Studies On A Eco-Biocomposter

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ABSTRACT
In the current scenario, the demand of food is not meets with the supply
due to lack of available fertile land. There is depletion in fertility due to
over cultivation which leads to poor yield. It is not uncommon that
commercial compost derived from organic wastes is being used for
organic farming due to the insufficient organic materials generated on-
site for composting. There are different types of composting based on the
conditions, organisms used and methods implemented. It can also be done
according to the purpose on use. Method of composting varies according
to the units and layouts. The methods also differ according to organism
used eg. Bacteria, fungi etc. composting techniques involves various
environmental factors like air, moisture, volume, mixing methods,
nutrient status etc. The document shows statically data of this factor.
Temperature is one of factor in it. The various phase of temperature may
change or affect the process and working. The document states various
uses of implementing composting process. These involves easy and
natural way of environmental soil enhancements, management of study
etc. these include loss of NH3 from soil; time consumed is more, cost
required for machinery and cost of marketing and manpower. The case
study is of Ecobiopack green. It works in simple steps like shredding,
seggregation and composting. Bioculture w→c is the most important
factor in this process as it converts the garbage into the biocompost. The
end product is pollution free, completely natural and harmless which is
useful.
KEY WORD: Municipal Solid Waste, compost, Thermophilic.

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Chapter-I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
Municipal solid waste management in any metropolitan city is an
enormous task. This sheer magnitude of the problems is adequate to
create very serious health hazard. Jeopardizing is the very existence of
fumes. The tradition method of Municipal solid waste disposal has been
by the “Conservancy system”. Which mean that the solid waste collected
from individual houses are transported via trucks to landfill site and is left
for self-decomposition.
The transportation is highly infectious and obnoxious. Solid waste
arteries of cities are not only in eye sore but also a huge health hazard on
wheels. Induced impact of garbage transportation on fuel consumption,
sound and air pollution are well known. ALSO, Landfill sites are
potential health hazard of with a very high risk factor. Leacheates from
landfills are known to contaminant the ground water over large distances
which have different ill effects on a broader scale.
Mumbai presently generates on an average 6000 plus tons of waste every
day and the most of this waste ultimately lands at the four dumping yards
existing in Mumbai. On one hand the city’s environment is deteriorating
on the other it I incurring a heavy economic burden on the citizens
without providing them panacea. The city’s solid waste is managed by the
municipality through its solid waste management department which
incurs an annual expenditure to the tune of Rs. 220 Cores for collecting,
transporting and dumping the solid waste.
Municipal domestic solid waste if segregated, treated and disposed off
properly can be converted into useful material i.e. compost. This can also
reduce load to dispose off the waste. If the domestic waste is segregated
into dry and wet waste then wet (biodegradable waste) which is of high
organic contents could be bio-degraded to give manure which is rich in
nutrients which are required for the plant growth. This process is called
‘composting.’ The bio-degradation is done in either anaerobic or aerobic
condition. There are many types of composting depending on the space
availability and type of methods used all the processes are discussed
further.
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1.2 Indian Population distribution
India’s Population As per 2011 2466 Million

Census(Cities / Towns)
Urban Population 788 Million
Urban Areas 7161
Table 1: Population distribution.
Magnitude of problem
 Per capita waste generation increasing by 1.3% per annum
 With urban population increasing between 3 – 3.5% per annum
 5% increase in waste generation annually
 India produces 42.0 million tons of MSW annually at present.
 Per capita generation of waste varies from 200 gm. to 600 gm.
/capita / day. Average generation rate at 0.4 kg per capita per day
in 0.1 million plus towns.
 Collection efficiency ranges between 50 to 90% of the SW

generated.
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Chapter-II
Literature review
Sr. Name Of paper Author Abstract

no.
1. The effect of Komilis, D. P., R.
Landfilling is one of the most
municipal solid K. Ham. widely used municipal solid waste
waste (MSW) disposal methods
pretreatment worldwide. Thermal, mechanical
on landfill and biological pretreatment
behavior techniques are used, often in
combination, prior to landfilling.
Two ways a landfill can be
managed in the future are: a final
storage quality depository, in
which environmental emissions
are kept to a minimum; or a
controlled bioreactor, in which
enhanced methane production
rates and methane utilization are
the goals.
2. Occurrence, FatihBüyüksönmez, This paper reviews the findings of
Degradation Robert Rynk, research reported in the currently
and Fate of Thomas F. Hess & available literature regarding the
Pesticides Edward Bechinski occurrence and transformations of
during pesticides through the composting
Composting: process and the use of compost.
Part II: Part I summarizes the composting
Occurrence and process, pesticides and
Fate of mechanisms of pesticide
Pesticides in degradation. Part II reviews
Compost and research studies concerning the
Composting occurrence and fate of pesticides
Systems during composting. Investigations
of pesticide residues in
composting feedstock and finished
compost detected few of the target
pesticides.
3. The impact of X.F. Lou, J. Nair. The review suggests greenhouse
landfilling and gas emissions from waste
composting on decomposition are considerably
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greenhouse gas higher for landfills than

emissions composting. However, mixed
results were found for greenhouse
gas emissions for landfill and
composting operational activities.
Nonetheless, in general, net
greenhouse gas emissions for
landfills tend to be higher than that
for composting facilities.
4. Determination S. P. Mathur, G. This article reviews more than
of Compost Owen, H. Dinel& twenty five tests that have been
Biomaturity M. Schnitzer proposed for testing the
biomaturity of composts.
Concluding that none is adequate
by itself, the authors propose an
experimental approach for
evolving a single, facile and
reliable test based on the science
of composting. Subsequent parts
of this series report on the results
of the proposed experimentation.
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Chapter-III
3.1 WHY THIS STUDY?
The development of small compact composter to convert garbage
into usable compost is need of ours. Such miniature composters, in the
long minimize the garbage over transportation over long disturbance.
Though the technical development of product is achievable community,
education on such use of gadget is the vital link. If not provide can create
the proverbial gap between the cup and lip.
Following are the advantages of composting:
 It conserves raw materials – making new products out of
recycled materials reduces the need to consume precious
resources. So recycling helps protect raw materials and protect
natural habitats for the future.
 It saves energy – using recycled materials in the manufacturing

process uses considerably less energy than that required for
producing new products from raw materials.
 It helps protect the environment – recycling reduces the need for

extracting (mining, quarrying and logging), refining and processing
raw materials all of which create substantial air and water
pollution. As recycling saves energy, it also reduces greenhouse
gas emissions, which helps to tackle climate change.
 It reduces landfill – There are over 1,500 landfill sites in the

INDIA and, in 2001, these sites produced a quarter of the INDIA’s
emissions of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas that is released
as the biodegradable waste (such as food and paper) decomposes.
Existing landfill sites are filling up fast and there is very limited
space for new ones.
 It saves you money – A massive reduction in the amount of waste

we send to landfill is required if we are to avoid the heavy fines
and the landfill taxes that are being imposed by Central
Government on councils that exceed their landfill
allowances. Increases in your Council Tax or service cuts in other
areas would be the only way of paying these penalties.
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Today, the use of composting to turn organic wastes into a valuable

resource is expanding rapidly in many countries, as landfill space
becomes scarce and expensive, and as people become more aware of the
impact they have on the environment. Thus is beneficial to focus on the
regeneration of resources from waste.
3.2Aims and Objectives

AIM: To study and analyse the compost formed via Ecobiocompack.
OBJECTIVES: The main objective of the study is:

 To conduct an economic evaluation of compost that considers both
private and social welfare
 To study costs benefits of existing options for managing the
biodegradable fraction of municipal solid waste.
 Collection and Recycling of the biodegradable fraction of municipal
solid waste.
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Chapter-IV
SOLID WASTE – CLASSIFICATION AND ITS COMPONANTS:
Solid waste comprises waste coming from many different sources. The
solid waste comprises basically of three components:-
1. Biodegradable organic waste (wet waste)

