Science of the Total Environment 627 (2018) 245–255

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Science of the Total Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv

Plant basket hydraulic structures (PBHS) as a new river

restoration measure
Tomasz Kałuża a, Artur Radecki-Pawlik d, Krzysztof Szoszkiewicz c,⁎, Karol Plesiński b,
Bartosz Radecki-Pawlik d, Ireneusz Laks e
a
Department of Hydraulic and Sanitary Engineering, Poznań University of Life Sciences, ul. Wojska Polskiego 28, 60-637 Poznań, Poland
b
Department of Hydraulic Engineering and Geotechnique, University of Agriculture, al. Mickiewicza 24/28, 30-059 Kraków, Poland
c
Department of Ecology and Environmental Protection, Poznań University of Life Sciences, ul. Wojska Polskiego 28, 60-637 Poznań, Poland
d
Institute of Structural Mechanics, Cracow University of Technology, ul. Warszawska 24, 31-155 Kraków, Poland
e
Institute of Civil and Geotechnical Engineering, Poznań University of Life Sciences, ul. Wojska Polskiego 28, 60-637 Poznań, Poland

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• Plant basket hydraulic structures

(PBHS) initiate changes in hydrody-
namic conditions.
• PBHS modifies sediment accumulation
and river bottom type diversification.
• The mechanism relies on initiating of
morphological forms typical for natural
rivers.
• The increase values of shear stress were
observed after a year from PBHS
introduction.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: River restoration has become increasingly attractive worldwide as it provides considerable benefits to the envi-
Received 14 May 2017 ronment as well as to the economy. This study focuses on changes of hydromorphological conditions in a small
Received in revised form 3 January 2018 lowland river recorded during an experiment carried out in the Flinta River, central Poland. The proposed solu-
Accepted 4 January 2018
tion was a pilot project of the construction of vegetative sediment traps (plant basket hydraulic structures -
Available online xxxx
PBHS). A set of three PBSH was installed in the riverbed in one row and a range of hydraulic parameters were re-
Keywords:
corded over a period of three years (six measurement sessions). Changes of sediment grain size were analysed,
Channel river pattern and the amount and size of plant debris in the plant barriers were recorded. Plant debris accumulation influenc-
Hydrodynamic conditions ing flow hydrodynamics was detected as a result of the installation of vegetative sediment traps. Moreover, var-
Plant basket hydraulic structure ious hydromorphological processes in the river were initiated. Additional simulations based on the detected
River restoration processes showed that the proposed plant basket hydraulic structures can improve the hydromorphological sta-
RHS method tus of the river.
VCmaster model © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

⁎ Corresponding author. To achieve at least a good ecological status of surface waters, a prin-
E-mail address: kszoszk@up.poznan.pl (K. Szoszkiewicz). cipal target of the European Union Water Framework Directive

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.01.029
0048-9697/© 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
246 T. Kałuża et al. / Science of the Total Environment 627 (2018) 245–255

Fig. 1. Location of the study area in the Flinta River catchment and the detailed map of the Flinta end section.

(European Commission, 2000), water managers should work towards
improving the quality of degraded water bodies (Del Saz-Salazar et al.,
2009; Nõges et al., 2016). In the case of rivers, the ecological quality de-
pends strongly on flow conditions (Klauer et al., 2012; Merritts, 2011).
The restoration of natural fluvial systems has therefore become a
major river management issue and has stimulated cooperation between
hydraulic engineers, biologists and geomorphologists with the goal of
improving the engineered river reaches (Asaeda and Sanjaya, 2017;
Habersack et al., 2014, 2016; Henriques et al., 2015). Also, the introduc-
tion of new river channel conditions could provide a semi-natural envi-
ronment for vegetation as well as for fish and invertebrate fauna (Nõges
et al., 2016; Stoll et al., 2016). This would create favourable conditions
for river biota, resulting in an overall increase in biodiversity (Hein
et al., 2016; Palmer et al., 2010). Improving the ecological status of rivers
in Poland is needed because, as indicated by monitoring, a large propor-
tion of watercourses do not meet the requirements of the Water Frame-
work Directive (Kałuża et al., 2014).
Heavily modified river channels are unable to reproduce natural
processes and their ecological improvement requires the implementa-
tion of restoration activities. The extent of river restoration measures
is currently growing, especially in those river channels that have been
modified in the past (Hajdukiewicz et al., 2017; Kałuża, 2015;
Radecki-Pawlik, 2014; Schulze et al., 2015). Numerous examples
prove effectiveness of the implemented measures resulting in improve-
ment of the ecological status of rivers and often significant
hydromorphological change (Angelopoulos et al., 2017; Flávioa et al.,
2017; James et al., 2002; Wyżga et al., 2012).
This study focused on improving hydromorphological conditions of
the Flinta River in Central Poland (Central European Plain). The Flinta
is a small watercourse with sandy substrate and represents the most
widespread river type in lowland areas. Based on a previous
hydromorphological survey, several hydromorphologically modified
sites on the Flinta had been identified (Kałuża et al., 2016) and the intro-
duction of various technical and biological measures was proposed to

