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A N A L Y T I C A L ST U D I E S OF P A N A M A C A N A L SL I D E S
IV c 7
WILSON V. BIN G ER
Chief, S oi l s and G eo l o g y Branch, M i s s o u r i R i v e r Divis i on , C o r p s of Engine e rs ,
D e p a r t m e n t of t h e Army, U n i t e d S t a t e s of A m e r i c a
SUMMARY.
The E ast and West Culebra Slides alone contributed more than 5 0 ,000,000
cubic yards of additional e xcavation to the t ask of b u il d in g the Pa na m a
Canal. These slides occurred in the Cucaracha formation, the we a ke s t r ock
encountered along the Canal, la rg e ly po o r l y bedded, va r ia b ly bentonitic,
slickensided, soapy-textured c lay shales.
F rom available cross sections showing mo n t h l y e xcavation progress d u r i n g
construction, three sections th ro u gh the slides were selected fo r study. The
g eology of e a c h section was determined from dril l hol e s and surface
reconnaissance. Stability analyses of the conventional S w e d i s h circle type
were applied to the East and Ves t C u lebra slopes as t h e y existed immediately
before slides in 1912 and 1915 , and also to the slope of 1947« w h i c h is
apparently s t a b l e .
The slopes were analyzed in two ways. First, assuming fa ctors of safety
of a pp r ox imately 1.0 just prio r to any failure, the avaibale shear strength
w a s det er mi n e d f o r e a c h date f o r c omparison w i t h the s t rength used in the
design of excavation slopes for a n e w canal. Second, the values for the
cohesion and angle of friction of the Curaracha, as used in the latest slope
design studies, were lised to d e te r mi n edfactors of safety of the sections
before any slides had occurred. The factors of safety wer e found to be less
tha n 1.0, i ndicating that the stren g th assumtions used were c o b ser ti v e .
FIG.1
ness of more than five feet, the largest one
thus far discovered, was found in a testpit
excavation. The material in this zone was so
soft that it flowed into the excavation even
when the wall bracings were carried within cne
foot of the bottom of the shaft.
Solid clay shale has an average unit na
tural (saturated) weight of 135 to 140 pounds
per cubic foot, an average dry weight of 115
to 120 pounds per cubic foot, and an average
moisture content (percent of dry weight) of 17
to 18 per cent. Badly crushed and gouge-like
clay shales have unit wet weights as low as
120 pounds per cubic foot and moisture con
tents as high as 30 to 35 per cent. The specif
ic gravity and voids ratio*of the clay shale
can be computed from the unit weight and mois
ture content. Assuming that the rock is 100
per cent saturated with water, the specific
gravity of the solid clay shale is 2.7 to 2.9
and the voids ratio (ratio of volume of voids
to volume of solids) is about 0.5 .
SLIDE ANALYSIS.
East Culebra slide showing upheaved material For use in the analytical study, canal
between stations 1746 and 1758 » Looking south, cross sections showing the monthly progress
Febr. 6 , 1913. of excavation during the construction period
were available. Three sections were selected
FIG.2 for study at the locations shown on Figure 1.
The geology, as determined from drill holes
(2-1 /8-inch diameter) breaks into pieces rang and surface reconnaissance in the area, was
ing from one inch to 10 inches in length along- then plotted for each section. By the use of
highly polished, variably inclined surfaces. these cross sections, together with topogra
Badly crushed, gougelike zones of varying phic maps of the period, it was possible to
thicknesses have been encountered in virtually determine the ground surface as it existed at
every exploratory drill hole reaching these dates preceding each slide movement.