2. Recyclable waste (dry waste)
3. Building material waste or the debris component (inert waste)
4.1 Solid waste

As defined by the world health organization (WHO), the term ‘solid
waste’ is applied to unwanted and discarded material from houses, street,
sweeping and commercial and agricultural operation arising out of mass
activities of the society. Solid waste is a mixture of garbage and rubbish.
Garbage consists of perishable waste meaning waste arising from home,
hotels, hostels, etc. Rubbish consists of non-perishable solid waste.
Combustible waste consists of things like paper, cardboard, and
packaging material, wood, cloth, rags, rubber etc. Non-combustible waste
includes items like metals, cans, glass bottles, etc. It also consists of
fabric, dust, ash, inert dust, grit, sand, stones. Solid waste also includes
trees cuttings and garden refuse.
4.2Categories of solid waste
Human beings and animals generate solid wastes in various forms and
from diverse activities. Details of various categories of solid wastes
generally unwanted by society are discussed below:
a. Municipal solid waste (MSW)
MSW comprises of domestic wastes, institutional wastes, commercial
wastes, garbage, rubbish, ashes, construction and demolition wastes,
sanitation waste and street sweeping wastes.
b. Domestic wastes
These wastes are generated by household activities such as cooking,
cleaning, repairs, redecoration, empty containers, packaging, clothing, old
books, newspapers, old furnishings, etc.
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c. Commercial wastes
Solid wastes generated in offices, wholesale stores, restaurants, hotels,
markets, warehouses and commercial establishments. These are further
classified into garbage and rubbish.
d. Institutional wastes
Wastes generated from institutions such as schools, colleges, hospitals,
research institutions. The waste includes garbage, rubbish, and hazardous
wastes.
e. Garbage
It includes animal and vegetable wastes due to various activities like
storage, preparation and sale, cooking and serving. These are
biodegradable.
f. Ashes
Residues from the burning of wood, charcoal and coke for cooking and
heating in houses, institutions and small industries. Ashes consist of a
fine powdery residue, cinders, and clinker often mixed with small pieces
of metal and glass.
g. Rubbish
Apart from garbage and ashes, other solid wastes produced in households,
commercials establishments, and institutions are termed as rubbish.
h. Bulky wastes
Bulky wastes are large household appliances such as cookers,
refrigerators and washing machines as well as furniture, crates, vehicle
parts, tires, wood, trees and branches. The bulky metallic wastes are sold
as scrap metal but some portion is disposed as sanitary landfills.
i. Street wastes
Street wastes include paper, cardboard, plastics, dirt, dust, leaves, and
other vegetable matter collected from streets, walkways, alleys, parks and
vacant plots.
j. Dead animals
It includes animals that die naturally or accidentally killed. It does not
include carcass and animal parts from slaughter houses as these are
considered as industrial wastes.
k. Construction and demolition wastes
Major components of the construction materials are cement, bricks, and
cement plaster, steel, rubble, and stone, and timber, plastic and iron pipes.
10 | E C O B I O C O M P O S T E R
About 50% of the wastes are not currently recycled in India and the
construction industry in India is not aware of recycling techniques.
4.3Components of solid waste

Solid waste contains on and an average 30 to 50% organics, about 4-6%
recyclables and certain constituents having high calorific value.
Following are the major polluting matters in the Municipal Solid Waste:
a. Thin polythene bags

Thin polythene colored bags in Municipal waste can cause hazard to
environment, animals as well as municipal drainage system. These bags
contain toxic metals and are non-biodegradable.
If these polythene bags are mixed with MSW, they are difficult to
separate from other waste. If they are dumped on land with MSW, they
don’t get degraded by microorganisms and remain in the soil for years
together avoiding rainwater seepage in ground. These bags also have
reported to be a cause for death of animals fed on garbage dumps.
Thickness of the polythene bags is to be controlled and they should not be
disposed off in the Municipal Solid Waste. If segregated at source they
can be recycled.
b. Organic biodegradable matter

Waste food or easily biodegradable matter when disposed off in MSW, it
starts decomposing immediately. Decomposition of food waste takes
place due to microorganisms and gives rise to obnoxious odour too.
These microorganisms are harmful to human health and are responsible
for many diseases. Segregation and disposal of food waste at source is to
be encouraged strongly to overcome this problem.
c. Paper, Glass, Plastic and metals

Paper, glass and metals if are mixed with other MSW they create
problems in disposal of MSW. These are to be separated from MSW at
source and are to be recycled and reused.
d. Construction and waste demolition

Constructions and demolition projects generate waste ice silt, sand,
cement, bricks, iron pipes, cement plaster, steel, rubble, stone, timber,
plastic, etc. Such waste contributes to volume and also is very difficult to
segregate from MSW. It is non-biodegradable so disposal along with
biodegradable waste is difficult task.
The construction and demolition waste should be disposed off separately
and recycling / reuse of the waste should be encouraged.
Chapter-V
COMPOSTER
5.1 Composting
Composting, often described as nature’s way of recycling. It is A
biological process of breaking up of organic waste such as food waste,
manure, leaves, grass trimmings, paper, worms, and coffee grounds, etc.,
into an extremely useful humus-like substance by various micro-
organisms including bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes in the presence of
oxygen.
Fig. 1 composting materials
5.1.1. Natural Cycle

Decomposition naturally happens almost everywhere even without
exerting too much effort because nature has been generating compost as
an element to the Earth’s life and death cycle, but without the perfect
mixture, and ingredients, the process slows down and may eventually
result to unpleasant compost.
All organic matter will decompose, given enough time to devolve and
perish. Nevertheless, not all products come out perfect for planting.
There are important factors to consider such as temperature, the

biological process, and the mechanical process.
Low temperature interrupts the composting progress, as it cannot reach
the temperature hot enough to kill pathogens. It eventually disallows the
booming of decomposers and microbes. However, bacteria performs
exothermic actions as they help in the process of decomposition, so it
helps the temperature to become higher than that of the environment
where decomposition takes place, but a cold weather still slows down the
progress. A hot temperature stimulates the microbes to flourish even
faster.
5.1.2. The Human Factor
The help of humans is necessary for the mechanical process to take

place. Non-biodegradable should be separated from the biodegradable
matters. Biodegradable matter that has a lot of pathogens living in it
should be in a hotter environment when the decomposition takes place.
These pathogens usually live in manure of a living organism that is not a

vegetarian. Scraps of animal meat and dairy products have a lot of
pathogens living in it too.
The biological process is the very important part of the decomposition
procedure. As nature conceives decomposition, it will shorten the
process if the combination is right.
Water, nitrogen, carbon, and oxygen all together is a perfect mixture to

combine with organic matter to materialize the process of
decomposition. This procedure will result to productions of compost
which will eventually help the soil become healthy for planting.
5.2 Types of Composting (According To Its Nature)
 Aerobic composting
This means to compost with air. High nitrogen waste (like grass clippings
or other green material) will grow bacteria that will create high
temperatures (up to 160 degrees). Organic waste will break down quickly
and is not prone to smell.
This type of composting is high maintenance, since it will need to be

turned every couple days to keep air in the system and your
temperatures up. It is also likely to require accurate moisture monitoring.
This type of compost is good for large volumes of compost.
 Anaerobic composting: -
This is composting without air. Anaerobic composting is low

maintenance since you simply throw it in a pile and wait a couple years.
If you just stack your debris in a pile it will generally compact to the
point where there is no available air for beneficial organisms to live.
Instead you will get a very slow working bacteria growing that does not
require air. Your compost may take years to break down (this is
what happens when you throw your food waste in the garbage that goes
to the landfill). Anaerobic composts create the awful smell most people
associate with composting. The bacteria break down the organic materials
into harmful compounds like ammonia and methane.
 Vermicomposting: -
This is most beneficial for composting food waste. Along with red
worms, this includes composting with bacteria, fungi, insects, and other
bugs.
Some of these guests break down the organic materials for the others to
eat. Red worms eat the bacteria, fungi, and the food waste, and then
deposit their castings. Oxygen and moisture are required to keep this
compost healthy.
This is medium maintenance compost since you need to feed your red
worms and monitor the conditions.
5.3 Types of Composting (According To Its Use)
 Industrial systems: -
Industrial composting systems are increasingly being installed as a waste

management alternative to landfills, along with other advanced waste
processing systems. Mechanical sorting of mixed waste streams
combined with anaerobic digestion or in-vessel composting, is called
mechanical biological treatment.
Treating biodegradable waste before it enters a landfill reduces global

warming from fugitive methane; untreated waste breaks down
anaerobically in a landfill, producing landfill gas that contains methane, a
potent greenhouse gas.
 Agriculture: -
In agriculture, windrow composting is used. It is the production of

compost by piling organic matter or biodegradable waste, such as animal
manure and crop residues, in long rows (windrows). This method is
suited to producing large volumes of compost.
These rows are generally turned to improve porosity and oxygen content,
mix in or remove moisture, and redistribute cooler and hotter portions of
the pile. Windrow composting is a commonly used farm scale
composting method.
 Home: -
Home composting is the simplest way to compost. At home, composting

is generally done by using composting bins or in the form of pile
composting. Other methods include trench composting and sheet
composting. It is a small scale process and requires less outlay of capital
and labor.
5.4 Composting Materials (Tools)
The basic ingredients in composting are any biodegradable materials,

Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, and Hydrogen & micro-organics. These are
all free compounds which we can get from nature. Decomposition may
proceed slowly at the first because of smaller microbial populations, but
as the populations grows in the first few hours or days, they rapidly
consume the organic materials present in the feedstock. If all conditions
are ideal for a given microbial population to perform at its maximum
potential, composting will occur rapidly. Therefore, the composting

process needs to cater to physico-chemical and biological conditions for
the microorganisms to survive, grow and multiply which rapidly stabilize
the organic matter called compost. This is made up largely of microbial
cells, microbial skeletons and byproducts of microbial decomposition.
However, there are some microbes which are potential pathogens to
animals, plants or humans. Most of this destruction takes place by
continuing the composting operations under controlled physical process,
i.e. temperature, as given below in critical parameters in composting.
5.5 Composting Materials (Nitrogen and Carbon and Hydrogen)
Nitrogen helps the balancing of acid and helps boost the microbes’
activity in compost. Urine, coffee grounds, and green materials such as
clippings from grass and leaves are high in Nitrogen.
Carbon is the main ingredient that produces heat that the microbes’
activity also produces. Protein helps the multiplication of microorganisms
that oxidizes the carbon. Sources of high carbon are brown in color.
Examples of these are twigs, wood chips, and dried leaves.
Hydrogen or water is also necessary in composting. The compost should

maintain a certain dryness as well as moistness. The compost should not
be overwatered but the ideal moistness should the consistency a wrung-
out sponge that has a moisture content of 50 percent.
Oxygen is necessary because the microorganism in compost needs it to

continue living. Another purpose of oxygen is to eliminate unpleasant
odor. Bad odor exists because of poor air circulation. This is also the
reason why overwatering the compost is a disadvantage. It blocks air
passage and the beneficial organisms perish.
Chapter-VI
Methods used for composting
6.1 Introduction of composting methods
The secret to successful composting is to select an approach and

technique that suits your needs and lifestyle. Your choice will depend on
a number of factors such as how much space is available, what materials
you have, how you plan to use the compost, how much time you want to
spend, and how neat you want your compost pile to look.
For example, 1) if you only need a little compost, want to expend

minimal effort, and have a small area to do it, best choice will be a
commercially available bin.
2) If you have plenty of space and want large quantities of compost

quickly, deluxe three bin unites suitable.
3) If you want to compost vegetative food waste separately, directly

incorporate them into the soil.
6.1.1 Types of composting methods:

