Theory of

Structure I
Engr. Gabriel Gamana

1.0 Types of Structures and Loads

2.0 Analysis of Statically Determinate
Structures
3.0 Cables and Arches
Table of Contents 4.0 Influence Lines for Statically
Determinate Structures
5.0 Approximate Analysis of Statically
indeterminate Structures
6.0 Deflections

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 1.1 Introduction
1.0 Types of 1.2 Structural Elements
Structures and 1.3 Types of Structures
1.4 Loads on Structure
Loads 1.5 Idealized Structure

1.1 Introduction

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1.1 Introduction
• A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to
support a load. Important examples related to civil
engineering include buildings, bridges, and towers; and in
other branches of engineering, ship and aircraft frames, tanks,
pressure vessels, mechanical systems, and electrical
supporting structures are important.
• When designing a structure to serve a specified function for
public use, the engineer must account for its safety, esthetics,
and serviceability, while taking into consideration economic
and environmental constraints.
• Often this requires several independent studies of different
solutions before final judgment can be made as to which
structural form is most appropriate.
• This design process is both creative and technical and
requires a fundamental knowledge of material properties and
the laws of mechanics which govern material response.
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1.1 Introduction
• Once a preliminary design of a structure is proposed, the
structure must then be analyzed to ensure that it has its
required stiffness and strength. To analyze a structure
properly, certain idealizations must be made as to how the
members are supported and connected together.
• The loadings are determined from codes and local
specifications, and the forces in the members and their
displacements are found using the theory of structural
analysis.
• The results of this analysis then can be used to redesign the
structure, accounting for more accurate determination of the
weight of the members and their size.

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1.1 Introduction

1.2 Structural Elements

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1.2 Structural Elements
1.2.1 Ties
Those members that are subjected to axial tension forces only.
Load is applied to ties only at the ends. Ties cannot resist
flexural forces.

1.2 Structural Elements

1.2.2 Struts
Those members that are subjected to axial compression forces
only. Like ties, struts can be loaded only at their ends and cannot
resist flexural forces.

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1.2 Structural Elements
1.2.3 Brace
A braced frame is a structural system designed to resist wind
and earthquake forces. Members in a braced frame are not
allowed to sway laterally (which can be done using shear wall or
a diagonal steel sections, similar to a truss).

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1.2 Structural Elements

1.2.4 Beams and Girders
Those members that are primarily subjected to flexural forces.
They usually are thought of as being horizontal members that
are primarily subjected to gravity forces; but there are frequent
exceptions (e.g., inclined rafters).

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1.2 Structural Elements
1.2.5 Columns
Those members that are
primarily subjected to axial
compression forces. A column
may be subjected to flexural
forces also. Columns usually
are thought of as being
vertical members, but they
may be inclined.

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1.2 Structural Elements

1.2.6 Diaphragms
Structural components that are
flat plates. Diaphragms generally
have very high in-plane stiffness.
They are commonly used for
floors and shear resisting walls.
Diaphragms usually span
between beams or columns.
They may be stiffened with ribs
to better resist out-of-plane
forces.

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1.3 Types of Structures

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1.3 Types of Structures

1.3.1 Trusses
When the span of a structure is required to be large and its
depth is not important criterion in design, a truss may be
selected. Trusses consist of slender elements usually arranged
in triangular fashion. Planar trusses are composed of members
that lie in the same plane and are frequently used for bridge and
roof support, whereas space trusses have members extending
in three dimensions and are suitable for towers.

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1.3 Types of Structures
1.3.2 Cables
Cables are usually flexible and carry their loads in tension.
Unlike tension ties, the external load is not applied along the
axis of the cable and consequently the cable takes form that has
defined as sag. Cables are commonly use when the span are
greater than 46 m.

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1.3 Types of Structures

1.3.3 Arches
The arch achieves its strength in compression, since it has a
reverse curvature to that of the cable. The arch must be rigid,
however, in order to maintain its shape, and this results in
secondary loadings involving shear and moment, which must be
considered in its design.

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1.3 Types of Structures
1.3.4 Frames
Frames are often used in buildings and are composed of beams
and columns that either pin or fixed. Like trusses, frames extend
in two or three dimensions. The loading causes bending of its
members and if it has rigid joints connections, this structure is
generally “indeterminate” from a standpoint of analysis

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1.3 Types of Structures

1.3.5 Surface Structure
A surface structure is made from a material having a very small
thickness compared to its other dimensions. Sometimes this
material is very flexible and can take the form of a tent or air-
inflated structure. In both cases the material acts as a
membrane that is subjected to pure tension.

