The cytoplasm comprises cytosol (the gel-like substance enclosed within

the cell membrane) – and the organelles – the cell's internal sub-structures.
All of the contents of the cells of prokaryote organisms (such as bacteria,
which lack a cell nucleus) are contained within the cytoplasm. Within the
cells of eukaryote organisms the contents of the cell nucleus are separated
from the cytoplasm, and are then called the nucleoplasm. The cytoplasm is
about 80% water and usually colorless.[1]

It is within the cytoplasm that most cellular activities occur, such as

many metabolic pathways including glycolysis, and processes such as cell
division. The concentrated inner area is called the endoplasmand the outer
layer is called the cell cortex or the ectoplasm.

Movement of calcium ions in and out of the cytoplasm is thought to be

a signaling activity for metabolic processes.[2]

In plants, movements of the cytoplasm around vacuoles are known

as cytoplasmic streaming.

Physical nature of cytoplasm[edit]

The physical properties of the cytoplasm have been contested in recent
years.[citation needed] It remains uncertain how the varied components of the
cytoplasm interact to allow movement of particles andorganelles while
maintaining the cell’s structure. The flow of cytoplasmic components plays
an important role in many cellular functions which are dependent on
the permeability of the cytoplasm.[3] An obvious example of such function
is cell signalling, a process which is dependent on the manner in which
signaling molecules are allowed to diffuse across the cell.[4] While small
signaling molecules likecalcium ions are able to diffuse with ease, larger
molecules and subcellular structures often require aid in moving through the
cytoplasm.[5] The irregular dynamics of such particles have given rise to
various theories on the nature of the cytoplasm.

Cytosol[edit]

Main article: Cytosol

The cytosol is the portion of the cytoplasm not contained within membrane-
bound organelles. Cytosol makes up about 70% of the cell volume and is a
complex mixture of cytoskeleton filaments, dissolved molecules, and water.
The cytosol's filaments include the protein filaments such as actin
filaments and microtubules that make up the cytoskeleton, as well as
soluble proteins and small structures such as ribosomes, proteasomes, and
the mysterious vault complexes.[8] The inner, granular and more fluid
portion of the cytoplasm is referred to as endoplasm.

The cytoskeleton is an intracellular matrix that supports cell shape and function. In
eukaryotes, the matrix is a dynamic structure composed of three main proteins, which are
capable of rapid assembly or disassembly dependent on the cell's requirements.[1]

In all cells of all domains of life (archaea, bacteria, eukaryotes) a cytoskeleton is found
(notably in all eukaryotic cells, which include human, animal, fungal and plant cells). The
cytoskeletal systems of different organisms are composed of similar proteins. However,
the structure, function and dynamic behaviour of the cytoskeleton can be very different,
depending on organism and cell type.[2][3] Similarly, within the same cell type the structure,
dynamic behaviour, and function of the cytoskeleton can change through association with
other proteins and the previous history of the network.[4]

The cytoskeleton of eukaryotes (including human and all animal cells) has three major
components. The best-known components, present also in prokaryotic cells,
are microfilaments (made of the protein actin) and microtubules (made of the
protein tubulin) .[3][5] By contrast intermediate filaments, which have more than 60 different
building block proteins, have been found so far only in animal cells (apart from one non-
eukaryotic bacterial intermediate filament crescentin).[6] The complexity of the eukaryotic
cytoskeleton emerges from the interaction with hundreds of associated proteins,
like molecular motors,crosslinkers, capping proteins and nucleation promoting
factors.[3][4][5]

There is a multitude of functions the cytoskeleton can perform. Primarily, it gives the cell
shape and mechanical resistance to deformation,[2] so that through association with
extracellular connective tissue and other cells it stabilizes entire tissues.[2][6]The
cytoskeleton can also actively contract, thereby deforming the cell and the cell's
environment and allowing cells to migrate.[4] Moreover, it is involved in many cell
signaling pathways, in the uptake of extracellular material
(endocytosis),[7] segregates chromosomes during cellular division,[2] is involved
in cytokinesis (the division of a mother cell into two daughter cells),[3] provides a scaffold
to organize the contents of the cell in space [4] and for intracellular transport (for example,
the movement of vesicles and organelles within the cell);[2] and can be a template for the
construction of a cell wall.[2] Furthermore, it forms specialized structures, such
as flagella, cilia, lamellipodia and podosomes.

A large-scale example of an action performed by the cytoskeleton is muscle contraction.

During contraction of a muscle, within each muscle cell, myosin molecular motors
collectively exert forces on parallel actin filaments. This action contracts the muscle cell,
and through the synchronous process in many muscle cells, the entire muscle.
The cytoskeleton is responsible for cell shape, motility (movement) of the cell
as a whole, and motility of organelles within a cell. There are three types of
filaments in the cytoplasm of most vertebrate cells: microfilaments,
microtubules, and intermediate filaments. All of these filament systems share
a critical feature: They are composed of proteins that have the unique
property of being able to self-assemble into a filamentous network. Imagine a
pile of bricks that could assemble by themselves into a wall; the proteins that
make up the fibers of the cytoskeleton are able to do just this. The proteins
that make each of the three different filament systems assemble into only the
structure characteristic of that filament.