A] Holding Units
Holding units are bins used to hold yard and kitchen materials until
composting is complete. They need relatively little maintenance, and
some models can be used by apartment dwellers for composting on
balconies. Non-woody materials can be added to a holding unit as they
are generated. (Many of the commercial one bin systems sold in stores
and mail-order catalogs are holding units.) Using a holding unit is one of
the easiest ways to compost but is generally slower. This type of
enclosure makes it difficult to turn the heap as a way of increasing
oxygen. No turning is required, but the lack of aeration causes the
composting process to take from six months to two years.
The process can be hastened by using portable bins. Some lightweight

units are designed to be taken apart and easily moved. These units can be
removed from an existing heap and transferred to an adjacent location.
The heap is then turned back over into the unit, mixing and aerating
materials. Portable units can be purchased (usually plastic) or constructed
from circles of wire fencing or hardware cloth, snow fencing, or wire
framed in wood.
Other folks attempt to improve aeration in holding units by adding one or

more ventilating stacks or by poking holes into the pile. Ventilating
stacks need to be placed into the center of the bin prior to making a pile.
Stacks can be made out of perforated pipe, a cylinder of wire mesh or
even a bunch of twigs loosely tied together. PVC pipes should be at least
one inch in diameter with holes drilled randomly along the length. They
can be inserted vertically or horizontally. Another alternative to improve
aeration is to place the holding unit on a wood pallet or plastic aeration
mat (available from composting equipment dealers).
In holding units, stages of decomposition will vary from the top to the
bottom of the heap since yard trimmings and
other organics are added continuously.
Typically, the more finished compost will be
found near the bottom of a pile. Finished
compost at the bottom can be removed and
used. How easily one gets to the finished
compost depends on the type of bin used.
Some holding units are designed with a
removable front or small doors at the bottom
of the bin. With portable bins, finished and
unfinished compost can be separated using a similar method to the one
described previously. The portable bin should be removed and set nearby.
Less decomposed materials from the top of the pile can be put into the
empty unit until finished compost is uncovered. More effort is required
for heavy or permanent holding units without removable doors.
Unfinished compost must be removed and placed in an adjoining unit or
temporary storage container. If you have room, it is helpful to have two
or three stationary units. One bin can be used for fresh organics, another
for maturing materials, and possibly, a third
for finished compost.
In addition to the portable bins mentioned

earlier, there are numerous other types of
commercial and home-built units. Stores and
mail order catalogs typically sell units made
from plastic and occasionally wood. Home-
built units can be constructed from pallets,
lumber, hardware cloth, tires, and metal
barrels, among other materials. Some people like the appearance of
permanent structures which can be made from landscape timbers,
concrete blocks, rocks, or bricks.
If you plan to build a wood composting unit, avoid using this lumber
treated with copper arsenate (CCA), creosote, and penta. (You should
also avoid using the lumber around vegetable gardens.) Toxic compounds
from the wood preservatives could leach into your compost. The
compounds are harmful to humans and pets. They have been shown to
cause cancer and skin and eye irritations. Use wood that is naturally
resistant to decay such as cedar or untreated pine. Structures built from
pine will probably have to be replaced within a few years. By then, you
may be ready for a multiple bin unit or a new design.
B] Turning Units
Turning units are systems designed to be turned or aerated. These units

work faster than holding units, because aerobic bacteria are provided with
the oxygen they need to break down materials. There are two general
forms of turning units: either a series of bins, or a rotating barrel or
rolling ball. When organic materials are turned and mixed on a regular
basis (every five to ten days), compost can be made in two months or less
(assuming a good carbon/nitrogen mix and proper moisture content).
Frequent turning offers important advantages in addition to faster
composting. Higher temperatures produced as a result of turning (90° -
140° F) will kill major disease organisms and fly larvae, help kill weed
seeds, and provide a good environment for the most effective decomposer
organisms.
Turning systems typically cost more than holding units and/or require
greater effort to build. Turning composting materials in multiple bins and
rolling balls may be difficult for people with back problems or limited
physical strength. In contrast, some barrel units are designed for ease of
turning and maintenance. These systems may actually be easier to use
than holding units for older or physically challenged composters. Barrel
units tend to have smaller capacities than most other bins, which make
them better suited for people with small amounts of yard trimmings and
food scraps.
Materials need to be carefully prepared and added to turning units in

stockpiled batches. Materials should be saved until there is enough to fill
one bin of a multiple unit, or to fill a barrel unit to the prescribed level.
Food wastes can be accumulated in a pest-proof container such as a
plastic, five gallon bucket. If necessary, sawdust can be added to the top
of each day's scraps to reduce odor.
FIG. 2 TURNING UNITS

C] Heaps
Heap composting is similar to composting with holding and turning units
except that it does not require a structure. Recommended dimensions for
a heap are 5 feet wide by 3 feet high. Length can vary depending on the
amount of materials used. Heaps take more space due to gravity. The
wider width will help the pile retain heat better. Materials can be added as
they are generated or they can be stored until enough are available to
make a good sized heap. During
fall months, making a good sized
heap will help the composting
process work longer into the
winter season. Ideally, two heaps
are better than one. When the
first heap is large enough, it
should be allowed to compost
undisturbed. A second heap can be started with new materials.
Turning a heap is optional. The composting process will obviously take

longer if the pile is not turned. Food scraps should not be thrown on an
unturned pile because pests are likely to be attracted. Woody materials
may also pose a problem. If woody materials are not cut up into small
pieces, the pile may tend to become more of a brush pile than a
composting pile. A woody pile decomposes extremely slowly, usually
over a period of several years, and can become huge quickly.
D] Sheet Composting
Sheet composting is a way to obtain the benefits of decayed organic

material without building a composting pile. Sheet composting involves
spreading a thin layer of organic materials, such as leaves, over a garden
area. The materials are then tilled in with a hoe, spade, garden fork, or
rotary tiller. Leaves, garden debris, weeds, grass clippings, and vegetative
food scraps are examples of materials that can be easily tilled into the
soil. To aid decomposition, materials should be shredded or chopped
prior to layering.
The danger of sheet composting as a compost-making method is that

carbon containing residues will call upon the nitrogen reserves of the soil
for their decomposition. On the other hand, high-nitrogen materials may

release their nitrogen too quickly in the wrong form. What may take a
matter of weeks in a compost pile, given confined and thermophilic
conditions, may take a full season in the soil.
To ensure adequate decomposition of organic materials before planting, it

is best to do sheet composting in the fall. Spread a 2 to 4-inch layer of
organic materials on the soil surface and till in. A rotary tiller will do the
most thorough job of working materials into a vegetable garden. In a
flower bed containing perennials and bulbs, it may be necessary to
carefully work the organic material in with a garden fork or hoe.
E] Pit or Trench Composting
This is the simplest way for composting kitchen scraps. Dig a one-foot-
deep hole. Chop and mix the food wastes into the soil then cover with at
least 8 inches of additional soil. Depending on soil temperature, the
supply of microorganisms in the soil and the content of the materials,
decomposition will occur in one month to one year.
Food waste burial can be done randomly in unused areas of the garden or
in an organized system. One system is to bury scraps in holes dug around
the drip line of trees or shrubs. An English system, known as pit or trench
composting, maintains three season rotation or soil incorporation and
growing. Sometimes this is also called vertical composting. Divide
garden space into 3’ wide rows.
Year 1 – Dig a 1’ foot wide trench on the left hand 1/3 of the 3’ area (A).
Add compostable materials in this trench and cover with soil when half
an inch full. Leave the center 1’ section open for a path (B), and plant
your crop in the remaining 1’ strip along the right side (C).
Year 2 – Section A is a path for year 2 allowing time for the Materials to
break down. Plant your crop in section B. Section C, where you planted
last year, becomes the compost trench.
Year 3 – Section A is now ready for planting. Section B is your trench

for composting. Section C is in the second year of composting is it will be
the path.
6.2 Microorganism involved in composting
In the process of composting, microorganisms break down organic matter

and produce carbon dioxide, water, heat, and humus, the relatively stable
organic end product. Under optimal conditions, composting proceeds
through three phases: 1) the mesophilic, or moderate-temperature phase,
which lasts for a couple of days, 2) the thermophilic, or high-temperature
phase, which can last from a few days to several months, and finally, 3) a
several-month cooling and maturation phase.
Different communities of microorganism’sworkspredominate during the