Fig. 2. PBHS dimensions (in cm) and view after installation in the river.
 T. Kałuża et al. / Science of the Total Environment 627 (2018) 245–255 247

Fig. 3. Plant basket hydraulic structures (PBHS) at the Flinta River study site: a, b – riverbed and vegetative sediment traps on 5 August 2013; c – vegetative sediment traps with plant debris
on 2 October 2014 (note bed erosion downstream of the PBHS); d – vegetative sediment traps with plant debris and growing plants on 29 July 2015 (note bed erosion downstream of the
PBHS).

improve the ecological status of the river. Among the proposed solu-
tions, innovative plant barriers functioning as vegetative sediment
traps - plant basket hydraulic structures (PBHS) - were designed
(Kałuża et al., 2016). These small structures operate as low-crested
weirs and significantly alter local channel morphology.
Vegetative structures or vegetative sediment traps have already
been used to modify hydromorphological conditions in rivers. There
has been a significant amount of research performed at the plot scale
(Morgan, 2007; Wyżga et al., 2013) and laboratory scale (Hämmerling
et al., 2014) using real or simulated vegetation, but the field-scale

Fig. 4. Investigated vegetation baskets and measurement points along the Flinta River study area.
248 T. Kałuża et al. / Science of the Total Environment 627 (2018) 245–255

Fig. 5. Field measurements near the plant basket hydraulic structures (PBHS) at the Flinta River study site: a – hydraulic, and b – hydraulic and hydromorphological surveys.

records of water flow and sediment transport are relatively limited
(Blanco-Canqui et al., 2004; Costigan and Gerken, 2016; Nones et al.,
2017; Ribeiro et al., 2016; Zheng-Chao et al., 2013). The aim of this
study was to verify the morphological and hydraulic consequences of
PBHS introduction to a river channel. We also attempted to simulate
the impact of PBHS on ecological and hydromorphological conditions
of the fluvial ecosystem.
2. Material and methods
2.1. Study area
The Flinta River is a tributary of the Wełna River (Fig. 1) and is situ-
ated in the lowland landscape in central Poland. The total length of the
catchment is approximately 27 km, and the total catchment area is
345.5 km2. The Flinta River is a relatively strongly meandering lowland
fluvial ecosystem, the substrate of which mostly consists of sand and
gravel. Valuable aquatic vegetation develops in the river, and fish
fauna is rich and typical of lotic ecosystems. Unfortunately, the quality
of the habitat is affected by eutrophication and hydromorphological
modifications.
The Flinta River has been surveyed for many years under various re-
search projects and is therefore ecologically and hydrologically well-
recognized (Jakubas et al., 2014). It has been selected as a model for
restoration studies because of its typical lowland character,
representing one of the most widespread European river types. Such
rivers were often deeply transformed in Poland and in other European
countries and they need to be restored to a natural state.
The Flinta River was investigated downstream from the Pilka weir
up to the Roznowski Mlyn which is the Flinta tributary. The study site
extends from 52°50′55,34″ to 52°42′17,59 N and from 16°48′2,97″ to
16°51′43,81 E (Fig. 1). The river flows along non-urbanized areas with
its catchment mostly being agricultural (55%) and forested (45%). The
valley near the study reach is mostly covered with grasslands and conif-
erous woodland. The average river channel slope is 0.75‰, however, the
maximum slope reaches 1.50‰ in the downstream section. Consider-
able discharge variation is recorded at the Flinta River with low specific
runoff equal 2.68 l s−1 km−2, which might be associated with low re-
tention potential of the catchment. The ratio of maximum annual dis-
charge to minimum annual discharge is 762. High water levels after
exceptionally high rainfall events are short-term and may cause occa-
sional flooding, usually restricted to a small area.
Water Framework Directive typology classifies the Flinta as a
lowland river with a sandy bed. The ecological status of the Flinta is
moderate according to the national monitoring data (VIEP, 2012).
Hydromorphological conditions are partly modified, but the river is
still regarded as a very valuable fluvial ecosystem. It is partly protected
as the Natura 2000 area (PLB300015), and several other conservation