Unlike the human skeleton, the cytoskeleton is extremely dynamic, meaning

the filament systems are able to lengthen or shorten very rapidly. This
dynamic nature of the cytoskeleton is necessary for cells to be able to change
shape, complete cell division, or migrate, and represents one of the
cytoskeleton's most important features. Each of the self-assembling proteins
has a characteristic concentration, called the "critical concentration," below
which the monomer state is favored and above which the polymer state is
favored. Increasingly, the subunit concentration favors filament building, and
decreasing it favors filament deconstruction. This property allows the cell to
rapidly control cytoskeleton structure.

The Function Of a Cytoskeleton

As the name implies, a cytoskeleton is the frame that gives shape to a

cell. Just like in a human being, the skeleton also helps hold all of the
organelles (organs, in people) in place. Finally, it also assists in moving
materials in and out of the cell.

Through a series of intercellular proteins, the cytoskeleton gives a cell

its shape, offers support, and facilitates movement through three main
components: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and
microtubules. The cytoskeleton helps the cell move in its environment
and controls the movement of all of the cell's interior workings.

Microfilaments are the smallest of the three parts of the cytoskeleton,

as they are only around seven nanometers in diameter. These helically
shaped filaments are made up of G-actin proteins. Intermediate
filaments are slightly larger at eight to twelve nanometers around, and
these keratin-based filaments are twisted around each other to form a
cord shape. Microtubules are made of stronger proteins that form long,
hollow cylinders. They are the largest of the three at twenty-five
nanometers.

The microtubules have three different functions which contribute to the

job of the cytoskeleton. They make up the centrioles in a cell, they are
the base of both the flagella and cilia of a cell, and they function as the
pathway thatthe transport vesicles move along.

Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a series of intercellular proteins that help a cell with
shape, support, and movement. Cytoskeleton has three main structural
components: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, andmicrotubules. The
cytoskeleton mediates movement by helping the cell move in its
environment and mediating the movement of the cell's components.

Microfilaments are the smallest component of the cytoskeleton at about 7

nanometers in diameter.
They are composed of G-actin protein and are wound in a helical shape.

Intermediate filaments are 8-12 nanometers in diameter and are twisted

together in a cord shape.
They are composed of keratin and keratin-like proteins. These filaments are
tough and resist tension.
Microtubules are composed of alpha and beta tubulin that form long, hollow
cylinders.
These are fairly strong proteins and are the largest component of
cytoskeleton at 25 nanometers.
Tubular monomers can be lengthened or shortened from the positive end.

Microtubules have three different functions.

They make up the centrioles in a cell, the flagella and cilia of a cell, and
they serve as "tracks" for transport vesicles to move along

Organelles[edit]

Main article: Organelles

Organelles (literally "little organs"), are usually membrane-bound structures

inside the cell that have specific functions. Some major organelles that are
suspended in the cytosol are the mitochondria, theendoplasmic reticulum,
the Golgi apparatus, vacuoles, lysosomes, and in plant cells chloroplasts.

Index of cells
Description

 Structure
 o nucleus
 chromosome genetics
 Organelles
o peroxisome
o cytoskeleton
o centrosome
o epithelia
o cilia
o mitochondria
 Membranes
o proteins
o cell adhesions
 Membrane transport
o ion channels
o vesicular transport
o solute carrier
o ABC transporters
o ATPase
o oxidoreduction-driven

Disease

 Structural
o peroxisome
o cytoskeleton
o cilia
o mitochondria
o nucleus
o scleroprotein
 Membrane
o channelopathy
o solute carrier
o ATPase
o ABC transporters
o other
o extracellular ligands
o cell surface receptors
o intracellular signalling
 Vesicular transport
 Pore-forming toxins

Function of Cytoplasm

The jelly-like fluid that fills a cell is called cytoplasm. It is made up of

mostly water and salt. Cytoplasm is present within the cell membrane
of all cell types and contains all organelles and cell parts. Cytoplasm
has various functions in the cell.
Most of the important activities of the cell occur in the cytoplasm.
Cytoplasm contains molecules such as enzymes which are responsible
for breaking down waste and also aid in metabolic activity.

Cytoplasm is responsible for giving a cell its shape. It helps to fill out
the cell and keeps organelles in their place. Without cytoplasm, the cell
would be deflated and materials would not be able to pass easily from
one organelle to another.

Cytosol is the part of the cytoplasm that does not contain organelles.
Instead, cytosol is confined by the boundaries of a matrix which fills
the part of the cell that does not contain organelles.

