Lecture 6:

Osseous Tissue
and Bone Structure
Topics:
 Skeletal cartilage
 Structure and function of bone tissues
 Types of bone cells
 Structures of the two main bone tissues
 Bone membranes
 Bone formation
 Minerals, recycling, and remodeling
 Hormones and nutrition
 Fracture repair
 The effects of aging
The Skeletal System
 Skeletal system includes:
 bones of the skeleton
 cartilages, ligaments, and connective tissues
Skeletal Cartilage
 Contains no blood vessels or nerves
 Surrounded by the perichondrium (dense
irregular connective tissue) that resists
outward expansion
 Three types – hyaline, elastic, and
fibrocartilage
Hyaline Cartilage
 Provides support, flexibility, and resilience
 Is the most abundant skeletal cartilage
 Is present in these cartilages:
 Articular– covers the ends of long bones
 Costal – connects the ribs to the sternum
 Respiratory – makes up larynx, reinforces air
passages
 Nasal – supports the nose
Elastic Cartilage
 Similar to hyaline cartilage, but contains
elastic fibers
 Found in the external ear and the epiglottis
Fibrocartilage
 Highly compressed with great tensile
strength
 Contains collagen fibers
 Found in menisci of the knee and in
intervertebral discs
Growth of Cartilage
 Appositional – cells in the perichondrium
secrete matrix against the external face of
existing cartilage
 Interstitial – lacunae-bound chondrocytes
inside the cartilage divide and secrete new
matrix, expanding the cartilage from within
 Calcification of cartilage occurs
 During normal bone growth
 During old age
Bones and Cartilages of the
Human
Body

Figure 6.1
Functions of the
Skeletal System
1. Support
2. Storage of minerals (calcium)
3. Storage of lipids (yellow marrow)
4. Blood cell production (red marrow)
5. Protection
6. Leverage (force of motion)
Bone (Osseous) Tissue
 Supportive connective tissue
 Very dense
 Contains specialized cells
 Produces solid matrix of calcium salt
deposits and collagen fibers
Characteristics of Bone Tissue
 Dense matrix, containing:
 depositsof calcium salts
 osteocytes within lacunae organized around
blood vessels
 Canaliculi:
 formpathways for blood vessels
 exchange nutrients and wastes
Osteocyte and canaliculi
Characteristics of Bone Tissue
 Periosteum:
 covers outer surfaces of bones
 consist of outer fibrous and inner cellular
layers
 Contains osteblasts responsible for bone
growth in thickness
 Endosteum
 Covers inner surfaces of bones
Bone Matrix
 Solid ground is made of mineral crystals
 2/3 of bone matrix is calcium phosphate,
Ca3(PO4)2:
 reactswith calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 to
form crystals of hydroxyapatite,
Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2 which incorporates other
calcium salts and ions
Bone Matrix
 Matrix Proteins:
 1/3 of bone matrix is protein fibers (collagen)

 Question: why aren’t bones made of ALL

collagen if it’s so strong?
Bone Matrix
 Mineral salts make bone rigid and
compression resistant but would be prone
to shattering
 Collagen fibers add extra tensile strength
but mostly add tortional flexibility to resist
shattering
Chemical Composition of Bone:
Organic
 Cells:
 Osteoblasts – bone-forming cells
 Osteocytes – mature bone cells
 Osteoprogenitor cells – grandfather cells
 Osteoclasts – large cells that resorb or break
down bone matrix
 Osteoid – unmineralized bone matrix
composed of proteoglycans, glycoproteins,
and collagen; becomes calcified later
There are four major types of cells

in matrix periosteum endosteum

only + endo only
1. Osteoblasts
 Immature bone cells
that secrete matrix
compounds
(osteogenesis)
 Eventually become
surrounded by calcified
bone and then they
become osteocytes

Figure 6–3 (2 of 4)
2.Osteocytes
 Mature bone cells
that maintain the
bone matrix

Figure 6–3 (1 of 4)
Osteocytes
 Live in lacunae
 Found between layers (lamellae) of matrix
 Connected by cytoplasmic extensions through
canaliculi in lamellae (gap junctions)
 Do not divide (remember G0?)
 Maintain protein and mineral content of matrix
 Help repair damaged bone
3. Osteoprogenitor Cells
 Mesenchyme
stem cells that
divide to produce
osteoblasts
 Are located in
inner, cellular
layer of
periosteum
 Assist in fracture
repair
4. Osteoclasts
 Secrete acids and protein-digesting enzymes