various composting phases. Initial decomposition is carried out by
mesophilic microorganisms,as the temperature rises above about 40°C,
the mesophilic microorganisms become less competitive and are replaced
by others that are thermophilic, or heat-loving.
Larger organisms are involved in physically transforming organic

material into compost. They are active during the later stages of
composting – digging, chewing, sucking, digesting and mixing
compostable materials. In addition to mixing materials, they break it into
smaller pieces, and transform it into more digestible forms for
microorganisms. Their excrement is also digested by bacteria, causing
more nutrients to be released.
The lists of micro-organisms are as follows:
Bacteria
Bacteria are the smallest living organisms and the most numerous in
compost; they make up 80 to 90% of the billions of microorganisms
typically found in a gram of compost. Bacteria are responsible for most of
the decomposition and heat generation in compost. They are the most
nutritionally diverse group of compost organisms, using a broad range of
enzymes to chemically break down a variety of organic
materials.
Bacteria are single-celled and structured as either rod-

shaped bacilli, sphere-shaped cocci or spiral-shaped
spirilla. Many are motile, meaning that they have the
ability to move under their own power. At the beginning of the
composting process (0-40°C), mesophilic bacteria predominate. Most of
these are forms that can also be found in topsoil.
As the compost heats up above 40°C, thermophilic

bacteria take over. The microbial populations during
this phase are dominated by members of the genus
Bacillus. The diversity of bacilli species is fairly high at
temperatures from 50-55°C but decreases dramatically at 60°C or above.
When conditions become unfavorable, bacilli survive by forming
endospores, thick-walled spores that are highly resistant to heat, cold,
dryness, or lack of food. They are ubiquitous in nature and become active
whenever environmental conditions are favorable.
At the highest compost temperatures, bacteria of the genus Thermus have

been isolated. Composters sometimes wonder how microorganisms
evolved in nature that can withstand the high temperatures found in active
compost. Thermus bacteria were first found in hot springs in Yellowstone
National Park and may have evolved there. Other places where
thermophilic conditions exist in nature include deep sea thermal vents,
manure droppings, and accumulations of decomposing vegetation that
have the right conditions to heat up just as they would in a compost pile.
Once the compost cools down, mesophilic

bacteria again predominate. The numbers
and types of mesophilic microbes that
recolonize compost as it matures depend on
what spores and organisms are present in the compost as well as in the
immediate environment. In general, the longer the curing or maturation
phase, the more diverse the microbial community it supports.
Actinomycetes
The characteristic earthy smell of soil is caused by actinomycetes,

organisms that resemble fungi but actually are filamentous bacteria. Like
other bacteria, they lack nuclei, but they grow multicellular filaments like
fungi. In composting they play an important role in degrading complex
organics such as cellulose, lignin, chitin, and proteins. Their enzymes
enable them to chemically break down tough debris such as woody stems,
bark, or newspaper. Some species appear during the
thermophilic phase, and others become important
during the cooler curing phase, when only the most
resistant compounds remain in the last stages of the
formation of humus.
Actinomycetes form long, thread-like branched filaments that look like

gray spider webs stretching through compost. These filaments are most
commonly seen toward the end of the composting process, in the outer 10
to 15 centimeters of the pile. Sometimes they appear as circular colonies
that gradually expand in diameter.
Fungi
Fungi include molds and yeasts, and collectively

they are responsible for the decomposition of many
complex plant polymers in soil and compost. In
compost, fungi are important because they break down tough debris,
enabling bacteria to continue the decomposition process once most of the
cellulose has been exhausted. They spread and grow vigorously by
producing many cells and filaments, and they can attack organic residues
that are too dry, acidic, or low in nitrogen for bacterial decomposition.
Most fungi are classified as saprophytes because they

live on dead or dying material and obtain energy by
breaking down organic matter in dead plants and
animals. Fungal species are numerous during both
mesophilic and thermophilic phases of composting. Most fungi live in the
outer layer of compost when temperatures are high. Compost molds are
strict aerobes that grow both as unseen filaments and as gray or white
fuzzy colonies on the compost surface.
Protozoa
Protozoa are one-

celled microscopic animals. They are found in water droplets in compost
but play a relatively minor role in decomposition. Protozoa obtain their
food from organic matter in the same way as
bacteria do but also act as secondary consumers
ingesting bacteria and fungi.
Rotifers
Rotifers are microscopic multicellular organisms also found in

films of water in the compost. They feed on organic matter
and also ingest bacteria and fungi.
6.3 Ecology of Compost:
“Mites and springtails eat fungi. Tiny feather-winged beetles feed on

fungal spores. Nematodes ingest bacteria. Protozoa and rotifers present in
water films feed on bacteria and plant particles. Predaceous mites and
pseudoscorpions prey upon nematodes, fly larvae, other mites and
collembolans. Free-living flatworms ingest gastropods, earthworms,
nematodes and rotifers. Third-level consumers such as centipedes, rove
beetles, ground beetles, and ants prey on second-level consumers.”
The following is an overview of some of the larger microorganisms you

are likely to find in a compost pile.
Ants - Ants feed on a variety of materials including fungi,

seeds, sweets and other insects. They help the composting
process by bringing fungi and other organisms into their
nests. Ants can make compost richer in phosphorus and
potassium by moving minerals around as they work
Millipedes – Millipedes have wormlike segmented

bodies, with each segment having two pairs of walking
legs (except the front few segments). Millipedes help
break down plant material by eating soft decaying vegetation. They will
roll up in a ball when in danger.
Centipedes – Centipedes are flat, segmented worms

with one pair of legs in each segment. They are third-
level consumers that feed on soil invertebrates,
especially insects and spiders.
Sow bugs – Sow bugs have a flat and oval body with
distinct segments and ten pairs of legs. They are first-
level consumers that feed on rotting woody materials and other decaying
vegetation. Pill bugs look similar to sow bugs, but roll up in a ball when
disturbed.
Springtails – Springtails are small insects

distinguished by their ability to jump when
disturbed. They rarely exceed one-quarter inch in
length and vary in color from white to blue to black. Springtails are
principally fungi feeders, although they also eat molds and chew on
decomposing plants.
Flies – Flies are two-wing insects that feed on almost any kind of
organic material. They also act as airborne carriers of bacteria,
depositing it wherever they land. Although flies are not often a
problem associated with compost piles, you can control their numbers by
keeping a layer of dry leaves or grass clippings on top of the pile. Also,
bury food scraps at least eight to twelve inches deep into the pile.
Thermophilic temperatures kill fly larvae. Mites help to keep fly larvae
reduced in numbers.
Beetles - Beetles are insects with two pairs of wings. Types

commonly found in compost piles include the rove beetle, ground
beetle, and feather-winged beetle. The feather-winged beetle feeds
on fungal spores. Immature grubs feed on decaying vegetables. Adult
rove and ground beetles prey on snails, slugs, and other small
animals.
Snails and slugs - Snails and slugs are mollusks that travel in
a creeping movement. Snails have a spiral shell with a distinct
head and retractable foot. Slugs do not have a shell and are somewhat
bullet shaped with antennae on their front section. They feed primarily on
living plant material, but they will also attack plant debris. Look for them
in finished compost before using it, as they could do damage to your
garden if they move in.
Spiders - Spiders are eight-legged creatures and third-level

consumers that feed on insects and small invertebrates. They
can be very helpful for controlling garden pests.
Earthworms - Earthworms are the most important of the large physical

decomposers in a compost pile. Earthworms ingest organic
matter and digest it with the help of tiny stones in their
gizzards. Their intestinal juices are rich in hormones,
enzymes, and other fermenting substances that continue the
breakdown process. The worms leave dark, fertile castings behind. A
worm can produce its weight in castings each day. These castings are rich
in plant nutrients such as nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus
that might otherwise be unavailable to plants. Earthworms thrive on
compost and contribute greatly to its quality. The presence of earthworms
in either compost or soil is evidence of good microbial activity.
Chapter-VII
7.1 Fundamentals of composting

Aerobic microorganisms extract energy from the organic matter through a
series of exothermic reactions that break the material down to simpler
materials. The basic aerobic decay equation holds-
(Complex-organics) + O2 -------- CO2 + H2O + NO3- + (SO4)2- + (other

less complex organics) + heat.
Similarly, anaerobic microorganisms extract energy from the organic

matter – the equation holds-
(Complex-substrate) ------- CH4 + CO2 + NH3 + H2S + another end-

product. + Energy.
7.2Critical design parameters in composting

Critical design parameters which affect the composting processes are
moisture and oxygen, particle size, mixing/turning, carbon to nitrogen
ratio, nutrient status, temperature, pH, heat evolution, control of
pathogens, degree of decomposition, time, etc.
1) Air Factor
Proper aeration is a key environmental factor. Many microorganisms,

including aerobic bacteria, need oxygen. They need oxygen to produce
energy, grow quickly, and consume more materials. Aeration involves the
replacement of oxygen deficient air in a compost pile with fresh air
containing oxygen. Natural aeration occurs when air warmed by the
composting process rises through the pile, bringing in fresh air from the
surroundings. Aeration can also be affected by wind, moisture content,
and porosity (spaces between particles in the compost pile). Composting
reduces the pile’s porosity and decreases air circulation. Porosity can be
negatively affected if large quantities of finely sized materials such as

pine needles, grass clippings, or sawdust are used. In addition, air
circulation can be impeded if materials become water saturated.
Air movement in the pile can be improved with a