Cell nucleus
In cell biology, the nucleus (pl. nuclei; from Latin nucleus or nuculeus, meaning kernel) is
a membrane-enclosedorganelle found in eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotes usually have a
single nucleus, but a few cell types have no nuclei, and a few others have many.
Cell nuclei contain most of the cell's genetic material, organized as multiple long
linear DNA molecules in complex with a large variety of proteins, such as histones, to
form chromosomes. The genes within these chromosomes are the cell's nuclear genome.
The function of the nucleus is to maintain the integrity of these genes and to control the
activities of the cell by regulating gene expression—the nucleus is, therefore, the control
center of the cell. The main structures making up the nucleus are the nuclear envelope, a
double membrane that encloses the entire organelle and isolates its contents from the
cellular cytoplasm, and the nucleoskeleton (which includes nuclear lamina), a network
within the nucleus that adds mechanical support, much like the cytoskeleton, which
supports the cell as a whole.
Because the nuclear membrane is impermeable to large molecules, nuclear pores are
required that regulate nuclear transport of molecules across the envelope. The pores
cross both nuclear membranes, providing a channel through which larger molecules must
be actively transported by carrier proteins while allowing free movement of small
molecules and ions. Movement of large molecules such as proteins and RNA through the
pores is required for both gene expression and the maintenance of chromosomes. The
interior of the nucleus does not contain any membrane-bound sub compartments, its
contents are not uniform, and a number of sub-nuclear bodies exist, made up of unique
proteins, RNA molecules, and particular parts of the chromosomes. The best-known of
these is the nucleolus, which is mainly involved in the assembly of ribosomes. After being
produced in the nucleolus, ribosomes are exported to the cytoplasm where they
translate mRNA.

Cell Nucleus - Commanding the Cell

The cell nucleus acts like the brain of the cell. It helps
control eating, movement, and reproduction. If it
happens in a cell, chances are thenucleus knows about
it. The nucleus is not always in the center of the cell. It
will be a big dark spot somewhere in the middle of all of
the cytoplasm (cytosol). You probably won't find it
near the edge of a cell because that might be a
dangerous place for the nucleus to be. If you don't
remember, the cytoplasm is the fluid that fills cells.

Life Before a Nucleus

Not all cells have a nucleus. Biology breaks cell types
into eukaryotic(those with a defined nucleus)
and prokaryotic (those with no defined nucleus). You
may have heard of chromatin and DNA. You don't need
a nucleus to have DNA. If you don't have a defined
nucleus, your DNA is probably floating around the cell in
a region called the nucleoid. A defined nucleus that
holds the genetic code is an advanced feature in a cell.

Important Materials in the Envelope

The things that make a eukaryotic cell are a defined
nucleus and other organelles. The nuclear envelope
surrounds the nucleus and all of its contents. The
nuclear envelope is a membrane similar to the cell
membrane around the whole cell. There are pores and
spaces for RNA and proteins to pass through while the
nuclear envelope keeps all of the chromatin and
nucleolus inside.

When the cell is in a resting state there is something

called chromatin in the nucleus.Chromatin is made
of DNA, RNA, and nuclear proteins. DNA and RNA are
the nucleic acids inside of the cell. When the cell is
going todivide, the chromatin becomes very compact.
It condenses. When the chromatin comes together, you
can see the chromosomes. You will also find
the nucleolus inside of the nucleus. When you look
through a microscope, it looks like a nucleus inside of
the nucleus. It is made of RNA and protein. It does not
have much DNA at all.

Chromosomes - Pull up Those Genes

Chromosomes are the things that make organisms
what they are. They carry all of the information used to
help a cell grow, thrive, and reproduce. Chromosomes
are made up of DNA. Segments of DNA in specific
patterns are called genes. Your genes make you who
you are. You will find the chromosomes and genetic
material in the nucleus of a cell. Inprokaryotes, DNA
floats in the cytoplasm in an area called the nucleoid.

Loose and Tight

Chromosomes are not always visible. They usually sit
around uncoiled and as loose strands called chromatin.
When it is time for the cell toreproduce, they condense
and wrap up very tightly. The tightly wound DNA is the
chromosome. Chromosomes look kind of like long, limp,
white hot dogs. They are usually found in pairs.

Completing the Sets

Scientists count individual strands of chromosomes.
They count individuals not every organism has pairs.
You probably have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs). Peas
only have 12. A dog has 78. The number of
chromosomes is NOT related to the intelligence or
complexity of the creature. There is a crayfish with 200
chromosomes. Does that make a crayfish five times
smarter or more complex than you are? No. There are
even organisms of the same species with different
numbers of chromosomes. You will often find plants of
the same species with multiple sets of chromosomes.

Chromosomes work with other nucleic acids in the cell

to build proteins and help in cell division. You will most
likely find mRNA in the nucleus with the DNA. tRNA is
found outside of the nucleus in the cytosol. When the
chromosomes are visible, cells with two complete sets of
chromosomes are called diploids (46 in a human). Most
cells are diploid. Cells with only one set (23 in a human)
are called haploid cells. Haploids are most often found
in cells involved in sexual reproduction such as a sperm
or an egg. Haploid cells are created in cell division
termed meiosis.