Fig. 6. River bed without vegetative sediment traps (PBHS) and after their installation.
 T. Kałuża et al. / Science of the Total Environment 627 (2018) 245–255 249

areas have been designated in the close proximity to the Flinta
catchment.
2.2. Restoration approach
Plant basket hydraulic structures (PBHS) represent a new and firstly
used engineering solution for improving river channel morphological
status. These low-head hydraulic structures were introduced within a
pilot project to improve hydromorphological status of the Flinta
(Kałuża et al., 2016). These relatively small structures operate similarly
to low-crested weirs and considerably alter the local channel morphol-
ogy (Fig. 2). PBHS consist of plastic baskets (dimensions 70 × 40
× 30 cm) which were filled with river sand and stone. Willow cuttings
were placed in each basket (approximately 30 pieces per basket).
These structures were fixed to the riverbed 1 m apart from each other
across the river (Fig. 3).
Before the experiment (at the cross-section without trays, Fig. 3a),
hydrometric measurements were performed. The cross-sectional geom-
etry was measured together with surface slope and flow velocity. Hy-
drometric measurements were systematically repeated for nearly two
years (Kałuża et al., 2016). Changes in sediment grain size were
analysed, and the amount and size of plant debris trapped by the plant
barrier (plant formation) were studied (Fig. 3c, d). Hydromorphological
changes and the development of natural plant succession were also es-
timated (Fig. 3d).
2.3. Hydraulics and hydrodynamics calculations
The vegetative sediment traps (PBHS) are relatively small, but they
function as low-crested weirs and affect channel morphology (Kałuża
et al., 2016). Hydraulics calculations were performed for the sites
where the PBHS were installed. We used the VCmaster model

Fig. 7. Changes in river bed morphology distribution after the introduction of PBHS (geometrical dimensions in m): a – 25 September 2013, b – 14 May 2014, c – 2 October 2014, d – 29 July
2015, e – 29 October 2015, f – 7 April 2016.
250 T. Kałuża et al. / Science of the Total Environment 627 (2018) 245–255

(Sabharwal, 2016; Vieira et al., 2015a, 2015b) that automates the design
of structural elements. Formulae in the model are presented in standard
mathematical notation and calculated automatically. Material or section
values are determined from stored databases. The hydraulics calcula-
tions were performed using a typical scheme for broad-crested weirs
(Chow, 1959).
The experiment enabled for regular measurements. A large set of
data was recorded already before the construction of the vegetative sed-
iment traps, and the measurements were continued after the trap in-
stallation. The measurement points (1 to 21) are shown in Fig. 4. The
measurements were carried out before the river restoration with
PBHS (2 August 2013) as after the start of. the experiment-(25 Septem-
ber 2013)-and continued during 2014, 2015 and in 2016. The location of
sites at which hydromorphological parameters, such as water velocity,
changes of river bed morphology and shear stresses values τ, were mea-
sured is presented in Fig. 4.
In each series, hydraulic measurements were conducted in the open
channel flow, excluding the flow in the gravel riverbed (Carling et al.,
2006; Radecki-Pawlik, 2014). The measurements were conducted
using a FLAT Model 801 electromagnetic current meter (Valeport) ac-
cording to the methods of Jarrett (1991). The FLAT Model 801 meter al-
lows for measuring flow velocity in the range of 0.001 to 10 m s−1. The
device was also used to measure flow velocity just above the river bed,
which, in turn, is important for sediment movement (Radecki-Pawlik
et al., 2014) and for the presence of invertebrates (Radecki-Pawlik and
Skalski, 2008; Skalski et al., 2012; Wyżga et al., 2012, 2013). The