few simple techniques. The easiest way to aerate
a pile is to regularly turn it with a pitchfork or
shovel. Turning will fluff up the pile and
increase its porosity. Another option is to add
coarse materials such as leaves, straw, or corn
stalks. Other options include using a compost aeration tool (available
from garden supply companies) or a ventilator stack. Stacks can be made
out of perforated plastic pipes, chicken wire wrapped in a circle, or
bundles of twigs. Ventilator stacks may be useful for large piles and
should stick out the top or sides.
2) Moisture Factor
Decomposer organisms need water to live. Microbial activity occurs most

rapidly in thin water films on the surface of organic materials.
Microorganisms can only utilize organic molecules that are dissolved in
water. The optimum moisture content for a compost pile should range
from 40 to 60 percent. If there is less than 40 percent
moisture, bacteria slow down and may become dormant. If
there is more than 60 percent, water will force air out of pile
pore spaces, suffocating the aerobic bacteria. Anaerobic
bacteria will take over, resulting in unpleasant odors.
The ideal percentage of moisture will depend on the organic

material’s structure. Straw and corn stalks will need more moisture than
leaves, while food waste or grass clippings are not likely to need
additional moisture. Since it is difficult to measure moisture, a general
rule of thumb is to wet and mix materials so they are about as moist as a
wrung-out sponge. Material should feel damp to the touch, with just a
drop or two of liquid expelled when squeezed in your hand.
If a compost pile is too dry, it should be watered as the pile is being

turned or with a trickling hose. Certain materials such as dead leaves,
hay, straw, and sawdust should be gradually moistened until they glisten.
These types of materials have a tendency to shed water or adsorb it only

on the surface. If a pile is saturated with water, turn it so that materials
are restacked. It may also help to add dry, carbon rich material.
3) Particle Size Factor
Particle size affects the rate of organic matter breakdown. The more
“surface area” available, the easier it is for microorganisms to work,
because activity occurs at the interface of particle surfaces and air.
Microorganisms are able to digest more, generate more heat, and multiply
faster with smaller pieces of material. Although it is not required,
reducing materials into smaller pieces will definitely speed
decomposition. Organic materials can be chopped, shredded, split,
bruised, or punctured to increase their surface
area. Don’t “powder” materials, because they will
compact and impede air movement in the pile.
For many yard trimmings, cutting materials with a

knife, pruning shear, or machete is adequate. An
easy way to shred leaves is to mow them before
raking. You can collect them at the same time if
your mower has a bag attachment.
Another option is to use a lawn trimmer to shred leaves in a garbage can.

Several different models of shredders and chippers are available for sale
or rental to use in shredding woody materials and leaves. It is a good idea
to wear safety goggles when doing any type of shredding or chopping
activity. Hands should be kept out of the machine while it is in operation.
Kitchen scraps can be chopped up with a knife. Some ambitious people

use meat grinders and blenders to make “garbage soup” from their food
scraps and water. They pour the mixture into their heaps.
4) Volume Factor
Volume is a factor in retaining compost pile heat. In order to become self-

insulating and retain heat, piles made in the Midwest should ideally be
about one cubic yard. The one cubic yard size retains heat and moisture,
but is not too large that the material will become unwieldy for turning.
Homes located on lakes or in windy areas may want to consider slightly

larger piles measuring 4 feet x 4 feet x 4 feet. Smaller compost piles will
still decompose material, but they may not heat up as well, and
decomposition is likely to take longer.
5) Mixing/Turning.
To prevent drying, taking and air channeling, organic waste materials in
the process of being composted should be mixed or turned regularly or as
required. The frequency of mixing or turning will depend on the type of
composting operation. Mixing once a day is usually enough for efficient
composting. Also, mixing of the composting is necessary to ensure that
all particles of the mass are exposed to oxygen and active
microorganisms. The mixing redistributes air pockets and prevents the
mass from mass settling. Mixing can be done in specially designed
machines or by heavy equipment such as a front end loader capable of
handling large volumes.
6) Carbon/Nitrogen ratio
Carbon/nitrogen ratio is the most important chemical consideration in the

compost. Carbon/nitrogen is considered in the decomposition process at a
rate which is proportional to one another. The guidelines available
indicate that the optimum ratio is between 25 and 40 to 1. The mature
compost should have a ratio greater than 20:1 to be safe for addition to
soil.
1. too much little carbon to nitrogen during decomposition will result
in ammonia volatilization, consuming the nitrogen; and
2. too much carbon/nitrogen reduces the efficiency of the process

because of greater required microbial activity to reduce the ratio
7) Nutrient status
The documents show that the nutrient levels of organic wastes as

food source for microorganisms in composting are:
Nutrient status
(i) organic carbon 9.15 to 17.98%
(ii) total nitrogen 0.5 to 1.5%
(iii)Available phosphorus 0.1 to 0.3%
(iv)Available potassium 0.15 to 0.56%
(vi)Calcium and Magnesium 22.67 to 70% meq/100 gram
(vii)Copper 2.0 to 9.5 ppm
(viii)Iron 2.0 to 9.3 ppm
(ix)Zinc 5.7 to 11.5 ppm
(x)Available sulphur 128 to 548 ppm
Table 2: Nutrient status of organic wastes for microorganism

The Carbon to Nitrogen ratio can be maintained by using selected

materials (by weight).
C/N ratio
Material C:N
A. Materials with high nitrogen values
(i) vegetable waste: 12 to 10:1
(ii) coffee grounds: 20:1
(iii) grass clippings: 12 to 25:1
(iv) cow manure: 12:1
(v) horse manure: 25:1
(vi) poultry litter: 13 to 18:1
B. Materials with thin carbon values

(vii) leaves: 3 to 80:1
(viii) corn stalks: 60:1
(ix) straw: 40 to 100:1
(x) bark: 100 to 130:1
(xi) paper: 150 to 130:1
Table 3: carbon and nitrogen ratio.
8) Temperature
The oxidation of carbon raises the temperature level. The documents

show that the higher temperature, more the oxidation and oxygen
consumption. Too high a temperature above 70oc renders microorganisms
inactive. The optimum temperature is in the range of 55oc to 70oc. If this
temperature is not attained then there is something missing in the process.
If temperature rises above 70oC then there is risk of losing ammonia. The
weed seeds and pathogens are killed after prolonged exposure to above
60oc. Sanitization can be obtained in reaching temperatures above 60 ocfor
5 to 24 hours. Temperatures above 80oc are not desirable because they

would dry up the waste too rapidly and destroy the biological activity of
the microorganisms. Temperature can be controlled by regulating the air
flow. Air is needed to provide oxygen to the microorganisms, but excess
aeration would reduce the temperature.
TEMPERATURE TREND IN COMPOSTING
1) Ambient temperature:
In the beginning of the composting process, the solid waste materials
remain at ambient temperature. The microorganisms (e.g. Bacillus,
Micrococcus, Penicillium, Pseudomonas, Staphyllococci, and Sarcina)
utilize the simple, easily degradable, organic substances in the organic
solid waste for carbon and energy needs. Some of the energy is used in
metabolism, and the rest is given off as heat.
2) Mesophilic:
It is an initial phase lasting one to two days, during which the mesophilic
strains of microorganisms (e.g. Pseudomonas spp., Streptomyces spp.,
Bacillus spp., Flavobacterium spp., Clostridium spp.) start decomposing
the rapidly degradable compounds; heat is given off and the temperature
rises. As the indigenous mesophilic organisms increase in numbers, the
temperature rises above 40oC. The pH slightly falls as organic acids are
produced.
3) Thermophilic:
The mesophilic organisms are then succeeded by thermophilic bacteria
and fungi (Bacillus spp., Streptomyces spp., Thermoactinomyces spp.,
Thermomonospora spp., Micropolyspora spp.,) above 40oC, lasting two
to four weeks. If the temperature rises above 60oC, the fungi become
deactivated; the reaction is continued by thermophilic bacteria.
During this phase, the more rapidly degradable substances such as sugars,
fats, starch and proteins are rapidly consumed and the most the human
and plant pathogens are destroyed. The pH at this stage is alkaline due to
the liberated ammonia from proteins. Also, the reaction rate decreases as
the more resistant materials are attacked. This is followed by the next
stage.
4) Cooling- down
At this stage, as the temperature falls, the thermotolerant fungi reinvade
the composted material from the cooler environment. The stages II, III
and IV of composting last from a few weeks to two months, depending on

the composed material and technology of composting.
9) Stabilization and maturation
The process of stabilization and maturation require several months,
during which little heat is liberated and the final pH is normally slightly
alkaline.
During this phase, mesophilic microorganisms as well as macrofauna
colonize the compost. Intense population for food takes place between the
microorganisms, involving antagonism and the formation of the
antibiotics. Humification occurs in the residual organic matter to produce
the stable end product (compost). This process probably includes the
polymerization of aromatic compounds as well as lignin modifications.
Thus, it could be important if pollutants, detoxification takes place via
immobilization in the humic substances.
7.3FACTORS TO BE MAINTAINED DURING COMPOSTING