Centrioles - Organizing
Chromosomes
Every animal-like cell has two small organelles
called centrioles. They are there to help the cell when
it comes time to divide. They are put to work in both the
process of mitosis and the process of meiosis. You will
usually find them near the nucleus but they cannot be
seen when the cell is not dividing. And what are
centrioles made of? Microtubules.

Centriole Structure
A centriole is a small set of microtubules arranged in a
specific way. There are nine groups of microtubules.
When two centrioles are found next to each other, they
are usually at right angles. The centrioles are found in
pairs and move towards the poles (opposite ends) of the
nucleus when it is time for cell division. During division,
you may also see groups of threads attached to the
centrioles. Those threads are called the mitotic
spindle.
Relaxing When There's no Work
We already mentioned that you would find centrioles
near the nucleus. You will not see well-defined
centrioles when the cell is not dividing. You will see a
condensed and darker area of the cytoplasm called
the centrosome. When the time comes for cell division,
the centrioles will appear and move to opposite ends of
the nucleus. During division you will see four centrioles.
One pair moves in each direction.

Interphase is the time when the cell is at rest. When it

comes time for a cell to divide, the centrioles duplicate.
During prophase, the centrioles move to opposite ends
of the nucleus and a mitotic spindle of threads begins to
appear. Those threads then connect to the now
apparent chromosomes. During anaphase, the
chromosomes are split and pulled towards each
centriole. Once the entire cell begins to split in
telophase, the chromosomes begin to unravel and new
nuclear envelopes begin to appear. The centrioles have
done their job.
Ribosomes - Protein Construction
Teams
Cells need to make proteins. Enzymes made of
proteins are used to help speed up biological processes.
Other proteins support cell functions and are found
embedded in membranes. Proteins even make up most
of your hair. When a cell needs to make proteins, it
looks for ribosomes. Ribosomes are the protein
builders or the protein synthesizers of the cell. They
are like construction guys who connect one amino acid
at a time and build long chains.
Ribosomes are special because they are found in
both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. While a structure
such as a nucleus is only found in eukaryotes, every cell
needs ribosomes to manufacture proteins. Since there
are no membrane-bound organelles in prokaryotes, the
ribosomes float free in the cytosol.

Ribosomes are found in many places around a

eukaryotic cell. You might find them floating in
the cytosol. Those floating ribosomes make proteins
that will be used inside of the cell. Other ribosomes are
found on the endoplasmic reticulum. Endoplasmic
reticulum with attached ribosomes is called rough ER. It
looks bumpy under a microscope. The attached
ribosomes make proteins that will be used inside the cell
and proteins made for export out of the cell. There are
also ribosomes attached to the nuclear envelope. Those
ribosomes synthesize proteins that are released into the
perinuclear space.

Two Pieces Make the Whole

There are two pieces or subunits to every ribosome.
In eukaryotes, scientists have identified the 60-S
(large) and 40-S (small) subunits. Even though
ribosomes have slightly different structures in different
species, their functional areas are all very similar.

For example, prokaryotes have ribosomes that are

slightly smaller than eukaryotes. The 60-S/ 40-S model
works fine for eukaryotic cells while prokaryotic cells
have ribosomes made of 50-S and 30-S subunits. It's a
small difference, but one of many you will find in the
two different types of cells. Scientists have used this
difference in ribosome structure to develop drugs that
can kill prokaryotic microorganisms which cause
disease. There are even structural differences between
ribosomes found in the mitochondria and free
ribosomes.

Mixing and Matching Amino Acids

When are ribosomes used in the process of protein
synthesis? When the cell needs to make a protein,
mRNA is created in the nucleus. The mRNA is then sent
out of the nucleus and to the ribosomes. When it is
time to make the protein, the two subunits come
together and combine with the mRNA. The subunits lock
onto the mRNA and start the protein synthesis.

The process of making proteins is quite simple. First,

you need an amino acid. Another nucleic acid that lives
in the cell is transfer RNA. tRNA is bonded to the
amino acids floating around the cell. With the mRNA
offering instructions, the ribosome connects to a tRNA
and pulls off one amino acid. The tRNA is then released
back into the cell and attaches to another amino acid.
The ribosome builds a long amino acid (polypeptide)
chain that will eventually be part of a larger protein.
Mitochondria - Turning on the
Powerhouse
Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell.
They areorganelles that act like a digestive
system which takes in nutrients, breaks them down,
and creates energy rich molecules for the cell. The
biochemical processes of the cell are known as cellular
respiration. Many of the reactions involved in cellular
respiration happen in the mitochondria. Mitochondria
are the working organelles that keep the cell full of
energy.

