analog communication. 1. Due to advancements in VLSI technology, it is possible to manufacture very high speed embedded circuits. Such circuits are used in digital communications. 2. High speed computers and powerful software design tools are available. They make the development of digital communication systems feasible. 3. Internet is spread almost in every city and towns. The compatibility of digital communication systems with internet has opened new area of applications. Advantages and Disadvantages of Digital Communication Advantages : Because of the advances in digital IC technologies and high speed computers, digital communication systems are simpler and cheaper compared to analog systems. x Using data encryption, only permitted receivers can be allowed to detect the transmitted data. This is very useful in military applications. Wide dynamic range is possible since the data is converted to the digital form. » 4. Using multiplexing, the speech, video and other data can be merged and transmitted over common channel. 5. Since the transmission is digital and channel encoding is used, the noise does not accumulate from repeater to repeater in long distance communication. a Since the transmitted signal is digital, a large amount of noise interference can be tolerated. N Since channel coding is used, the errors can be detected and corrected in the receivers. » Digital communication is adaptive to other advanced branches of data processing such as digital signal processing, image processing, data compression etc.Communication Theory 1-13 Amplitude Modulation Systems Disadvantage: Eventhough digital communication offer many advantages as given above, it has some drawbacks also. But the advantages of digital communication outweigh disadvantages. They are as follows - 1. Because of analog to digital conversion, the data rate becomes high. Hence more transmission bandwidth is required for digital communication. 2. Digital communication needs synchronization in case of synchronous modulation. 1.1.6 Transmission Media 1.1.6.1 Co-axial Cable It is made up of two conductors that share the common axis. It consists of a hollow outer cylindrical conductor that surrounds a single inner wire conductor. Co-axial cable is used to transmit both analog and digital signals. Data transfer rate of co-axial cable is used to transmit both analog and digital signals. Data transfer rate of co-axial cable is in between TP and fiber optic cable. Co-axial cable is classified by size (RG) and by the cable resistance to direct or alternating electric currents. Following are some co-axial cable commonly used in networking. RG means Government Ratings. © 50 ohm, RG-8 and RG-11 for thick Ethernet. * 50 ohm, RG-58 used for thin Ethernet. * 75 ohms, RG-59 used for cable TV. * 93 ohm, RG-62 used for ARC net. It is relatively in expensive. The cost for thin co-axial cable is less than STP. Thick co-axial is more expensive than STP. Installation is relatively simple. Co-axial cable must be grounded and terminated. A typical data rate for today's co-axial network is 10 Mbps, although potential is higher. It suffers from attenuation. Figure shows the co-axial cable. Protective Wire mesh Insulating conductor plastic covering Copper material oon \ Fig. 1.1.9 Co-axial cableCommunication Theory 1-14 Amplitude Modulation Systems Advantages of co-axial cable : 1. Co-axial cable used for both data transmission. ie. analog and digital data transmission. 2. It has higher bandwidth. 3. Easy to handle and relatively inexpensive as compared to fiber optic cables. 4. It uses for longer distances at higher data rates. 5. Excellent noise immunity. Disadvantages of co-axial cable : 1. Distance is limited. 2. Number of node connection is limited. 3. Proper connectors and termination is must. Characteristics of co-axiable cable : Co-axial cable has the following characteristics. 1. 10 Mbps is the transmission rate. 2. Maximum cable length for thinnet is 185 meters and for thicknet is 500 meters. 3. Flexible and easy to work with thinnet. 4, Ethernet designation to 10 base 2 ( thinnet ) or 10 baseS ( thicknet ). 5. Less expensive than fiber optics cable but more expensive than twisted pair. 6. Good resistance to electrical interference. 1.1.6.2 Fiber Optic Cable (FOC) A fiber optic cable is a light pipe which is used to carry a light beam from one place to another. Light is an electromagnetic signal and can be modulated by information. Since the frequency of light is extremely high hence it can accomodate wide bandwidths of information, also higher data rate can be achieved with excellent reliability. The modulated light travel along the fiber and at the far end, are converted to an electrical signal by means of a photo electric cell. Thus the original input signal is recovered at the far end. FOC transmits light signals rather than electrical signals. Each fiber has a inner core of glass or plastic that conducts light. The inner core is surrounded by cladding, a layer of glass that reflects the light back into core. A cable may contain a single fiber, but often fibers are bundled together in the centre of the cable. FOC may be multimode