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1.4 Loads on Structure

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1.4 Loads on Structure

1.4.1 Dead Load
Dead loads are gravity loads of constant magnitudes and fixed
positions that act permanently on the structure. Such loads
consist of the weights of the structural system itself and of all
other material and equipment permanently attached to the
structural system. (NSCP 2010 - Section 204)

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1.4 Loads on Structure
Problem 1-1
The floor system of a building consists of a 15-cm-thick
reinforced concrete slab resting on four steel floor beams, which
in turn are supported by two steel girders, as shown in figure
below. The cross-sectional areas of the floor beams and the
girders are 94.8 cm2 and 337.4 cm2, respectively. Determine the
axial load at column A.

Answer
𝑷𝑨 = 𝟖𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝟔 𝒌𝑵 23

1.4 Loads on Structure

1.4.2 Live Load
Loads of varying magnitudes and/or positions caused by the use
of the structure. Sometimes, the term live loads is used to refer
to all loads on the structure that are not dead loads. (NSCP 2010
- Section 205)

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1.4 Loads on Structure
1.4.2.1 Impact Load
When live loads are applied rapidly to a structure, they cause
larger stresses. The dynamic effect of the load that causes this
increase in stress in the structure is referred to as impact. To
account for the increase in stress due to impact, the live loads
expected to cause such a dynamic effect on structures are
increased by certain impact percentages, or impact factors.
(NSCP 2010 - Section 206)

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1.4 Loads on Structure

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1.4 Loads on Structure
Problem 1-2
A two-story office building shown in the figure has interior
columns that are spaced 7 m apart in two perpendicular
directions. If the (flat) roof loading is 1.0 kPa, determine the
reduced live load supported by a typical interior column located
at ground level.

Answer
𝑷 = 𝟏𝟏𝟔. 𝟕𝟖𝟖 𝒌𝑵 27

1.4 Loads on Structure

1.4.3 Environmental Loads
1.4.3.1 Wind Load
Wind loads are produced by the flow of wind around the
structure. The magnitudes of wind loads that may act on a
structure depend on the geographical location of the structure,
obstructions in its surrounding terrain, such as nearby buildings,
and the geometry and the vibrational characteristics of the
structure itself. (NSCP 2010 - Section 207)

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1.4 Loads on Structure

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1.4 Loads on Structure

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1.4 Loads on Structure

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1.4 Loads on Structure

Problem 1-3
The enclosed building shown in the figure below is used for
storage purposes and is located at Bulacan on open flat terrain.
When the wind is directed as shown, determine the design wind
pressure acting on the roof and sides of the building using the
NSCP 2010 Specifications.

8m

23 m
46 m
23 m

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1.4 Loads on Structure
1.4.3.2 Earthquake Load
An earthquake is a sudden undulation of a portion of the earth’s
surface. Although the ground surface moves in both horizontal
and vertical directions during an earthquake, the magnitude of
the vertical component of ground motion is usually small and
does not have a significant effect on most structures. It is the
horizontal component of ground motion that causes structural
damage and that must be considered in designs of structures
located in earthquake-prone areas.. (NSCP 2010 - Section 208)

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1.4 Loads on Structure

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1.4 Loads on Structure
Problem 1-4
A four-storey building located at TUP-Manila has a storey height
5 m on the ground floor and 4 m on the other floors. The roof
deck has a dead weight of 400 kN while the second to fourth
floor level has a dead weight of 800 kN. The building is to be
located at seismic zone 4 under special occupancy category. A
steel moment resisting frames will be used. Determine the
lateral force at roof deck level.

Answer
𝑭𝑿 = 𝟏𝟏𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟕 𝒌𝑵 35

1.4 Loads on Structure

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1.4 Loads on Structure
1.4.3.3 Hydrostatic and soil Pressures
• Structures used to retain water, such as dams and tanks, as
well as coastal structures partially or fully submerged in water
must be designed to resist hydrostatic pressure. Hydrostatic
pressure acts normal to the submerged surface of the
structure, with its magnitude varying linearly with height.
• Underground structures, basement walls and floors, and
retaining walls must be designed to resist soil pressure. The
lateral soil pressure depends on the type of soil and is usually
considerably smaller than the vertical pressure. For the
portions of structures below the water table, the combined
effect of hydrostatic pressure and soil pressure due to the
weight of the soil, reduced for buoyancy, must be considered.
(NSCP 2010 - Section 209 to 211)
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1.4 Loads on Structure

1.4.4 Load Combinations
As stated previously, once the magnitudes of the design loads
for a structure have been estimated, an engineer must consider
all loads that might act simultaneously on the structure at a
given time. (NSCP 2010 - Section 203)

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1.5 Idealized Structure

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1.5 Idealized Structure

1.5.1 Support Connections
Structural members are joined together in various ways
depending on the intent of the designer. The three types of joints
most often specified are the pin connection, the roller support,
and the fixed joint. A pin-connected joint and a roller support
allow some freedom for slight rotation, whereas a fixed joint
allows no relative rotation between the connected members and
is consequently more expensive to fabricate.