shales. A zone of such material having a thick' The excavation records and other reports
—-100
STATION 1782 + 50
STATION 1785 + 00
STATION 1787 + 50
FIG.3
indicate tha t no m a j o r sl id e s o cc u r r e d in the r e a c h e d b y the sl i d i n g mass. A c o n d i t i o n of
i mm e diate a r e a u n d e r stu d y p r i o r to Ja n ua r i s u d d e n d r a w d o w n f r o m the t o p of slope to b o t
1912. S t a t i c s t a b i l i t y a na l y s e s of the co n t o m of cut w a s a s su m e d f o r the a na l y s e s of
v en t i o n a l S w e d i s h circle type w e r e ap p l i e d to the 191 2 slides, b e c a u s e it is b e l i e v e d that
the east and w e s t C u l e b r a slopes as t h e y e x the e x c a v a t i o n was don e o v e r a r e l a t i v e l y
ist ed in J a n u a r y 1912, June 1912, J u l i 1915* short time in t er v al w h i c h w o u l d w a r r a n t such
and U a r c h 1947. S l o p e s as e x c av a te d o n the an assumption. T h e r e sire no d a t a availa b le on
above da t e s w e r e a n al y z e d as slopes w h i c h w e r e t h e actual e l e v a t i o n of the g r o u n d w a t e r table
just stable. T h e slopes as sho wn i n F i g u r e 3 at tha t time. W a t e r w a s first a d mi t t e d into
f o r J a n u a r y 1912, June 1912, a n d Ju l i 1 9 1 5 , did the C u t i n O c t o b e r 1 9 1 3 1 and in all studies
not r em a i n stable but w e r e s h o r t l y subject to o f sli d es o c c u r r i n g a ft e r that date, the
m a j o r sliding. The U a r c h 1947 surface h a s ex g r o u n d - w a t e r table w a s a ss u m e d to b e at the
i ste d e s s e n t i a l l y as shown for a nu mb e r of level of the w a t e r i n the Cut.
y ear s and is a p p ar e nt l y stable. The slope
f ailure s ur f ac e s we r e as su m ed f o r the p ur p o s e s DECREASING rttbab S T R E N G T H W I T H P R O G R E S S Of
o f the a n alyses to b e co n fined to the Cu c a r a c h a
SLIDES.
formation, f ai l ur e s k n o w n to ha v e o c c u r r e d in
m a t e r i a l b o r d e r i n g the C u c a r a c h a b e i n g consider The f a m i l i a r p h e n o m e n o n of the decrease
ed, fo r the most part, to b e s e co n d a r y surface i n s h e a r s t re n g t h o f a clay as it is remolded
f a i lures not o r i g i n a l l y i nv o lv e d in the m a j o r is r e v e a l e d b y the a na l y s e s of the E as t and
slides. W est C u l e b r a S l i d e B o n se ve r al d a t e s as s lid
I n the analysis of any slope w h i c h h a s i n g progressed. I n the slide st ud i es p r e s e n t
failed, it is o rd i n a r i l y a ssumed that the slape e d herein, the s h e a r s tr e n g t h r e q u i r e d to give
must h a v e h a d a f a c t o r y of safety of a p p r o x i m the slope a f a c t o r of s af e t y o f 1.0 h a s be e n
ate ly 1. 0 just p r i o r to failure. The she a r c a l c u l a t e d f o r the most c r it i c a l circle at
s tr e ng t h f o u n d b y analysis of the J a n u a r y 1912 v ar i o u s stages of sliding. The s h e a r s tr e ng t h
slope is as s u m e d to be the u n d i s t u r b e d s h e a r o b t a i n e d i n each case is an a verage s tr e ng t h
s tr e ng t h o f the material, wh i l e the she er a l o n g the entire l e n g t h of the c r it i ca l f a i l
s tr ength r e q u i r e d f o r the M a r c h 1947 slope is u r e arc. I n a d d i t i o n to the sl op e s as t h e y
a ssumed to be the f i n a l r es i du a l sh ea r strength e x i s t e d in J a n u a r y 1912 and U a r c h 1947, the
of the material. Th e 1947 surface on the w est s ec t io n s w e r e a n al y z e d at two I nt e rm e d i a t e
b a n k of the Can a l h a s b e e n a ltered to some ex stages of sl id i ng in o r d e r to g a i n information
t ent i n some l o ca t io n s b y dredging, bu t w i t h c o n c e r n i n g the rate of d e c r e a s e in she ar
i n the a c cu r a c y of the studies p r e s e n t e d here s tr e ng t h of the m a t e r i a l i nv o l v e d i n the
in, it c a n b e as s um e d to be the n a tu r a l slope e lides. O n Fi g u r e s 4, 5 and 6. cros s s e ctions
57
leg en d ;
S » SHEAR STRENGTH
F.S.* FACTOR OF SAFETY
c • UNIT COHESION
* * ANCLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION
JULY 1915
MARCH 1947
S T A T IO N 1782 + 5 0
FIG.4
of Stations 1782-50, 1785-00, and 1737,50, the Cucaracha formation have been designed
respectively, are shown with results of ana according to the curve shown in Figure 8.