or signal mode. Multimode fibers use multiple light paths whereas signal mode fibers allow a single light path and are typically used with laser signaling. It is more expansive and greater bandwidth.Communication Theory 1-15 Amplitude Modulation Systems Fiber Types : There are three varieties of optical fibers available. All three varieties are constructed of either giass, plastic, or a combination of glass and plastic. The three varieties are : 1. Plastic core and cladding 2. Glass core with plastic cladding (often called PCS fiber, plastic-clad silica) 3. Glass core and glass cladding (often called SCS, silica-clad silica) 1. Plastic core and cladding : Plastic fibers have several advantages over glass fibers. First, plastic fibers are more flexible and, consequently, more rugged than glass. They are easy to install, can better withstand stress, are less expensive, and weigh approximately 60 % less than glass. The disadvantages of plastic fibers is their high attenuation characteristic; they do not propagate light as efficiently as glass. Consequently, plastic fibers are limited to relatively short runs, such as within a single building or a building complex. 2. Glass core with plastic cladding : Fibers with glass cores exhibit low attenuation characteristics. However, PCS fibers are slightly better than SCS fibers. Also, PCS fibers are less affected by radiation and are therefore more attractive to military applications. 3. Glass core and glass cladding : SCS fibers have the best propagation characteristics and they are easier to terminate than PCS fibers. Unfortunately, SCS cables are the least rugged, and they are more susceptible to increases in attenuation when exposed to radiation. The selection of a fiber for a given application is a function of specific system requirements. There are always trade-offs based on the economics and logistics of a particular application. Presently available fiber cables are with specifications as - * 83 micron core / 125 micron cladding, single mode * 625 micron core / 125 micron cladding, multimode * 50 micron core / 125 micron cladding, multimode * 100 micron core / 140 micron cladding, multimode Advantages of Fiber Optic Systems 1. Wide bandwidth : The light wave occupies the frequency range between 2x10)? Hz to 3.7x10!2 Hz. Thus the information carrying capability of fiber optic cables is much higher. 2. Low losses : Fiber optic cables offers less signal attenuation over long distances. Typically it is less than 1 dB/km.Communication Theory 1-16 Amplitude Modulation Systems: 3, Immune to cross talk : Since fiber optic cables are non-conductors of electricity hence they do not produce magnetic field. Thus fiber optic cables are immune to cross talk between cables caused by magnetic induction. > . Interference immune : Fiber optic cables are immune to conductive and radiative interferences caused by electrical noise sources such as lightning, electric motors, fluorescent lights. . Light weight : As fiber cables are made of silica glass or plastic which is much lighter than copper or aluminium cables. Light weight fiber cables are cheaper to transport. s s . Small size : The diameter of fiber is much smaller compared to other cables, therefore fiber cable is small in size, requires less storage space. 7. More strength : Fiber cables are stronger and rugged hence can support more weight. 8. Security : Fiber cables are more secure than other cables. It is almost impossible to tap into a fiber cable as they do not radiate signals. No ground loops exist between optical fibers hence they are more secure. 9. Long distance transmission : Because of less attenuation transmission at a longer distance is possible. 10. Environment immune : Fiber cables are more immune to environmental extremes. They can operate over a large temperature variations. Also they are not affected by corrosive liquids and gases. 11. Safe and easy installation : Fiber cables are safer and easier to install and maintain. They are nonconductors hence there is no shock hazards as no current or voltage is associated with them. Their small size and lightweight feature makes installation easier. 12. Long term cost of fiber optic system is less compared to any other system. Disadvantages of Fiber Optic Systems 1. High initial cost : The initial installation or setting up cost is very high compared to all other systems. 2. Maintenance and repairing cost : The maintenance and repairing of fiber optic systems is not only difficult but expensive also. Characteristics of Fiber Optic Cable Fiber optic cable has the following characteristics : 1, Transmission rate of 100 Mbps. 2. Not affected by the electrical interference.Communication Theory 1-17 Amplitude Modulation Systems 3. Most expensive cable. 4, FOC support cable length of 2 km or more. 5. It supports voice, video and data. 6. It provides most secured media 7. Commonly used as backbones between buildings and token ring networks. 