Composting of solid wastes is a dynamic and extremely complex
ecological process in which temperature, pH, and nutrient availability
constantly need to be monitored and kept under controlled variable
environmental conditions.
1) pH
The pH of compost changes during the process. As it begins organic acids
drop the pH straightly acidic, then the temperature rises the pH also rises
and becomes straightly alkaline. The addition of limestone accelerates the
rate of decomposition by giving an elevated pH from the beginning.
However, this small increase in efficiency is not justified, because of cost.
Also, an increase in pH along with higher temperature promotes extra
loss of nitrogen as ammonia.
Animal manure generally has an excess of nitrogen and pH slightly
alkaline. The pH for composting is fine but the carbon to nitrogen ratio
could be increased. This is done with the addition of soft wood shavings,
straw, corncobs or some other natural source of organic carbon.
2) Heat evolution
Heat released during the composting process is equal to the difference in
the energy content of the material at the beginning and at end of the
composting process.
3) Control of Pathogens
Properly conducted composting can kill all the pathogens, weeds and
seeds during the composting process. For this purpose, the temperature
must be maintained between 60 and 70oC for 24hr.
4) Time
The time required for animal manure and an associated waste to process
is from 8 to 12 weeks. The time required is mostly dependent on the air
supplied. The efficiency can be increased with added aeration by forced
air. This also produces a cooling effect which must be monitored. In some
cases mixing is not necessary for the entire process.
Chapter-VIII
Composting Benefits and Disadvantages
Benefits Disadvantages
Saleable Product Loss of ammonia
Destruction of pathogens Time involved
Kills weed seeds Cost of equipment
Reduces mass and volume Land required
Improved handling Marketing required for sale
Improved transportability
Soil conditioner
Reduces odour
Land application when convenient
Improves nutrient qualities
Decreases pollutants
Table 4: Composting Benefits and Disadvantages
.
8.1 Composting Benefits
Saleable product
Compost is a marketable product. Gardeners, landscapers, farmers, sod
producers, golf course operators, and others are willing to purchase
quality compost. Price depends on the local market, quality of compost,
and the raw materials used.
Destruction of pathogens
Pathogens are destroyed in a properly managed windrow if the
temperature remains above 40°C for a minimum of two weeks.
Kills weed seeds

Windrows maintaining temperatures of 40°C for a minimum of two
weeks destroy the viability of weed seeds.
Reduces mass and volume

The mass and volume of the manure is reduced when composted
primarily due to moisture content reduction.
Improved handling
Composting reduces the moisture content making it easier to handle than
manure. Compost does not have the odours or fly problems associated
with raw manure.
Improved transportability
The reduction in mass and volume due to composting increases the
distance land applied nutrients can be hauled economically.
Soil conditioner
Compost, when added to soil, provides organic matter, reduces potential
for soil erosion, and reduces fertilizer requirements.
Reduce odour
Composting releases ammonia which reduces the odour emitted.
Compost is a stable product which is free from offensive odours.
Land application when convenient

Compost gives no odour or fly problem when stored in dry places. It is a
product which can be applied to the land when it is convenient for the
farmer.
Improved nutrient qualities
Composting converts nitrogen to a stable form that is less susceptible to

leaching. Composting high carbon to nitrogen ratio manures reduces the
ratio which allows the nitrogen to be immediately available to the plants.
Decrease pollutant
Disposal of compost is not a problem because there is a demand for

compost. Compost can be transported farther distances, possibly out of an
over-burdened watershed. Composting converts nitrogen into forms
which are less likely to leach into the ground or be carried away by
surface runoff.
8.2 Disadvantages OF composter
Loss of ammonia
Compost contains less than half the nitrogen of manure but if manure is
not incorporated into the soil it loses nitrogen to the atmosphere and may
retain less nitrogen than compost.
Time involved
Composting requires a time commitment to properly manage the
windrow to produce quality compost.
Cost of equipment
Specialized windrow turners may be required, but they can come at with
a high price tag.
Land required
The composting site and storage for finished product can use a
considerable area of the land.
Marketing required for sale

Money and time may be spent advertising, packaging, and managing the
business.
Chapter-IX
Case Study- ECOBIOCOMPACK-GREEN
 STUDY AREA: The Palwa city, Lodha is spacious complex
located at Niljegaon, Dombivali (E.).
 CAPACITY : (500kg/day garbage composter)
Ecobiocompack-green is a unique integrated composting machine with a

capacity of about 500kg/day of garbage. It is a unique invention which
carries out the process of composting. The Ecobiocompack-green is a
patented TECHNOLOGY. It is designed, manufactured, installed, &
commissioned by Dr. ShirishNaik. The working of this plant came into
account on 9/11/2013.
Fig.3 Eco-biocompack
9.1MATERIALS
1-COMPOSTABLE MATERIAL;-
All the biological wastes can be composted in this machine. These

include the organic kitchen wastes like veggies, fish meat, eggshells,
leftovers, bones etc. as well as other household wastes like used tissue
papers, vacuum cleaner sweepings, nails, hair, waste pet food, dry
flowers etc. in short all the materials which are biodegradable can be used
for making compost.
2- NON-COMPOSTABLE MATERIAL:-
Materials like plastic, cloth fibers, thermocol and packing materials,

plastic and metal bottles or containers, battery cells, sanitary napkins,
metal utensils, pvc, steel items, hardware etc. cannot be used for making
compost. In short any such material which is not of natural or biological
origin cannot be used for maling compost
Fig 4 Garbage without segregation
9.2 COMPONENTS:
Following are the components of the machine:-
1. Composter vessel with drive
2. Shredder with feed hopper
3. Control panel
4. Consumables-Bioculture W→C
5. Garbage bin
Naik Environmental Engg. Pvt. Ltd.

Lodha, Composter (500 kg/day)
Sr.
No. Equipment Equipment’s Details
Make HavellsLafert
Phase 3 Phase
HP 2
1 Shredder RPM 930
Amp 4.16
Sr. no. 2130701979
Make Bonfigili
2 Gear HP 2
Type A412URP100
Make HavellsLafert
Phase 3 Phase
HP 2
3 Gear Motor RPM 930
Amp 4.16
Sr. no. 2130603800
Make HavellsLafert
Screw
4 Conveyer Phase 3 Phase
Gear HP 2
RPM 930
Amp 4.16
Table 5: Working description of motors in composter

ant
9 .3 PRCOESS & WORKING
NAI K ENVI RONMENTAL

ECOBIOCOMPACK ENGI NEERS PVT LTD.
SEGREGATION SOLID INLET BIOCULTURE: W C
COMPOSTER DRUM
Separate all non-compostable Freeze dried microbes, BIOCULTURE, carry
NOZZEL Garbage is turned over by
material from biodegradable out the conversion of garbage into compost
waste rotating the drum twice a day
c
To clean the shredder
Charge
BLADES shredded mass
REMOVE PLASTIC, into composter
METAL, SOLIDS (ABOVE drum
4 INCHES)
FEED FOR THE COMPOSTER

SHREDDED MATERIAL OUTLET
SHREDDING
SIEVE
The segregated non-
biodegradable Shredding improves penetration of COMPOST To grade and eject
material is soaked in bio-culture & oxygen in the STORAGE end product
bleaching powder composting mass. BIN
solution, dried & disposed off Also large solids may resist
A-686, NAIK ENVIRO HOUSE,
or composting thus
Recycled/ Re- shredding is prefereable for MIDC KHAIRNE, NAVI MUMBAI
used successful results. TEL: 65143360/ 27782154
www.naikenviro.com
naikenviro@gmail.com
The process is simple and feasible. It also avoids the formation and
discharge of biogas providing us with pure compost.
The Ecobiocompack integrates all operations and processes in single

assembly of systems. The stages include shredding, bio composting,
maturation and gradation.
The process is carried out in 3 steps i.e. Seggregation, Shredding and

Composting.
SEGGREGATION:-
Seggregation is the 1st process in compost making. It consists of

collecting all the biowastes in one place. The non-degradable materials
are removed from the biological wastes at this step. The wet and dry
garbage is collected together. Therefore, to control the moisture level
sawdust, paper, cardboard or remaining compost is added. However, the
ratio for addition of these materials is fixed to 1:3. Later, Micro bins are
added to this which enables an efficient growth of the microorganism. All
this then mixed well and transferred to shredder. Segregation is important
in order to improve the penetration of bioculture and oxygen intimately
into the composting mass.
SHREDDING:-
Shredding is the next step after segregation in compost making. It is the

disintegration of solids into smaller pieces. Shredding is important in
order to facilitate proper and intimate penetration of the bioculture and
oxygen into the composting mass. The bigger particles/solids which
exceed a size of 4 inches (100mm) are cut into small pieces. If shredding
is not done these biomasses can accumulate and hinder the process of
compost making. The process can take much longer time and some solids
may resist getting com
COMPOSTER:-
After the process of shredding, all the garbage gets collected in a

rectangular drum. The garbage is rotated in this drum for about 15 mins
for 3 times a day. The growth of microorganisms is facilitated by
arrangement made in the drum for passage of air. An efficient growth of
those microorganism results in the formation of compost from the
garbage.
Organic
matter Seggregation Shredding
Final Product Composting

(compost)
9.4 BIOCULTURE W→C (Waste to Compost)
Bioculture W→C contains freeze dried microbes which actually carry out
the process of conversion of garbage into compost. During start up add 2g
per kg of garbage. For example; if garbage weighs 100kg add 200g of
W→C.
Spread W→C on the shredded garbage and charge the material into
composter drum. Rotate the drum for 15 mins in order to mix the entire
garbage with the bioculture.
Bioculture W→C is not harmful in any sense i.e. it is neither

carcinogenic, nor infectious, nor toxic. However rubber gloves should be
used while handling the material. It should be stored in a cool dry place
and used as and when needed. The shelf life of the material is about 1
year.
9.5 Fundamentals of composting