Mitochondria are small organelles floating free

throughout the cell. Some cells have several thousand
mitochondria while others have none. Muscle
cells need a lot of energy so they have loads of
mitochondria. Neurons (cells that transmit nerve
impulses) don’t need as many. If a cell feels it is not
getting enough energy to survive, more mitochondria
can be created. Sometimes a mitochondria can grow
larger or combine with other mitochondria. It all
depends on the needs of the cell.

Mitochondria Structure
Mitochondria are shaped perfectly to maximize their
productivity. They are made of two membranes.
The outer membrane covers the organelle and
contains it like a skin. The inner membrane folds over
many times and creates layered structures
called cristae. The fluid contained in the mitochondria
is called the matrix.

The folding of the inner membrane increases the surface

area inside the organelle. Since many of the chemical
reactions happen on the inner membrane, the increased
surface area creates more space for reactions to occur.
If you have more space to work, you can get more work
done. Similar surface area strategies are used
bymicrovilli in your intestines.

What’s in the matrix? It's not like the movies at all.

Mitochondria are special because they have their
own ribosomes and DNA floating in the matrix. There
are also structures called granules which may control
concentrations of ions. Cell biologists are still exploring
the activity of granules.

Using Oxygen to Release Energy

How does cellular respiration occur in mitochondria? The
matrix is filled with water and proteins (enzymes).
Those proteins take organic molecules, such
as pyruvate and acetyl CoA, and chemically digest
them. Proteins embedded in the inner membrane and
enzymes involved in the citric acid cycle ultimately
release water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) molecules
from the breakdown of oxygen (O2) and glucose
(C6H12O6). The mitochondria are the only places in the
cell where oxygen is reduced and eventually broken
down into water.

Mitochondria are also involved in controlling the

concentration of calcium (Ca2+) ions within the cell. They
work very closely with the endoplasmic reticulum to
limit the amount of calcium in t Chloroplasts -
Show Me the Green
Chloroplasts are the food producers of the cell. The
organelles are only found inplant cells and
some protistssuch as algae. Animal cells do not have
chloroplasts. Chloroplasts work to convert light energy
of the Sun into sugars that can be used by cells. The
entire process is called photosynthesis and it all
depends on the little green chlorophyll molecules in
each chloroplast.

Plants are the basis of all life on Earth. They are

classified as the producers of the world. In the process
of photosynthesis, plants create sugars and release
oxygen (O2). The oxygen released by the chloroplasts is
the same oxygen you breathe every
day. Mitochondria work in the opposite direction. They
use oxygen in the process of releasing chemical energy
from sugars.
Special Structures
We'll hit the high points for the structure of a
chloroplast. Two membranes contain and protect the
inner parts of the chloroplast. They are appropriately
named the outer and inner membranes. The inner
membrane surrounds the stroma and
the grana (stacks ofthylakoids). One thylakoid
stack is called a granum.

Chlorophyll molecules sit on the surface of each

thylakoid and capture light energy from the Sun. As
energy rich molecules are created by the light-
dependent reactions, they move to the stroma where
carbon (C) can be fixed and sugars are synthesized.

The stacks of thylakoid sacs are connected by stroma

lamellae. The lamellae act like the skeleton of the
chloroplast, keeping all of the sacs a safe distance from
each other and maximizing the efficiency of the
organelle. If all of the thylakoids were overlapping and
bunched together, there would not be an efficient way
to capture the Sun’s energy.

Making Food
The purpose of the chloroplast is to make sugars
that feed the cell’s machinery. Photosynthesisis
the process of a plant taking energy from the Sun and
creating sugars. When the energy from the Sun hits a
chloroplast and the chlorophyll molecules, light energy
is converted into the chemical energy found in
compounds such asATP and NADPH.

Those energy-rich compounds move into the stroma

where enzymes fix the carbon atoms from carbon
dioxide (CO2). The molecular reactions eventually create
sugar and oxygen (O2). Plants and animals then use the
sugars (glucose) for food and energy. Animals also
breathe the oxygen gas that is released.

Different Chlorophyll Molecules

Not all chlorophyll is the same. Several types of
chlorophyll can be involved in photosynthesis. You will
hear about chlorophyll a and b most often. All
chlorophylls are varieties of green and have a common
chemical structure called a porphyrin ring.

There are other molecules that are also photosynthetic.

One day you might hear about carotenoids in
carrots, phycocyanin in bacteria,phycoerythrin in
algae, or fucoxanthin in brown algae. While these
compounds might be involved in photosynthesis, they
are not all green or the same structure as chlorophyll.
Accessory pigments such as carotenoids and
fucoxanthin pass absorbed light energy to neighboring
chlorophyll molecules instead of using it themselves.he
Endoplasmic Reticulum -
cytosol.
Wrapping it Up
Another organelle in the cell is the endoplasmic
reticulum (ER). While the function of the nucleus is to
act as the cell brain, the ER functions as a
manufacturing and packaging system. It works closely
with the Golgi apparatus, ribososmes, mRNA, and
tRNA.