Figure 6–3 (4 of 4)
Osteoclasts
 Giant, mutlinucleate cells
 Dissolve bone matrix and release stored
minerals (osteolysis)
 Often found lining in endosteum lining the
marrow cavity
 Are derived from stem cells that produce
macrophages
Homeostasis
 Bone building (by osteocytes and -blasts)
and bone recycling (by osteoclasts) must
balance:
 more breakdown than building, bones
become weak
 exercise causes osteocytes to build bone
Bone cell lineage summary
 Osteoprogenitor cells  Osteoclasts are
related to
osteoblasts macrophages (blood
cell derived)

osteocytes
Gross Anatomy of Bones: Bone
Textures
 Compact bone – dense outer layer
 Spongy bone – honeycomb of trabeculae
filled with yellow bone marrow
Compact Bone

Figure 6–5
Osteon
 The basic structural unit of mature
compact bone
 Osteon = Osteocytes arranged in
concentric lamellae around a central canal
containing blood vessels
 Lamella– weight-bearing, column-like matrix
tubes composed mainly of collagen
Three Lamellae Types
 Concentric Lamellae
 Circumferential Lamellae
 Lamellae wrapped around the long bone line tree
rings
 Binds inner osteons together
 Interstitial Lamellae
 Found between the osteons made up of concentric
lamella
 They are remnants of old osteons that have been
partially digested and remodeled by
osteoclast/osteoblast activity
Compact Bone

Figure 6–5
Microscopic Structure of Bone:
Compact Bone

Figure 6.6a, b
Microscopic Structure of Bone:
Compact Bone

Figure 6.6a
Microscopic Structure of Bone:
Compact Bone

Figure 6.6b
Microscopic Structure of Bone:
Compact Bone

Figure 6.6c
Spongy Bone

Figure 6–6
Spongy Bone Tissue
 Makes up most of the bone tissue in short,
flat, and irregularly shaped bones, and the
head (epiphysis) of long bones; also found
in the narrow rim around the marrow cavity
of the diaphysis of long bone
Spongy Bone
 Does not have osteons
 The matrix forms an open network of
trabeculae
 Trabeculae have no blood vessels
Bone Marrow
 The space between trabeculae is filled with
marrow which is highly vascular
 Red bone marrow
 supplies nutrients to osteocytes in trabeculae
 forms red and white blood cells

 Yellow bone marrow

 yellow because it stores fat

 Question: Newborns have only red marrow. Red

changes into yellow marrow in some bones as
we age. Why?
Location of Hematopoietic
Tissue (Red Marrow)
 In infants
 Found in the medullary cavity and all areas of
spongy bone
 In adults
 Found in the diploë of flat bones, and the
head of the femur and humerus
Bone Membranes
 Periosteum – double-layered protective
membrane
 Covers all bones, except parts enclosed in joint
capsules (continuois w/ synovium)
 Made up of:
 outer, fibrous layer (tissue?)
 inner, cellular layer (osteogenic layer) is composed of
osteoblasts and osteoclasts
 Secured to underlying bone by Sharpey’s fibers
 Endosteum – delicate membrane covering
internal surfaces of bone
Sharpy’s (Perforating) Fibers
 Collagen fibers of the outer fibrous layer of
periosteum, connect with collagen fibers in
bone
 Also connect with fibers of joint capsules,
attached tendons, and ligaments
 Tendons are “sewn” into bone via
periosteum
Periosteum

Figure 6–8a
Functions of Periosteum
1. Isolate bone from surrounding tissues
2. Provide a route for circulatory and
nervous supply
3. Participate in bone growth and repair
Endosteum

Figure 6–8b
Endosteum
 An incomplete cellular layer:
 lines the marrow cavity
 covers trabeculae of spongy bone
 lines central canals