Aerobic microorganisms extract energy from the organic matter through a
series of exothermic reactions that break the material down to simpler
materials. The basic aerobic decay equation holds-
(Complex-organics) + O2 -------- CO2 + H2O + NO3-+ (SO4)2- + (other

less complex organics) + heat.
9.6 Precaution
 Do not fill composter drum more than 80% of volume.
 Weigh shredded garbage and compost daily.
 Keep trey below to collect the compost.
 Shredding machine should operate at 70 rpm.
 Drum should operate at 50 rpm.
 Machine should be greased monthly.
 Paper- not to exceed 5% of the garbage volume
 Carpentry waste (wood only)- not to exceed 5% of the garbage
volume
 Cardboard packaging wastes (no plastic) - not to exceed 5% of the
garbage volume.
 Total of all these items should not exceed 10% of the total garbage.
These materials can be used until a limited time only. It should be
stored and distributed within a few days only.
9.7 Troubleshooter
 Moisture: - Moisture level is high in the garbage due to wet
garbage.
 Shortage Of waste:-Sometimes the adequate amount of garbage is
not collected.
9.8 End Product

The final product is compost. That is used in the complex.
WASTE IS A MISPLACED RESOURCE

GENERATE WEALTH FROM WASTE
CHAPTER CONCLUSION
CHAPTER X
METHODOLOGY- PROCESS & PRINCIPLES
Physical parameter Chemical parameter Plant nutrient
Moisture pH(5% solution) Total Kejdhal Nitrogen
Conductivity (5%
Bulk Density Total Phosphorus (P)
Solution)
Soluble Salt Total organic carbon Potassium (K)
Particle Size (By
Using 300 micron
sieve)
10.1 Principle and Procedure
The procedure followed for testing the physical and chemical availability
in the compost sample is as follows:
A] Physical parameter
i) Moisture content: The water content also called moisture of the

compost is the ratio of weight of water to the weight of solids given in the
mass of soil. This ratio is usually expressed as percentage.
Principle: the method is based on removing compost moisture by oven-

drying a soil sample until the remains constant.
Take 50 gm of Place crucible in the

Clean and dry the
compost and weigh oven and dry to
crucible and record
in the crucible. constant weigh
the weight as W1
Weigh as W2 between 105oc
Weigh the crucible

Remove the crucible
and content as
in the oven, place it
W3,calculate the
in the deccicators to
MOISTURE
cool.
CONTENT
MC%= W2-W3×10
W3- W1
Where:
W1=Weight of crucible (g)

W2=Weight of moist soil + Crucible (g)
W3=Weight of dried soil + Crucible (g)
ii) Bulk Density: Bulk density is an indicator of compost compaction.

Bulk density reflects the soil’s ability to function for structural support,
water and solute movement, and soil aeration.
Principle: It is calculated as the dry weight of soil divided by its volume.

These volumes include the volume of compost particles and the volume
of pores among compost particles. Bulk density is typically expressed in
g/cm3
Procedure:
Take a measuring Record the weight

Observe and note
cylinder of 25 ml of the cylinder and
down the volume
and add 20g of note as a dry
occupied in cylinder
compost. compost.
Bulk density= Mass of oven dried soil
Total volume occupied

B] Chemical parameter
i) pH: The term pH refers to the activity of hydrogen ions. It is very

important factor in many chemical reactions. Most plants grow best in a
neutral pH range. The pH scale is measurement of acidity or alkalinity.
Principle: A ph meter measure essentially the electro-chemical potential

between a known liquid inside the glass electrode (membrane) and an
unknown liquid outside. Because the thin glass bulb allows mainly the
agile and small hydrogen ions to interact with the glass, the glass
electrode measure the electro-chemical potential of hydrogen ions or the
potential of hydrogen.
Take a 20 gm of
Dip the pH
compost and add
electrode in the Record the pH.
100 ml of water.
compost suspention
Mix well.
ii) Conductivity: Electrical conductivity (EC) is a measurement of

dissolved material in an aqueous solution, which release to ability of
material to conduct electrical current through it. EC is measured in units
called Siemens per unit area, and the higher the dissolved material in
water or a soil sample, the higher the EC will be in that material.
Principle: The principle of conductivity measurement is defined as the

ability of a solution to conduct an electrical current between two
electrodes or coils. In a solution, the current flows by ion transport.
Therefore the higher ion concentration, the more current can flow up to
the immersion point when the ions mutual interferes and the conductivity
decreases by increasing ion concentration.
Take 20g of Dip the electrode of

compost and 100 ml conductometer. Record and analyse.
distilled water Adjust the range.
C] Plant nutrients
i) Total nitrogen: Nitrogen is a micronutrient which is rapidly cycled in

soil as organic matter broken down by decomposer microorganism.
Nitrogen is also artificially added to the soil via the application of
synthetic fertilizers or through atmospheric pollution.
PRINCIPLE: Measurement of UV absorption at 220 nm enables rapid

determination of nitrate because dissolved organic matter also may
absorbed at 220 nm and nitrates does not absorbed at 275 nm, a second
measurements made at 275 nm may be used to correct the nitrate value.
The extents of this empirical correction are related to the nature and
concentration of organic matter and vary from one sample to another.
Prepare a seriess of Make up the final

Take 50 ml soil
std from 100 ppm volume till 50ml
suspension(1:5).
stock solution of with D/W and read
add 1 ml HCl
nitrate. at 220 nm
Phosphorus: Phosphorus is the 11th most abundant element in the earth’s

crust, it in agricultural soils occurs in many form both organic and in
organic. Total phosphorus analyses are mainly used to follow the
movement of phosphorus from applied fertilizer to the soil profile.
PRINCIPLE: In soil, calcium and aluminum minerals control the three

phosphate concentration in solution. The bicarbonate ions are precipitated
as CaCO3 during extraction. Phosphate minerals dissolved in buffer
solution and liberate phosphate ions in solution which are analysed by
Olsen’s method. The orthophosphate ions react with Ammonium
molybdate and potassium antimony tartarate under acidic condition to
form molybdophosphoric which is blue coloured complex.
Take 5 gm of soil.
Prepare a series of Fill th content. Take
add 100ml of
standard from 4ppm out 10 ml and dilute
NaHCO3 and keep on
P2O5 solution in the till 100 ml with
shaker for half an
range 0.4-2 ppm NaHCO3
hour
Add 5 ml of mix The blue colour

Pipette out 5 ml from
reagent in each test obtanined is read at
sample, blank and
tubes and aalow to 709 nm and calculted
series and add in
stand for half and phosphrus content in
diffrent test tubes.
hour the compost.
CHAPTER XI
RESULTS
Sample: Compost
Quantity (KG): 1.0 Kg
Parameter July August September October
Chemicals:
pH(5% solution) 7.35 7.34 7.36 7.35
pH
7.365
7.36
pH(5% solution)
7.355
7.35 7.36
7.345 7.35
7.35
7.34
7.34
7.335
7.33
July August September October
Month
Parameter
Chemicals:
Conductivity (5% Solution)
1938 1940 1937
(µS/cm) 1918
conductivity
1945
conductivity (5% Solution)
1940
1935
1930
1925 1938 1940 1937
1920
1915
1918
1910
1905
Month

Chemicals:
Total Kejdhal Nitrogen(%/wt) 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.7
Total Kejdhal Nitrogen

0.72
0.7
Total Keljdhal itrogen
0.68
0.66
0.64 0.7 0.7 0.7
0.62
0.6
0.58
0.6
0.56
0.54
Month

Chemicals:
Total Phosphorus (P)
1.1 1.2 1.2
(%/wt) 1.1
Phosphorus
1.22
1.2
1.18
Phosphorus
1.16 1.2 1.2

1.14
1.12
1.1
1.08 1.1
1.06 1.1
1.04
Month

Chemicals:
Potassium (K) (%/wt) 1.76 1.77 1.76 1.67
Potassium
1.78
1.76
1.74
1.76 1.77
Potassium
1.72 1.76
1.7
1.68
1.66
1.67
1.64
1.62
Month
Chemicals:
Moisture (%/wt) 20.27 20.3 20.19 20.18
Moisture
20.32
20.3
20.28
20.26
20.3
Moisture
20.24
20.22
20.2 20.27
20.18
20.16 20.19
20.18
20.14
20.12
Month
Chemicals:
Total organic carbon
20.7 20.6 20.6 20.3
(%/wt)

20.8
20.7
20.6
20.5 20.7
20.4 20.6 20.6
20.3
20.2 20.3
20.1
Month

Chemicals:
Bulk Density (%/wt) 0.67 0.59 0.63 0.63
Bulk Density
0.68
0.66
0.64
Bulk Density
0.67
0.62
0.63
0.6 0.63
0.58
0.59
0.56
0.54
Month

Chemicals:
Soluble Salt (gm/cc) 3.2 3 3.3 3.2
Soluble Salt
3.35
3.3
3.25
3.2 3.3
Soluble Salt
3.15
3.2 3.2
3.1
3.05
3
2.95
3
2.9
2.85
Month