Structurally, the endoplasmic reticulum is a network of

membranes found throughout the cell and connected to
the nucleus. The membranes are slightly different from
cell to cell and a cell’s function determines the size and
structure of the ER. For example, some cells, such as
prokaryotes or red blood cells, do not have an ER of any
kind. Cells that synthesize and release a lot of proteins
would need a large amount of ER. You might look at a
cell from the pancreas or liver for good examples of
cells with large ER structures.

Rough and Smooth

There are two basic types of ER. Both rough ER and
smooth ER have the same types of membranes but they
have different shapes. Rough ER looks like sheets or
disks of bumpy membranes while smooth ER looks more
like tubes. Rough ER is called rough because it has
ribosomes attached to its surface.

The double membranes of smooth and rough ER

form sacs called cisternae. Protein molecules are
synthesized and collected in the cisternal space/lumen.
When enough proteins have been synthesized, they
collect and are pinched off invesicles. The vesicles
often move to the Golgi apparatus for additional protein
packaging and distribution.

Smooth ER (SER) acts as a storage organelle. It is

important in the creation and storage of lipids
and steroids. Steroids are a type of ringed organic
molecule used for many purposes in an organism. They
are not always about building the muscle mass of a
weight lifter. Cells in your body that release oils also
have more SER than most cells.

The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) is a variation of the

SER. It is able to store many ions in solution that the
cell will need at a later time. When a cell needs to do
something immediately, it doesn’t make sense to search
the environment for extra ions that may or may not be
floating around. It is easier to have them stored in a
pack for easy use. For example, when you are running
around and your muscle cells are active, they need
calcium (Ca) ions. The SR can release those ions
immediately. When you are resting, they are able to
store them for later use.
Rough ER (RER) was also mentioned in the section on
ribosomes and is very important in the synthesis and
packaging of proteins. Ribosomes are attached to the
membrane of the ER, making it “rough.” The RER is also
attached to the nuclear envelope that surrounds the
nucleus. This direct connection between the perinuclear
space and the lumen of the ER allows for the movement
of molecules through both membranes.

The process of protein synthesis starts when mRNA

moves from the nucleus to a ribosome on the surface of
the RER. As the ribosome builds the amino acid chain,
the chain is pushed into the cisternal space of the RER.
When the proteins are complete, they collect and the
RER pinches off a vesicle. That vesicle, a small
membrane bubble, can move to the cell membraneor
the Golgi apparatus. Some of the proteins will be used
in the cell and some will be sent out into intercellular
space.
Golgi Apparatus - Packing Things Up
The Golgi apparatus or Golgi complex is found in most
cells. It is anotherpackaging organelle like
the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). It was named after
Camillo Golgi, an Italian biologist. It is pronounced GOL-
JI in the same way you would say squee-gie, as soft a
"G" sound. While layers of membranes may look like the
rough ER, they have a very different function.

Foundation of Vesicles
The Golgi apparatus gathers simple molecules and
combines them to make molecules that are more
complex. It then takes those big molecules, packages
them in vesicles, and either stores them for later use
or sends them out of the cell. It is also the organelle
that builds lysosomes (cell digestion machines). Golgi
complexes in the plant may also create complex sugars
and send them off in secretory vesicles. The vesicles are
created in the same way the ER does it. The vesicles are
pinched off the membranes and float through the cell.

The Golgi apparatus is a series of membranes shaped

like pancakes. The single membrane is similar to the cell
membrane in that it has two layers. The membrane
surrounds an area of fluid where the complex molecules
(proteins, sugars, enzymes) are stored and changed.
Because the Golgi complex absorbs vesicles from the
rough ER, you will also find ribosomesin those pancake
stacks.

Working with the Rough ER

The Golgi complex works closely with the rough ER.
When a protein is made in the ER, something called
a transition vesicle is made. This vesicle or sac floats
through the cytoplasm to the Golgi apparatus and is
absorbed. After the Golgi does its work on the molecules
inside the sac, a secretory vesicle is created and
released into the cytoplasm. From there, the vesicle
moves to the cell membrane and the molecules are
released out of the cell.

Vacuoles - Storage Bins to the Cells

Vacuoles are storage bubbles found in cells. They
are found in both animal and plant cells but are
much larger in plant cells. Vacuoles might store food or
any variety of nutrients a cell might need to survive.
They can even store waste products so the rest of the
cell is protected from contamination. Eventually, those
waste products would be sent out of the cell.

The structure of vacuoles is fairly simple. There is

a membrane that surrounds a mass of fluid. In that
fluid are nutrients or waste products. Plants may also
use vacuoles to store water. Those tiny water bags help
to support the plant. They are closely related to objects
called vesicles that are found throughout the cell.