 Contains osteoblasts, osteoprogenitor

cells, and osteoclasts
 Is active in bone growth and repair
Bone Development
 Human bones grow until about age 25
 Osteogenesis:
 bone formation
 Ossification:
 the process of replacing other tissues with bone
 Osteogenesis and ossification lead to:
 Theformation of the bony skeleton in embryos
 Bone growth until early adulthood
 Bone thickness, remodeling, and repair through life
Calcification
 The process of depositing calcium salts
 Occurs during bone ossification and in
other tissues
Formation of the Bony Skeleton
 Begins at week 8 of embryo development
 Ossification
 Intramembranous ossification – bone
develops from a fibrous membrane
 Endochondral ossification – bone forms by
replacing hyaline cartilage
Intramembranous Ossification
Note: you don’t have to know the steps of
this process in detail
 Also called dermal ossification (because it
occurs in the dermis)
 produces dermal bones such as mandible and
clavicle
 Formation of most of the flat bones of the
skull and the clavicles
 Fibrous connective tissue membranes are
formed by mesenchymal cells
The Birth of Bone
 When new bone is born, either during
development or regeneration, it often
starts out as spongy bone (even if it will
later be remodeled into compact bone)
Endochondral Ossification
Note: you DO have to know this one
 Begins in the second month of development
 Uses hyaline cartilage “bones” as models for
bone construction then ossifies cartilage into
bone
 Common, as most bones originate as hyaline
cartilage
 This is like a “trick” the body uses to allow long
bones to grow in length when bones can only
grow by appositional growth
Bone formation in a chick embryo

 Stained to represent
hardened bone (red)
and cartilage (blue)

 : This image is the cover illustration from The Atlas of Chick

Development by Ruth Bellairs and Mark Osmond, published by
Academic Press (New York) in 1998
Fetal Primary Ossification
Centers

Figure 6.15
Stages of Endochondral
Ossification
 Bone models form out of hyaline cartilage
 Formation of bone collar
 Cavitation of the hyaline cartilage
 Invasion of internal cavities by the periosteal
bud, and spongy bone formation
 Formation of the medullary cavity; appearance
of secondary ossification centers in the
epiphyses
 Ossification of the epiphyses, with hyaline
cartilage remaining only in the epiphyseal plates
 Stages of Endochondral Ossification Secondary Articular
ossificaton cartilage
center
Spongy
Epiphyseal bone
blood vessel
Deteriorating
cartilage
Hyaline matrix
cartilage Epiphyseal
Spongy plate
Primary bone cartilage
ossification formation Medullary
center cavity

Bone collar
Blood
vessel of
periosteal
bud
1 Formation of
bone collar
2 Cavitation of
around hyaline
the hyaline carti-
cartilage model. 3 Invasion of
lage within the
cartilage model. internal cavities 4 Formation of the
by the periosteal medullary cavity as
bud and spongy ossification continues; 5 Ossification of the
bone formation. appearance of sec- epiphyses; when
ondary ossification completed, hyaline
centers in the epiphy- cartilage remains only
ses in preparation in the epiphyseal plates
for stage 5. and articular cartilages.

Figure 6.8
Endochondral
Ossification: Step 1
(Bone Collar)
 Blood vessels grow
around the edges of the
cartilage
 Cells in the
perichondrium change to
osteoblasts:
 producing a layer of
superficial bone (bone
collar) around the shaft
which will continue to
grow and become
compact bone
(appositional growth) Figure 6–9 (Step 2)
Endochondral
Ossification: Step 2 (Cavitation)
 Chondrocytes in the center of
the hyaline cartilage of each
bone model:
 enlarge
 form struts and calcify
 die, leaving cavities in cartilage

Figure 6–9 (Step 1)

Endochondral
Ossification: Step 3 (Invasion)
 Periosteal bud brings blood
vessels into the cartilage:
 bringingosteoblasts and
osteoclasts
 spongy bone develops at the
primary ossification center

Figure 6–9 (Step 3)

Endochondral
Ossification: Step 4a (Remodelling)
 Remodeling creates a marrow
(medullary) cavity:
 bone replaces cartilage at the
metaphyses
 Diaphysis elongates

Figure 6–9 (Step 4)

Endochondral
Ossification: Step 4b (2° Ossification)
 Capillaries and osteoblasts
enter the epiphyses:
 creating secondary
ossification centers (perinatal)