8. Not very flexible, difficult to work. 1.1.6.3 Microwave Transmission Above 100 MHz, the waves travel in straight lines and can therefore be narrowly focused. Concentrating all the energy into a small beam using a parabolic antenna (like the satellite TV dish) gives a much higher signal to noise ratio, but the transmitting and receiving antennas must be accurately aligned with each other. Before the advent of fiber optics, these microwaves formed the heart of the long distance telephone transmission system. In its simplest form the microwave link can be one hop, consisting of one pair of antennas spaced as little as one or two kilometers apart, or can be a backbone, including multiple hops, spanning several thousand kilometers. A single hop is typically 30 to 60 km in relatively flat regions for frequencies in the 2 to 8 GHz bands. When antennas are placed between mountain peaks, a very long hop length can be achieved. Hop distances in excess of 200 km are in existence. The “line-of-sight” nature of microwaves has some very attractive advantages over cable systems. Line of sight is a term which is only partially correct when describing microwave paths. Atmospheric conditions and certain effects modify the propagation of microwaves so that even if the designer can see from point A to point B (true line of sight), it may not be possible to place antennas at those two points and achieve a satisfactory communication performance. In order to overcome the problems of line-of-sight and power amplification of weak signals, microwave systems use repeaters at intervals of about 25 to 30 km in between the transmitting receiving stations. The first repeater is placed in line-of-sight of the transmitting station and the last repeater is placed in line-of-sight of the receiving station. Two consecutive repeaters are also placed in line-of-sight of each other. The data signals are received, amplified, and re-transmitted by each of these stations. The objective of microwave communication systems is to transmit information from one place to another without interruption and clear reproduction at the receiver. Fig. 1.1.10 indicates how this is achieved in its simplest form.Communication Theory 1-18 Amplitude Modulation Systems Receiving antenna Transmitting antenna Line of sight _—_____ eae —____-} Transmitting station g 3 5 Fig. 1.1.10 Microwave communication Microwave Transmitter and Receiver Fig. 1.1.11 shows block diagram of microwave link transmitter and receiver section. = = iF RE t Voice a . data Multiplexer Modulator Up-converter ransmitting video antenna (a) Microwave transmitter Receiving antenna, t Dy RF iF Voice Down comes Demodulator Demutiplexer data video (b) Microwave receiver Fig. 1.1.11 Microwave transmitter and receiverCommunication Theory 4-19 Amplitude Modulation Systems The voice, video, or data channels are combined by a technique known as multiplexing to produce a BB signal. This signal is frequency modulated to an IF and then upconverted (heterodyned) to the RF for transmission through the atmosphere. The reverse process occurs at the receiver. The microwave transmission frequencies are within the approximate range 2 to 24 GHz. The frequency bands used for digital microwave radio are recommended by the CCIR. Each recommendation clearly defines the frequency range, the number of channels that can be used within that range, the channel spacing the bit rate and the polarization possibilities. Characteristics of Microwave Communications Microwave transmission is weather and frequency dependent. The frequency band of 10 GHz is in the routine use. Microwave communication is widely used for long distance telephone communication, cellular telephones, television distribution and other uses that a severe shortage of spectrum has developed. The following are the characteristics of Microwave communications : a) Microwave is relatively inexpensive as compared to fiber optics system. For example, putting up two simple towers and antennas on each one may be cheaper than burying 50 km of fiber through a congested area or up tower a mountain, and it may also be cheaper than leasing the telephone line. b) Microwave systems permit data transmission rates of about 16 Giga (1 giga = 10%) bits per second. At such high frequencies, microwave systems can carry 250,000 voice channels at the same time. They are mostly used to link big metropolitan cities where have heavy telephone traffic between them. Limitations of Microwave Communications a) Since microwaves travel in a straight line, if the towers are too far apart, the earth will get in the way. Consequently, repeaters are needed periodically. The higher the towers are, the further apart they .an be. The distance between repeaters goes up very roughly with the sq’ :e root of the tower height. For 100 meter high towers, repeaters can be spac. 80 km apart. 1.2 Review of Spectral Characteristics of P2riodic an~ Non-periodic Signals The spectral characteristics of periodic and non-periodic sy, ls can be studied with the help of Fourier series and Fourier transform. 1.2.1 Continuous Time Fourier Series (CTFS) Representation Purpose * Fourier series used to analyze periodic signals. * The harmonic content of the signals is analyzed with the help of Fourier series. * Fourier series can be developed for continuous time as well as discrete time signals.