Fig. 8. Changes in flow velocity distribution after the introduction of PBHS (geometrical dimensions in m, velocity in m s−1): a – 25 September 2013, b – 14 May 2014, c – 2 October 2014,
d – 29 July 2015, e – 29 October 2015, f – 7 April 2016.
 T. Kałuża et al. / Science of the Total Environment 627 (2018) 245–255 251

operation of the meter is based on the measurement of electromagnetic


V av ¼ V 0;4h m s−1 for hb0:2 m ð1Þ
induction in the flowing liquid. Field measurements (Fig. 5) were car-
ried out at a flow close to mean annual discharge (Q = 0.35 m3 s−1). V 0:2h þ 2V 0;4h þ V 0:8h

Water level during the measurements was almost steady. V av ¼ m s−1 for 0:2 m ≤ h ≤ 0:6 m ð2Þ
4
By using the FLAT Model 801 current meter, a few parameters were
determined in the field: V d þ 2V 0:2h þ 3V 0;4h þ 3V 0:8h þ V p

V av ¼ m s−1 for h N 0:6 m ð3Þ
10
• water depth, h;
• a set of a few instantaneous velocities measured just above channel
where Vd is flow velocity close to the river bed and Vp is flow velocity
bed, V [m s−1];
measured at the water surface.
• maximum velocity, Vmax [m s−1];
• average velocity, Vav [m s−1], calculated according to the following The values of dynamic velocity and shear stress were calculated
formulae (Radecki-Pawlik, 2014): based on the knowledge of velocity profile distribution in the river, as

Fig. 9. Changes in shear stress distribution after the introduction of PBHS (geometrical dimensions in m, shear stress in N m−2): a – 25 September 2013, b – 14 May 2014, c – 2 October
2014, d – 29 July 2015, e – 29 October 2015, f – 7 April 2016.
252 T. Kałuża et al. / Science of the Total Environment 627 (2018) 245–255

in which x is the height above the channel bed over which the velocity
was measured and b is the intercept of the equation. The calculated
value of dynamic velocity was used to determine the force acting on
the stream bed, i.e. shear stress, τ, according to the formula (Gordon
et al., 2007):

h i
τ ¼ ρV 2 Nm−2 ð7Þ

where ρ is fluid (water) density.

2.4. Hydromorphological assessment of the river

Hydromorphological assessment of the Flinta River was conducted

according to the River Habitat Survey method (RHS; Raven et al.,
1998) developed in the UK to assess the character and quality of rivers
based on their physical structure (Walker et al., 2002.). In an RHS survey
site, 500 m long, approximately 400 variables are recorded describing
physical characteristics of the river habitat. Two RHS numerical param-
eters were calculated: Habitat Quality Assessment (HQA) and Habitat
Modification Score (HMS). High values of the Habitat Quality Assess-
ment (HQA) indicate a great abundance of natural river features of the
fluvial ecosystem. High values of the Habitat Modification Score
(HMS) indicate extensive bank and channel resectioning, reinforce-
ments and engineering construction. Based on the indices (HQA and
HMS), the class of hydromorphological quality was estimated.
An RHS hydromorphological survey of the selected site was com-
pleted in July 2013 (before restoration) and in September 2015 (after
restoration). Based on the field data, HQA and HMS were calculated to
estimate hydromorphological quality class (Raven et al., 1998), More-
over, based on the same criteria, the impact of the two additional
PBHS on hydromorphological quality of the river was simulated. The
Fig. 10. Diverged flow of the Flinta River after three years of PBHS influence.
simulation was based on the results of hydromorphological changes
that were observed after the introduction of a single set of PBHS. It
was assumed that changes in the riverbed and flow are increasing pro-
given by the equation of von Karman-Prandtl (Radecki-Pawlik, 2014; portionally to the additional number of PBHS sets.
Radecki-Pawlik et al., 2014):
    3. Results
V z