Figure 6–9 (Step 5)

Endochondral
Ossification: Step 5 (Elongation)
 Epiphyses fill with
spongy bone but
cartilage remains at two
sites:
 ends of bones within the
joint cavity = articular
cartilage
 cartilage at the
metaphysis = epiphyseal
cartilage (plate)

Figure 6–9 (Step 6)

Postnatal Bone Growth
 Growth in length of long bones
 Cartilage on the side of the epiphyseal plate
closest to the epiphysis is relatively inactive
 Cartilage abutting the shaft of the bone
organizes into a pattern that allows fast,
efficient growth
 Cells of the epiphyseal plate proximal to the
resting cartilage form three functionally
different zones: growth, transformation, and
osteogenic
Functional Zones in Long Bone
Growth
 Growth zone – cartilage cells undergo
mitosis, pushing the epiphysis away from
the diaphysis
 Transformation zone – older cells enlarge,
the matrix becomes calcified, cartilage
cells die, and the matrix begins to
deteriorate
 Osteogenic zone – new bone formation
occurs
Growth in
Length of Long
Bone

Figure 6.9
Postnatal bone growth
 Remember that bone growth can only
occur from the outside (appositional
growth). So this type of endochondral
growth is a way for bones to grow from the
inside and lengthen because it is the
cartilage that is growing, not the bone
Key Concept
 As epiphyseal cartilage grows through the
division of chondrocytes it pushes the
ends of the bone outward in length.
 At the “inner” (shaft) side of the epiphyseal
plate, recently born cartilage gets turned
into bone, but as long as the cartilage
divides and extends as fast or faster than
it gets turned into bone, the bone will grow
longer
Long Bone Growth and
Remodeling
 Growth in length – cartilage continually
grows and is replaced by bone as shown
 Remodeling – bone is resorbed and added
by appositional growth as shown
compact bone thickens and strengthens
long bones with layers of circumferential
lamellae
Long Bone Growth and Remodeling

Figure 6.10
Appositional Growth
Epiphyseal Lines
 When long bone stops growing, between the
ages of 18 – 25:
 epiphyseal cartilage disappears
 epiphyseal plate closes
 visible on X-rays as an epiphyseal line

 At this point, bone has replaced all the cartilage

and the bone can no longer grow in length
Epiphyseal Lines

Figure 6–10
Hormonal Regulation of Bone
Growth During Youth
 During infancy and childhood, epiphyseal
plate activity is stimulated by growth
hormone
 During puberty, testosterone and
estrogens:
 Initially
promote adolescent growth spurts
 Cause masculinization and feminization of
specific parts of the skeleton
 Later induce epiphyseal plate closure, ending
long bone growth
Remodeling
 Remodeling continually recycles and renews
bone matrix
 Turnover rate varies within and between bones
 If deposition is greater than removal, bones get
stronger
 If removal is faster than replacement, bones get
weaker
 Remodeling units – adjacent osteoblasts and
osteoclasts deposit and resorb bone at
periosteal and endosteal surfaces
Bone Deposition
 Occurs where bone is injured or added strength
is needed
 Requires a diet rich in protein, vitamins C, D,
and A, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and
manganese
 Alkaline phosphatase is essential for
mineralization of bone
 Sites of new matrix deposition are revealed by
the:
 Osteoid seam – unmineralized band of bone matrix
 Calcification front – abrupt transition zone between
the osteoid seam and the older mineralized bone
Effects of Exercise on Bone
 Mineral recycling allows bones to adapt to
stress
 Heavily stressed bones become thicker
and stronger
Response to Mechanical Stress
 Wolff’s law – a bone grows or remodels in
response to the forces or demands placed upon
it
 Observations supporting Wolff’s law include
 Long bones are thickest midway along the shaft
(where bending stress is greatest)
 Curved bones are thickest where they are most likely
to buckle
 Trabeculae form along lines of stress
 Large, bony projections occur where heavy,
active muscles attach
Response to Mechanical Stress

Figure 6.12
Bone Resorption
 Accomplished by osteoclasts
 Resorption bays – grooves formed by
osteoclasts as they break down bone matrix
 Resorption involves osteoclast secretion of:
 Lysosomal enzymes that digest organic matrix
 Acids that convert calcium salts into soluble forms