lyses thereon. In Figure 3 it may be seen This curve, a plot of required cotangent of
that the East Culebra Slide between January slope versus depth of cut, is based on a fac
and June 1912 consisted merely of surface tor of safety of 1.3. an assumption of sud
movements, but the other slides studied ap den drawdown, a unit weight for Cucaracha of
pear to be of the deep-deformation type. 135 pounds per cubic foot, and strength val
Figure 7 is a summary of results of the ues for the Cucaracha of cohesion, c, - 16
Culebra Slide studies. In the West Culebra pounds per square inch, and angle of friction,
Slides the shear strength decreased on the - 10°. This friction angle was determined
average to 80.4 per cent of the undisturbed from sliding friction tes^p made on blocks
(January 1912) strength between January and of solid clay shale polished to simulate
June 1912. There was no decrease in the East slickensides. The value of 16 pounds per
Culebra strength for the same period. During square inch for the cohesion was then deter
the period from June 1912 to July 1915, the mined from analysis of a standing bank of a
shear strength dropped to an average of 78.6 cut about 200 feet deep in Cucaracha, on the
per cent on the east bank and 65.6 per cent west side of the Canal just south of Zion Hill.
on the west bank. During the last period In order to check the design slope curve,
from July 1915 to March 1947, the shear the apparent factors of safety of the various
strength dropped to 20.3 per cent on the east sections were computed using the same Value
bank and 23.7 per cent on the west bank. The of cohesion equal to 16 pounds per square
final average residual shear strength of the inch, and angle of friction equal to 10 de
material for both the East and Weet Culebra grees. From the results of these studies,
Slides was found to be 22 per cent of the Figures 4 through 7 , it appears that the slope
undisturbed (January 1912) shear strength, curve shown in Figure 8 is conservative for
the range for the cases studied being 15.6 the design of statically safe slopes. For the
to 28.3 per cent. three January 1912 sections of the East Cule
bra Slide studies, the average apparent fac
VERIFICATION OF DESIGN SHEAR STRENGTH FOE tor of safety was found to be 0.79 ranging
CUCARACHA« from 0.76 to O.83. For the three West Culebra
Slides on the same date, the average apparent
In the planning of a sea-level canal, factor of safety was found to be 0.-98, rang
slopes which would have to be excavated in ing from 0.90 to 1.05. If the actual factor
58
le g e n d :
5 - SHEAR STRENGTH
E S - FACTOR OE SAFETY
c - UNIT COHESION
* - ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION
FIG.5
of safety in these cases approximated 1.0(as CONCLUSIONS
it must have, since the major slides had not
started) then the strength assumption tp, =10°, The evidence of these slide studies is
c « 16psi) used must be conservative. There that the shear strength of the Cucaracha
fore, the design factor of safety of 1.3 for formation can drop, due to successive sliding
the present Cucaracha slope curve, based on failures, to about 22 per cent of its original
the same assumptions, may furnish an actual value. It would appear, also, that the slope
factor of safety higher than 1.3. The present curve shown in Figure 8 is .conservative for
design slope curve would require slopes for the design of safe slopes in the Cucaracha
the east bank approcimately four times as flat formation. It is further apparent, from an
as those actually cut prior to Januari 1913. examination of Figures 3 through 7, that once
Since it is observed that in January 1^12, a slope in Cucaracha fails as a result of
the east slopes were apparently more severely having been cut oversteep, it will then as
oversteepened than the west slopes, when com sume an angle of repose much flatter than
pared with the present Cucaracha slope curve, would have been required originally for a
it is to be expected that the factors of safe safe design.
ty of the east side would prove to be lower
than those on the west side. This was found ACKOWLEDGMEHTS.
to be so, as mentioned above. The apparent Mr. T.F. Thompson, Chief, Geology Sec
factor of safety, using present design crit tion, the Panama Canal, was responsible for
eria,was calculated for each section on each the geologic information included in this pa
date studied and w a s found to increase as the per, while Ur. R.L. Behrend, Engineer in the
slope becomes flatter. These values are given Soils and Foundations Section, the Panama
in Figure 7. An increase in the apparent fac Canal, made most of the analytic studies.
tor of safety as the failure progresses is, Colonel James H. Stratton directed the Isth
of course, to be expected, because the factor
mian Canal Studies - 1947. The author was
of safety is computed on the basis of the un
Chief, Soils and Foundations Section, the
disturbed design shear strength while the over
turning forces diminish. Panama Canal, at the time these slide studies
were made.