In plant cells, the vacuoles are much larger than in

animal cells. When a plant cell has stopped growing,
there is usually one very large vacuole. Sometimes that
vacuole can take up more than half of the cell's volume.
The vacuole holds large amounts of water or food. Don't
forge that vacuoles can also hold the plant waste
products. Those waste products are slowly broken into
small pieces that cannot hurt the cell. Vacuoles hold
onto things that the cell might need, just like a
backpack.

Helping with Support

Vacuoles also play an important role in plant
structure. Plants usecell walls to provide support
and surround cells. The size of that cell may still
increase or decrease depending on how much water is
present. Plant cells do not shrink because of changes in
the amount of cytoplasm. Most of a plant cell's volume
depends on the material in vacuoles.

Those vacuoles gain and lose water depending on how

much water is available to the plant. A drooping plant
has lost much of its water and the vacuoles are
shrinking. It still maintains its basic structure because of
the cell walls. When the plant finds a new source of
water, the vacuoles are refilled and the plant regains its
structure.

Organelle Main function Structure Organisms Notes

has some
genes;
theorized to
double-
photosynthesis, plants, be engulfed
chloroplast(plast membrane
traps energy from protists(rare kleptopl by the
id) compartme
sunlight astic organisms) ancestral
nt
eukaryotic cell
(endosymbios
is)

translation and rough

folding of new endoplasmic
single-
proteins (rough reticulum is
endoplasmic membrane
endoplasmic all eukaryotes covered with
reticulum compartme
reticulum), ribosomes,
nt
expression of has folds that
lipids (smooth are flat sacs;
 endoplasmic smooth
reticulum) endoplasmic
reticulum has
folds that are
tubular

locomotion,
Flagellum eukaryotes
sensory

cis-face
(convex)
nearest to
rough
sorting, packaging, single- endoplasmic
processing and membrane reticulum;
Golgi apparatus all eukaryotes
modification of compartme trans-face
proteins nt (concave)
farthest from
rough
endoplasmic
reticulum

has some
energy production DNA;
from the oxidation theorized to
double-
of glucose be engulfed
membrane
mitochondria substances and most eukaryotes by an
compartme
the release of ancestral
nt
adenosine eukaryotic cell
triphosphate (endosymbios
is)

storage,
single-
transportation,
membrane
vacuole helps eukaryotes
compartme
maintain homeost
nt
asis

DNA maintenance,
double-
controls all
membrane contains bulk
nucleus activities of the all eukaryotes
compartme of genome
cell,
nt
RNAtranscription
 Main Organis
Organelle/Macromolecule Structure
function ms

anchor
for cytoskele
ton,
organizes Microtubule pr
centriole animals
cell division otein
by forming
spindle
fibers

breakdown
of large
molecules single- most
lysosome (e.g., membrane eukaryot
proteins + compartment es
polysacchari
des)

pre- most
protein-DNA-
nucleolus ribosome eukaryot
RNA
production es

translation of all
ribosome (80S) RNA into RNA-protein eukaryot
proteins es

single- all
material
vesicle membrane eukaryot
transport
compartment es
ORGANELL LOCATIO DESCRIPT FUNCTION
E N ION

cell wall plant, *outer *support

not layer (grow tall)
animal *rigid, *protection
strong, *allows
stiff H2O, O2,
*made of CO2 to pass
cellulose into and out
of cell
cell both *plant - *support
membrane plant/ani inside cell *protection
mal wall *controls
*animal - movement
outer of materials
layer; in/out of
cholester cell
ol *barrier
*selective between
ly cell and its
permeabl environmen
e t
*maintains
homeostasis

nucleus both *large, *controls

plant/ani oval cell
mal activities

nuclear both *surround *Controls

membrane plant/ani s nucleus movement
mal *selective of materials
ly in/out of
permeabl nucleus
e

cytoplasm both *clear, *supports

plant/ani thick, /protects
mal jellylike cell
material organelles
and
organelles
found
inside cell
membran
e

endoplasm both *network *carries

ic plant/ani of tubes materials
reticulum mal or through cell
(E.R.) membran
es

ribosome both *small *produces

plant/ani bodies proteins
mal free or
attached
to E.R.
mitochond both *bean- *breaks
rion plant/ani shaped down sugar
mal with inner molecules
membran into energy
es

vacuole plant - *fluid- *store food,

few/large filled sacs water,
animal - waste
small (plants need
to store
large
amounts of
food)

lysosome plant - *small, *breaks

uncomm round, down larger
on with a food
animal - membran molecules
common e into smaller
molecules
*digests old
cell parts

chloroplast plant, *green, *uses

not oval energy from
animal usually sun to make
containin food for the
g plant
chlorophy (photosynth
ll (green esis)
pigment)

Helping the molecules across: Active transport

Sometimes, the molecules are just too big to easily flow across the plasma
membranes or dissolve in the water so that they can be filtered through the
membrane. In these cases, the cells must put out a little energy to help get
molecules in or out of the cell.