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1.5 Idealized Structure
In reality, however, all connections exhibit some stiffness toward
joint rotations, owing to friction and material behavior. If the
torsional spring constant 𝑘 = 0 the joint is a pin, and if 𝑘 = ∞
the joint is fixed.

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1.5 Idealized Structure

1.5.2 Line Diagram
The analytical model of the two or three-dimensional body
selected for analysis is represented by a line diagram. On this
diagram, each member of the structure is represented by a line
coinciding with its centroidal axis. The dimensions of the
members and the size of the connections are not shown on the
diagram.

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1.5 Idealized Structure
1.5.3 Plane VS Space Structure
If all the members of a structure as well as the applied loads lie
in a single plane, the structure is called a plane structure. The
analysis of plane, or two-dimensional, structures is considerably
simpler than the analysis of space, or three-dimensional,
structures. Fortunately, many actual three-dimensional
structures can be subdivided into plane structures for analysis.

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1.5 Idealized Structure

1.5.4 Tributary Loadings
When flat surfaces such as walls, floors, or roofs are supported
by a structural frame, it is necessary to determine how the load
on these surfaces is transmitted to the various structural
elements used for their support. There are generally two ways in
which this can be done. The choice depends on the geometry of
the structural system, the material from which it is made, and the
method of its construction.

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1.5 Idealized Structure
1.5.4.1 One Way Slab
A slab or deck that is supported such that it delivers its load to
the supporting members by one-way action, is often referred to
as a one-way slab

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1.5 Idealized Structure

1.5.4.2 Two Way Slab
According to the American Concrete Institute (ACI) 318 concrete
code the support ratio is 𝐿 /𝐿 ≤ 2 the load is assumed to be
delivered to the supporting beams and girders in two directions.
When this is the case the slab is referred to as a two-way slab.
𝑚=

𝑤 =

𝑤 =

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1.5 Idealized Structure
Problem 1-5
Given a 3m x 4m concrete slab with a thickness of 175 mm for a
2nd floor plan of a two storey residential building. Determine the
loading (Dead) to be carried by the beams.

Answer
𝒘𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟓𝟏 𝒌𝑵/𝒎
𝒘𝟐 = 𝟒. 𝟐𝟖 𝒌𝑵/𝒎 47

1.5 Idealized Structure

1.5.5 Structural Analysis
1.5.5.1 Linear Static Analysis
A linear static analysis is an analysis where a linear relation
holds between applied forces and displacements. In practice,
this is applicable to structural problems where stresses remain in
the linear elastic range of the used material. In a linear static
analysis the model’s stiffness matrix is constant, and the solving
process is relatively short compared to a nonlinear analysis on
the same model.

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1.5 Idealized Structure
1.5.5.2 Nonlinear Analysis
A nonlinear analysis is an analysis where a nonlinear relation
holds between applied forces and displacements. Nonlinear
effects can originate from geometrical nonlinearity’s (i.e. large
deformations), material nonlinearity’s (i.e. elasto-plastic
material), and contact. These effects result in a stiffness matrix
which is not constant during the load application. As a result, a
different solving strategy is required for the nonlinear analysis
and therefore a different solver.

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1.5 Idealized Structure

1.5.5.2.1 Geometric Nonlinearity
In analyses involving geometric nonlinearity, changes in
geometry as the structure deforms are considered in formulating
the constitutive and equilibrium equations. Many engineering
applications such as metal forming, tire analysis, and medical
device analysis require the use of large deformation analysis
based on geometric nonlinearity. Small deformation analysis
based on geometric nonlinearity is required for some
applications, like analysis involving cables, arches and shells.

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1.5 Idealized Structure
1.5.5.2.2 Material Nonlinearity
Material nonlinearity involves the nonlinear behavior of a
material based on a current deformation, deformation history,
rate of deformation, temperature, pressure, and so on.
Examples of nonlinear material models are large strain (visco)
elasto-plasticity and hyperelasticity (rubber and plastic
materials).

1.5.5.2.3 Constraint and Contact Nonlinearity

Constraint nonlinearity in a system can occur if kinematic
constraints are present in the model. The kinematic degrees-of-
freedom of a model can be constrained by imposing restrictions
on its movement.

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1.5 Idealized Structure

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1.5 Idealized Structure

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