 Dissolved matrix is transcytosed across the

osteoclast cell where it is secreted into the
interstitial fluid and then into the blood
Bone Degeneration
 Bone degenerates quickly
 Up to 1/3 of bone mass can be lost in a
few weeks of inactivity
Minerals, vitamins, and nutrients
Rewired for bone growth
 A dietary source of calcium and phosphate
salts:
 plus small amounts of magnesium, fluoride,
iron, and manganese
 Protein, vitamins C, D, and A
Hormones for Bone Growth
and Maintenance

Table 6–2
Calcitriol
 The hormone calcitriol:
 synthesis requires vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol)
 made in the kidneys (with help from the liver)
 helps absorb calcium and phosphorus from
digestive tract
The Skeleton as Calcium
Reserve
 Bones store calcium and other minerals
 Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the
body
 Calcium ions in body fluids must be closely
regulated because:
 Calcium ions are vital to:
 membranes
 neurons
 muscle cells, especially heart cells
 blood clotting
Calcium Regulation: Hormonal
Control
 Homeostasis is maintained by calcitonin and
parathyroid hormone which control storage,
absorption, and excretion
 Rising blood Ca2+ levels trigger the thyroid to
release calcitonin
 Calcitonin stimulates calcium salt deposit in
bone
 Falling blood Ca2+ levels signal the parathyroid
glands to release PTH
 PTH signals osteoclasts to degrade bone matrix
and release Ca2+ into the blood
Hormonal PTH;
calcitonin
Calcitonin
stimulates
Control secreted
calcium salt
deposit
in bone
of Blood Thyroid
gland
Ca

Rising blood
Ca2+ levels

Calcium homeostasis of blood: 9–11 mg/100 ml

Falling blood
Ca2+ levels

Thyroid
gland

Osteoclasts
degrade bone Parathyroid
matrix and release glands Parathyroid
Ca2+ into blood glands release
parathyroid
hormone (PTH)
PTH
Figure 6.11
Calcitonin and Parathyroid
Hormone Control
 Bones:
 where calcium is stored
 Digestive tract:
 where calcium is absorbed
 Kidneys:
 where calcium is excreted
Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
 Produced by parathyroid
glands in neck
 Increases calcium ion
levels by:
 stimulating osteoclasts
 increasing intestinal
absorption of calcium
 decreases calcium
excretion at kidneys
Calcitonin
 Secreted by cells in
the thyroid gland
 Decreases calcium
ion levels by:
 inhibiting osteoclast
activity
 increasing calcium
excretion at kidneys
 Actually plays very
small role in adults
Fractures
 Fractures:
 cracksor breaks in bones
 caused by physical stress

 Fractures are repaired in 4 steps

Fracture Repair Step 1:
Hematoma
 Hematoma formation
 Torn blood vessels
hemorrhage
 A mass of clotted blood
(hematoma) forms at
the fracture site
 Site becomes swollen,
painful, and inflamed
 Bone cells in the area
die