Embedded in the plasma membrane are protein molecules, some of which

form channels through which other molecules can pass. Some proteins act
ascarriers — that is, they are “paid” in energy to let a molecule attach to itself
and then transport that molecule inside the cell.
Passive transport of molecules
A membrane can allow molecules to be passively transported through it in
three ways: diffusion, osmosis, and filtration.

 Diffusion: Sometimes organisms need to move molecules from an area

where they are highly concentrated to an area where the molecules are
less concentrated. This transport is much more easily done than moving
molecules from a low concentration to a high concentration. To go from a
high concentration to a low concentration, in essence the molecules need
to only “spread” themselves, or diffuse, across the membrane separating
the areas of concentration.

In the human body, this action occurs in the lungs. You breathe in air, and
oxygen gets into the tiniest air sacs of the lungs, the alveoli. Surrounding
the tiniest air sacs of the lungs are the tiniest blood vessels
— capillaries.The capillaries in the lungs, called pulmonary
capillaries, contain the lowest concentration of oxygen in the body,
because by the time the blood gets to the tiniest vessels, most of the
oxygen has been used up by other organs and tissues.

So, the tiniest air sacs of the lungs have a higher concentration of oxygen
than do the capillaries. That means that the oxygen from the alveoli of the
lungs can spread across the membrane between the air sac and the
capillary, getting into the bloodstream.

 Osmosis: This term is used when talking about water molecules diffusing
across a membrane. Basically, the diffusion of water (osmosis) works as
described in the preceding bullet. However, with osmosis, the
concentration of substances in the water is taken into consideration. If a
solution is isotonic, that means the concentrations of the
substances(solutes) and water (solvent) on both sides of the membrane
are equal. If one solution is hypotonic, there is a lower concentration of
substances (and more water) in it when compared to another solution. If a
solution ishypertonic, there is a higher concentration of substances in it
(and less water) when compared to another solution.

For example, the blood in your body contains a certain amount of salt.
The normal concentration is isotonic. If suddenly there is too high a
concentration of salt, the blood becomes hypertonic (too many salt
molecules). This excess of salt forces water out of the blood cells in an
 attempt to even things out. But the effect this action has is actually that of
shrinking the blood cells.
This shrinking of cells is called crenation (not cremation). If too much fluid
is in the bloodstream, the blood cells have too few molecules of salt in
comparison, making them hypotonic. Then, the blood cells take in water in
an attempt to normalize the blood and make it isotonic. However, if the
blood cells need to take in too much water to bring everything back into
balance, they can swell until they burst. This bursting of cells is
calledhemolysis (hemo = blood; lysis = break apart).

 Filtration: The last form of passive transport is used most often in the
capillaries. Capillaries are so thin (their membranes are only one cell
thick) that diffusion easily takes place through them. But remember that
animals have a blood pressure. The pressure at which the blood flows
through the capillaries is enough force to push water and small solutes
that have dissolved in the water right through the capillary membrane. So,
in essence, the capillary membrane acts as filter paper, allowing fluid to
surround the body’s cells and keeping large molecules from getting into
the tissue fluid.

Importance
All cells acquire the molecules and ions they need from their
surrounding extracellular fluid (ECF). There is an unceasing traffic of
molecules and ions

 in and out of the cell through its plasma membrane

o Examples: glucose, Na+, Ca2+
 In eukaryotic cells, there is also transport in and out of membrane-
bounded intracellular compartments such as the nucleus, endoplasmic
reticulum, and mitochondria.
o Examples: proteins, mRNA, Ca2+, ATP

Two problems to be considered:

1. Relative concentrations

Molecules and ions move spontaneously down their concentration gradient

(i.e., from a region of higher to a region of lower concentration)
by diffusion.
Molecules and ions can be moved against their concentration gradient, but
this process, called active transport, requires the expenditure of energy
(usually from ATP).

2. Lipid bilayers are impermeable to most essential molecules and ions.

The lipid bilayer is permeable to water molecules and a few other small,
uncharged, molecules like
oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2). These diffuse freely in and out of the
cell. The diffusion of water through the plasma membrane is of such
importance to the cell that it is given a special name: osmosis.

Lipid bilayers are not permeable to:

 ions such as
o K+, Na+, Ca2+ (called cations because when subjected to an
electric field they migrate toward the cathode [the negatively-
charged electrode])
o Cl-, HCO3- (called anions because they migrate toward the
anode [the positively-charged electrode])
 small hydrophilic molecules like glucose
 macromolecules like proteins and RNA

This page will examine how ions and small molecules are transported across
cell membranes. The transport of macromolecules through membranes is
described in Endocytosis.

Solving these problems

Mechanisms by which cells solve the problem of transporting ions and small
molecules across their membranes:

 Facilitated diffusion
Transmembrane proteins create a water-filled pore through which
ions and some small hydrophilic molecules can pass by diffusion. The
channels can be opened (or closed) according to the needs of the cell.
 Active transport
Transmembrane proteins, called transporters, use the energy of ATP
to force ions or small molecules through the membrane against their
concentration gradient.