V¼ ln m s−1 ð4Þ
κ z0 Hydraulic calculations with the use of the VCmaster model showed
that erosion downstream of the PBHS is unlikely to exceed 1.3 m
where V⁎ is dynamic velocity (calculated from Eq. (5)), k is von Karman (which was confirmed by field measurements), and from a hydraulic
constant, usually equal to 0.41, z is water depth above the boundary point of view, the PBHS work as broad-crested weirs. At the same
level and z0 is roughness height. time, this structure divided a single-thread channel into 3 segments. A
Dynamic velocity, V⁎, was obtained by plotting a regression line be- significant impact of PBHS on hydromorphological conditions of the
tween the values of instantaneous velocities and the logarithmic values river was detected (Fig. 6). Changes in riverbed morphology following
of the distance of measurement points from the channel bed. If the re- the installation of the PBHS occurred mostly in the sections between
gression follows a straight line, then the dynamic velocity can be calcu- successive baskets (Fig. 7). Bed erosion and the formation of a scour
lated from the coefficient that indicates its slope to the abscissa (Gordon pit was recorded (with a maximum depth of 24 cm) in the section be-
et al., 2007): tween baskets 2 and 3. The riverbed morphological changes after intro-
ducing PBHS (Fig. 7) were analysed on the basis of systematic
a
 hydrometric measurements. During the first 3 years of observations,
V ¼ m s−1 ð5Þ
5:75 erosion rates reaching 0.25 m were observed.
On the basis of the results obtained from the VCmaster modelling of
where a is the slope coefficient of the linear relationship: average velocities in the river channel prior to introducing PBHS, we
also analysed the velocity distribution after the PBHS were installed
V ¼ ax þ b ð6Þ (Fig. 8). Flow velocities were increasing in locally diverged flow down-
stream and between the PBHS. Maximum velocities reached 0.4 m s−1;
at the same time, average velocities increased to 0.2–0.3 m s− 1. The
Table 1
equivalent velocities observed upstream of the PBHS were quite low,
RHS metrics (HQA and HMS) and the hydromorphological status of the Flinta River before
and after restoration. approximately 0.1 m s−1.
The results also showed a distinct change in shear stress values after
Option HQA HMS Hydromorphological status
the installation of the PBHS (Fig. 9). Comparison of the shear stresses
Before restoration 27 6 IV calculated for 25 September 2013 and 7 April 2016 indicates that
After restoration 30 6 III shear stress values increased just downstream of the PBHS, which was
Additional restoration (simulation) 36 6 III
the primary reason for the morphological changes of the riverbed at
 T. Kałuża et al. / Science of the Total Environment 627 (2018) 245–255
that location. The study has shown that the introduction of PBHS caused
great changes in hydromorphological conditions of the Flinta River. A
very important change for the structure of the fluvial ecosystem was re-
lated to the change in river geometry. During the three years after PBHS
installation (Fig. 10) the flow within the previously single-thread chan-
nel has become permanently diverged.
The RHS survey of the Flinta River in 2013 (before restoration)
showed a poor hydromorphological status (class IV) (Table 1). The
scale of modifications was not extensive (HMS = 9) and mostly re-
sulted from the impact of the bridge and its reinforcements. Neverthe-
less, the presence of natural features was limited, and the habitat
quality was very low (HQA = 27) reflecting the lack of bars, uniform
and low-energy flow types (smooth) and uniform substrate (sand).
The introduction of PBHS resulted in an improvement of
hydromorphological conditions. Different flow types were recorded (a
rippled flow type was recorded in addition to a smooth one). The bed
substrate was enriched with gravelly material. Formation of a side bar
was also recorded. These elements influenced one of the RHS metrics -
the HQA value increased from 27 to 30. This means that PBHS installa-
tion increased the hydromorphological status from class IV (poor) to
class III (moderate) (Table 1).
The performed simulations showed that the proposed measures in-
troduced at a larger scale may improve hydromorphological quality (ac-
cording to RHS criteria) even further. We were able to predict that three
sets of PBHS would modify the hydromorphological quality to reach
HQA index value of 36. The simulation was based on the results of
hydromorphological changes observed after the introduction of a single
set of PBHS, which locally modified flow type and bed material and the
side bar development was initiated. It was assumed that similar struc-
tures distributed every 200 m of the watercourse would stimulate sim-
ilar effect into the riverbed and flow.
4. Discussion
The study has shown that relatively simple restoration measures can
apparently improve hydromorphological conditions of the river ecosys-
tem. PBHS installation caused changes in riverbed morphology, diversi-
fied water flow as well as broadening and dividing the channel. The
presence of a vegetation zone in rivers and on the banks influences flu-