59
STATION 1787+50
»Rote; The iffuw t (actor of Mittf ws copiUd «w in g for Cuearecfani cobealaa, e, - 16 p*i| angle of totunsl frlctlai, 0, - 10°.
-0*0"0“0“ CH)*
SUB-SECTION IVd
MISCELLANEOUS
The present paper i s concerned mainly forms the main d ep o sit on the bed and banks o f
w ith problems o f s t a b i li z a t i o n o f r i v e r banks these r i v e r s . On the R iver Great Ouse th e tid e
and flo o d embankments in th e lo w lyin g fe n d is i s excluded from a la r g e p art o f th e r iv e r
t r i c t s o f East A n glia, an a rea o f some 1,300 system by s lu ic e s .
sq. m iles in e x te n t, s itu a te d a short d ista n ce Two d if fe r e n t kinds o f a s t a b i li z a t i o n
in lan d from the Wash on th e e a stern co ast o f problem may a r is e , e ith e r s in g ly or in conjunc
England. The p o s itio n and exten t o f th e area tio n , in connection w ith the maintenance o f
i s shown in F ig . 1 , in which the hatched area these r iv e r system s. The f i r s t type i s concern
rep re se n ts the p eat covered fenland b a sin , the ed w ith the s t a b i l i t y o f the r iv e r bank or
su rfa ce o f which i s a t about mean sea l e v e l . flo o d embankment as a whole, and the second
Between the peat fe n s and the c o a s tlin e o f the w ith the s t a b i li z a t i o n or p ro te c tio n o f the
Wash the su rface form ation c o n s is ts p rin c ip a l su rfa ce o n ly .
l y o f s i l t land o f marine o r ig in which l i e s at On the t id a l reaches b f the r iv e r s s lip s
a le v e l co n sid erab ly h igh er than th a t o f the are l i a b l e to occur in the r i v e r banks. A ty p ic
peat fe n la n d s. The fen lan d d e p o sits which have a l case o f such a s li p on th e R iver Great Ouse
been la i d down in a lte rn a te p eriods o f depres i s i llu s t r a t e d in F ig s . 2. T his s l i p has been
sion and e le v a tio n o f land le v e l r e la t i v e to in v e s tig a te d by Skempton. 1 ) Remedial t r e a t
th a t o f th e sea, c o n sist t y p i c a l ly o f the up ment c o n s is ts in d ep o sitin g a berm o f s la g or
per p eat; a fen c la y known as "b u tte ry c la y " , stone at the toe o f the bank slo pe so as to
b e lie v e d to have been deposited under lagoon provide s u f f i c i e n t w eight to render the bank
li k e co n d ition s and co n sistin g o f a m ixture of s t a b le . .If the bed o f the r iv e r c o n s is ts o f
fin e s i l t and c la y p a r t ic le s , and f i n a l l y , a very s o ft s i l t , i t i s a d visa b le to sink a w il
lower p eat form ation o v e rly in g the primary low and brushwood m attress upon which the stone
f lo o r o f the J u ra ssic c la y s , Greensand, or or s la g may be d ep o sited . C on sid eration must be
G ault, o r ,i n some p la c e s , boulder c la y s o r g la given to the p o s s i b i l i t y o f fu rth e r ero sio n o f
c i a l g r a v e ls. the bed bein g caused by the co n stru ctio n o f
Across t h is lotf ly in g fen area flo w the the stone berm and, i f n ecessary, the m attress
r iv e r systems o f th e Great Ouse, Nene, Witham may be extended beyond the berm to provide the
and Welland in embanked ch annels. The normal p ro te c tio n req u ired .
water le v e l in th e r iv e r s i s about s i x f e e t to I t i s a lso n ecessary to pay a tte n tio n to
tw elve f e e t above land l e v e l , w hile in tim es the alignment o f the berm so as to reduce as
o f high flo o d , the r i s e above normal m&y be f a r as p o s s ib le the form ation o f eddies which
s i x or seven f e e t . The t id a l w aters en terin g might g iv e r i s e to new s lip s a t e ith e r end o f
the fenland r iv e r s from the Wash are h e a v ily the work, and f o r t h is reason any abrupt pro
charged w ith f in e s i l t o f marine o r ig in which je c tio n must be avoided.