Chemicals:
Particle Size (By Using 300 55.21
56.21 56 55.86
micron sieve) (%/wt)
Particle Size
56.4
56.2
56
55.8 56.21
Particle Size
56
55.6
55.4 55.86
55.2
55 55.21
54.8
54.6
Month
Parameter under Composition of Results obtained

study compost available from ECOGOLD
commercially
pH(5% solution) 8 7.35
Conductivity (5% 2.25
1.938
Solution)
Total Kejdhal Nitrogen 0.8 0.7
Total Phosphorus (P) 4 1.1
Potassium (K) 4 1.76
Moisture 43 20.27
Total organic carbon 25 20.7
Bulk Density 1 0.67
Soluble Salt 2.27 3.2
Particle Size (By 59.27
Using 300 micron 56.21
sieve)
50
Standard compost
45 43
ECOGOLD
40
VALUES OBTAINED
35
30
25
25
20.27 20.7
20
15
10 8 7.35
1.938 4 4
5 2.25 0.7 1.76
0.8 1.1 1 0.67
0
pH Conductivity Nitrogen Phosphorous Potassium Moisture Organic Bulk density
carbon
PARAMETERS
COMPARISION OF STANDARD VALUES OF COMPOST AND OBTAINED VALUES

Conclusion
Conclusion
Composting or organic recycling used to be a backburner issue, because
refuse disposal was inexpensive and landfill capacity, before the eighties,
was not as scarce as it is now.
Composting has been successfully demonstrated throughout our country,

as well as the world. It is economically competitive with other waste
management methods. In addition, compost is an environmentally
beneficial product. While large scale composting operations will be
increasingly important, the most cost effective way of handling yard,
kitchen and garden waste is in our own backyards, avoiding trucking and
fuel costs.
With the continued depletion of available landfill space and anticipated

high collection and disposal fees needed to cover the cost of the refuse
disposal facilities being built today, the separation of leaves, grass
clippings, brush, and other yard debris from refuse will become
increasingly attractive. Thirty to forty percent of materials in the solid
waste stream are compostable organic matter! Costs for landfill and
incineration are 4500 per ton and 8000 per ton respectively while the
cost of composting is 3000 to 6000 per ton only. Thus is more
economical plus the added advantage of utilizing the waste.
In agriculture or gardening, Plants need these nutrients in large (or

“micro”) quantities. The three most well- known are the “primary”
macronutrients: Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P) and Potassium
(K).Similarly, Compost contains large amounts of major nutrients
including N, P and K (Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium).
A] Compost nitrogen helps plant foliage to grow strong. It’s affects a

plant's leaf development. Pale green or yellow leaves indicate a nitrogen
deficiency.
B] Phosphorous helps roots and flowers grow and develop. Plants in

phosphorus-poor soil may have a purple cast to their leaves and will
exhibit slow growth and poor production of blossoms and fruit.
Potassium is important for overall plant health.
C] Potassium deficiency signs are more subtle than signs of deficiency in

either nitrogen or phosphorus. Weak, spindly plants that seem prone to
insect damage and bear small, thin-skinned fruit are likely to be
potassium deficient.
Both organic and inorganic fertilizers provide plants with these nutrients
needed to grow healthy and strong. However, each contains different
ingredients and supplies these nutrients in different ways. Organic
fertilizers (compost) work over time to create a healthy growing
environment, while inorganic fertilizers provide rapid nutrition. In the
simplest terms, fertilizers feed plants, Compost feeds the soil. While this
may not sound like it makes a very big difference, it really can make a big
impact on the future of your garden and its soil, and there is actually a
difference. Fertilizers do add nutrients to the soil. However, the
ingredients are focused on meeting the needs of the plants. Fertilizers
have been shown to actually prevent the growth of microbes needed to
keep the soil healthy. This throws the soil’s chemistry out of balance and
can actually lead to breakdown of the soil food web, especially if used
year after year. The impact can be even worse if chemical fertilizers are
used instead of organic fertilizers. Organic fertilizers (compost) often cost
significantly more than inorganic fertilizers, but over time, this extra cost
may be outweighed by the benefits it provides. Organic fertilizers
continue to improve the soil long after the plants have taken the nutrients
they need. Therefore, the longer your soil is fed with organic fertilizers,
the better its composition and texture. So, while inorganic fertilizer is
cheaper in the short term, it adds less to the soil in the long term.
Compost, unlike fertilizers, actually promotes healthy microbe growth

within the soil. It feeds the soil food web and increases the health of the
natural soil. Over time, this creates a more nutrient rich soil that is
beneficial for the plants and vegetables that you place in it. This is
because compost is actually made up of microscopic fungi and bacteria.
Other organisms like crickets and earthworms are also present in
compost, which further benefits the soil. The end result is soil that allows
the plants and vegetables to feed themselves. Composting also helps the
soil retain much needed moisture, and research has also shown that
composting can also assist in enhancing the disease resistance of some
plants, like tomatoes and vegetables. This can reduce the amount of crops
you lose to disease, which often leads to wasted expenses.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bibliography
Fatih Büyüksönmez, R. R. (2000). Occurrence, Degradation and Fate of
Pesticides During Composting: Part II: Occurrence and Fate of Pesticides
in Compost and Composting Systems. Compost Science & Utilization
Volume 8, Issue 1. , 61-81.
GOTAAS, H. B. ( 1996 ). Composting. Sanitary Disposal and

Reclamation of Organic Wastes. World Health Organisation Monograph
Series, No. 31 .
Komilis, D. P. (February 1999). The effect of municipal solid waste

pretreatment on landfill behavior. Waste Management and
ResearchVolume 17, Issue 1.
M.P. Bernala, J. A. (November 2009). Composting of animal manures

and chemical criteria for compost maturity assessment. . Bioresource
Technology,Volume100. , 5444–5453.
S. Mahimairaja, N. B. (volume 47). Losses and transformation of

nitrogen during composting of poultry manure with different
amendments: An incubation experiment. Bioresource Technology , 265–
273.
S. P. Mathur, G. O. (1993). Biological Agriculture & Horticulture: An

International Journal for Sustainable Production Systems. Determination
of Compost Biomaturity.Volume 10 , 65-85.
S.M. Schaub, J. L. (August 1996). Composting: An alternative waste

management option for food processing industries. Trends in Food
Science & Technology,Volume 7, Issue 8. , 263–268.
X.F. Lou, J. N. (August 2009). The impact of landfilling and composting

on greenhouse gas emissions . Bioresource Technology,Volume 100. ,
3792–3798.

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1|ECOBIOCOMPOSTER

KEY WORD: Municipal Solid Waste, compost, Thermophilic.

1.2 Indian Population distribution

India’s Population As per 2011 2466 Million

Urban Areas 7161

Table 1: Population distribution.

 Per capita waste generation increasing by 1.3% per annum

 With urban population increasing between 3 – 3.5% per annum

 5% increase in waste generation annually

 India produces 42.0 million tons of MSW annually at present.

 Collection efficiency ranges between 50 to 90% of the SW

Sr. Name Of paper Author Abstract

greenhouse gas higher for landfills than

 It saves energy – using recycled materials in the manufacturing

 It helps protect the environment – recycling reduces the need for

 It reduces landfill – There are over 1,500 landfill sites in the

 It saves you money – A massive reduction in the amount of waste

Today, the use of composting to turn organic wastes into a valuable

3.2Aims and Objectives

OBJECTIVES: The main objective of the study is:

1. Biodegradable organic waste (wet waste)

4.1 Solid waste

4.3Components of solid waste

a. Thin polythene bags

b. Organic biodegradable matter

c. Paper, Glass, Plastic and metals

d. Construction and waste demolition

Fig. 1 composting materials

5.1.1. Natural Cycle

There are important factors to consider such as temperature, the

5.1.2. The Human Factor

The help of humans is necessary for the mechanical process to take

These pathogens usually live in manure of a living organism that is not a

Water, nitrogen, carbon, and oxygen all together is a perfect mixture to

5.2 Types of Composting (According To Its Nature)

This type of composting is high maintenance, since it will need to be

This is composting without air. Anaerobic composting is low

5.3 Types of Composting (According To Its Use)

Industrial composting systems are increasingly being installed as a waste

Treating biodegradable waste before it enters a landfill reduces global

In agriculture, windrow composting is used. It is the production of

Home composting is the simplest way to compost. At home, composting

5.4 Composting Materials (Tools)

The basic ingredients in composting are any biodegradable materials,

potential, composting will occur rapidly. Therefore, the composting

5.5 Composting Materials (Nitrogen and Carbon and Hydrogen)

Hydrogen or water is also necessary in composting. The compost should

Oxygen is necessary because the microorganism in compost needs it to

The secret to successful composting is to select an approach and

For example, 1) if you only need a little compost, want to expend

2) If you have plenty of space and want large quantities of compost

3) If you want to compost vegetative food waste separately, directly

6.1.1 Types of composting methods:

The process can be hastened by using portable bins. Some lightweight

Other folks attempt to improve aeration in holding units by adding one or

In addition to the portable bins mentioned

Turning units are systems designed to be turned or aerated. These units

Materials need to be carefully prepared and added to turning units in

FIG. 2 TURNING UNITS

Turning a heap is optional. The composting process will obviously take

Sheet composting is a way to obtain the benefits of decayed organic

The danger of sheet composting as a compost-making method is that

for their decomposition. On the other hand, high-nitrogen materials may