vial processes. The degree of vegetation development and its vertical
and horizontal dimensions affect the dynamics of transport of mineral
sediments and plant debris (Mazur et al., 2016). A study of bed load
transport in the vegetation zone carried out at a 1:1 scale model
(Pikul and Mokwa, 2008) showed that vegetation can cause changes
in channel roughness, configuration of channel bed, water levels and
channel slope, which can lead to increased fluvial erosion and changes
in transport intensity of suspended and bedload sediment. Diverse
flow characteristics affect the transport and sorting of sediment (Nardi
and Rinaldi, 2015; Rohde et al., 2005). The morphological effect of intro-
ducing PBHS would be similar to that described by Mikuś et al. (2016)
and Zawiejska and Wyżga (2010) observed on mountain rivers in
southern Poland, where multithread channel pattern was established.
The Flinta channel was not shifted into another braid, as it was de-
scribed by Mikuś et al. (2016), however the same approach by was
utilised aiming at changing it in to environmental friendly braided sys-
tem. However it is done on the different scale since the Flinta channel is
relatively narrow.
We have shown that the development of depth and flow velocity
patches caused by PBHS can have a positive impact on the diversity of
physical habitat conditions in the river. As riverine communities are
strongly constrained by hydraulic characteristics of flows such as
water depth, flow velocity and turbulence, such measures may enhance
settlement by various groups of organisms including aquatic plants, fish
and benthic invertebrates. Variable water depth, flow velocity and tur-
bulence can stimulate in-stream biodiversity (Dyer and Thoms, 2006),
and flow divergence can increase the diversity of macroinvertebrates
253
(Błachuta et al., 2014; Kennedy and Turner, 2011; Strayer et al., 2012;
Szoszkiewicz et al., 2014) as well as plants and fish (Strayer et al., 2012).
Our research has shown that the proposed hydrotechnical structures
with growing plants are beneficial to various elements of the fluvial eco-
system, while adverse consequences for water management and river
maintenance are very limited. Erosion downstream of the PBHS is un-
likely to exceed 1.30 m, thus the PBHS act as broad-crested weirs.
Such hydraulic structures have only local influence on the river and do
not impact the functions of the whole river system. Erosion and accu-
mulation processes are limited to the neighbourhood of the structures.
The completed research showed that the observed erosional forms
along the river bed are shallow. This phenomenon provides no danger
to technical infrastructure built on the river (such as bridges).
An advantage of the use of PBHS is their low impact on high water
levels. This is a small hydraulic structure (low-head hydraulic struc-
ture), which does not increase the risk of changing the water level ex-
cessively (the maximum observed changes at bankfull flows do not
exceed 2 cm). PBHS influence on high flows can be comparable to the
restoration measures on the Idle River, north Nottinghamshire
(Downs and Thorne, 2000). River Idle has multi-functional manage-
ment requirements including flood defence, and thus environmental
improvements could not increase the extent of inundation. In this
paper the modelled inundation was calculated similarly as by Piégay
et al. (2005) where intensity of fluvial processes and forms caused by
the proposed structures affects mainly natural elements. The impact
on most engineering structures is local and does not affect the functions
of the whole river system (Morgan, 2007).
PBHS can be widely used in long river sections, especially when
hydromorphological conditions need to be improved in a short time.
This kind of structure is simple and can be quickly installed. Moreover,
the cost of installation is very low, since the materials are inexpensive
and widely available. The completed simulation of the whole Flinta
using RHS criteria (Kałuża et al., 2016) showed that large-scale use of
PBHS can significantly improve the physical structure of this water-
course, especially when combined with deflectors which can initiate
meandering and other fluvial processes.
5. Conclusions
The study presented various advantages of plant basket hydraulic
structures operating as vegetative sediment traps in a river channel.
They are river restoration measures stimulating changes in riverbed
morphology, diversifying water flow and causing its divergence around
the obstacles created by the PBHS. In this way PBHS have a positive im-
pact on hydromorphology of the river reach and may enhance its settle-
ment by various groups of animals living in the river. The adverse
consequences of PBHS introduction for engineering constructions and
river maintenance are very limited and due to low impact of the struc-
tures on high-flow levels, they do not increase the risk of inundation.
Acknowledgements
The study was funded by the National Science Centre of Poland
within the scope of the project no DEC-2011/01/B/ST10/06959.
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