Figure 6.13.1
Fracture Repair Step 2: Soft
Callus
 Cells of the endosteum and
periosteum divide and migrate
into fracture zone
 Granulation tissue (soft callus)
forms a few days after the
fracture from fibroblasts and
endothelium
 Fibrocartilaginous callus forms to
stabilize fracture
 external callus of hyaline
cartilage surrounds break
 internal callus of cartilage and
collagen develops in marrow
cavity
 Capillaries grow into the tissue
and phagocytic cells begin
cleaning debris
Figure 6.13.2
Stages in the Healing of a Bone
Fracture
 The fibrocartilaginous callus forms when:
 Osteoblasts and fibroblasts migrate to the
fracture and begin reconstructing the bone
 Fibroblasts secrete collagen fibers that
connect broken bone ends
 Osteoblasts begin forming spongy bone
 Osteoblasts furthest from capillaries secrete
an externally bulging cartilaginous matrix that
later calcifies
Fracture Repair Step 3: Bony
Callus
 Bony callus formation
 New spongy bone
trabeculae appear in the
fibrocartilaginous callus
 Fibrocartilaginous callus
converts into a bony
(hard) callus
 Bone callus begins 3-4
weeks after injury, and
continues until firm
union is formed 2-3
months later
Figure 6.13.3
Fracture Repair Step 4:
Remodeling
 Bone remodeling
 Excess material on the bone
shaft exterior and in the
medullary canal is removed
 Compact bone is laid down to
reconstruct shaft walls
 Remodeling for up to a year
 reduces bone callus
 may never go away completely
 Usuallyheals stronger than
surrounding bone
Figure 6.13.4
Clinical advances in bone repair
 Electrical stimulation of fracture site.
 results in increased rapidity and completeness of bone healing
 electrical field may prevent parathyroid hormone from activating
osteoclasts at the fracture site thereby increasing formation of
bone and minimizing breakdown of bone,
 Ultrasound.
 Daily treatment results in decreased healing time of fracture by
about 25% to 35% in broken arms and shinbones. Stimulates
cartilage cells to make bony callus.
 Free vascular fibular graft technique.
 Uses pieces of fibula to replace bone or splint two broken ends
of a bone. Fibula is a non-essential bone, meaning it does not
play a role in bearing weight; however, it does help stabilize the
ankle.
 Bone substitutes.
 synthetic material or crushed bones from cadavers serve as
bone fillers
(Can also use sea coral).
Aging and Bones
 Bones become thinner and weaker with
age
 Osteopenia begins between ages 30 and
40
 Women lose 8% of bone mass per
decade, men 3%
Osteoporosis
 Severe bone loss which affects normal function
 Group of diseases in which bone reabsorption
outpaces bone deposit
 The epiphyses, vertebrae, and jaws are most
affected, resulting in fragile limbs, reduction in
height, tooth loss
 Occurs most often in postmenopausal women
 Bones become so fragile that sneezing or
stepping off a curb can cause fractures
 Over age 45, occurs in:
 29% of women
 18% of men
Notice what happens in
osteoporosis
Osteoporosis: Treatment
 Calcium and vitamin D supplements
 Increased weight-bearing exercise
 Hormone (estrogen) replacement therapy
(HRT) slows bone loss
 Natural progesterone cream prompts new
bone growth
 Statins increase bone mineral density
 PPIs may decrease density
Hormones and Bone Loss
 Estrogens and androgens help maintain
bone mass
 Bone loss in women accelerates after
menopause
Cancer and Bone Loss
 Cancerous tissues release osteoclast-
activating factor:
 stimulates osteoclasts
 produces severe osteoporosis
Paget’s Disease
 Characterized by excessive bone
formation and breakdown
 An excessively high ratio of spongy to
compact bone is formed
 Reduced mineralization causes spotty
weakening of bone
 Osteoclast activity wanes, but osteoblast
activity continues to work
Developmental Aspects of
Bones
 Mesoderm gives rise to embryonic
mesenchymal cells, which produce
membranes and cartilages that form the
embryonic skeleton
 The embryonic skeleton ossifies in a
predictable timetable that allows fetal age
to be easily determined from sonograms
 At birth, most long bones are well ossified
(except for their epiphyses)
Developmental Aspects of
Bones
 By age 25, nearly all bones are completely
ossified
 In old age, bone resorption predominates
 A single gene that codes for vitamin D
docking determines both the tendency to
accumulate bone mass early in life, and
the risk for osteoporosis later in life
SUMMARY
 Skeletal cartilage
 Structure and function of bone tissues
 Types of bone cells
 Structures of compact bone and spongy bone
 Bone membranes, peri- and endosteum
 Ossification: intramembranous and endochondral
 Bone minerals, recycling, and remodeling
 Hormones and nutrition
 Fracture repair
 The effects of aging
The Major Types of Fractures
 Simple (closed): bone end does not break the skin
 Compound (open): bone end breaks through the skin
 Nondisplaced – bone ends retain their normal position
 Displaced – bone ends are out of normal alignment
 Complete – bone is broken all the way through
 Incomplete – bone is not broken all the way through
 Linear – the fracture is parallel to the long axis of the
bone
 Transverse – the fracture is perpendicular to the long
axis of the bone
 Comminuted – bone fragments into three or more
pieces; common in the elderly Figure 6–16 (1 of 9)
Types of fractures (just FYI)
More fractures