Fuels

(“Fuels and Fuel Technology”

W. Francis and M.C. Peters)

Solid fuels

Liquid fuels

Gaseous fuels

(these slides include some notes by Mário Nina)

 Diagram of fuels

Solid fuels have the lowest ratio of

hydrogen to carbon and may contain
an appreciable fraction of oxygen

Despite the wide variety of solid fuels,

their composition is located in typical
bands

Coal presents the largest reserves of

fossil fuels and are more distributed
than any other reserves
 Classification of solid fuels
Solid fuels can be classified into natural fuels and manufactured
(or artificial) fuels

wood (often peat and lignite

are considered
peat
vegetable coal, while
Natural solid fuels lignite bituminous and
bituminous
hard coal anthracite coal are
anthracites considered mineral
coal)
wood charcoal
peat charcoal
Manufactured solid lignite coke
fuels coal briquettes
low-temperature
coke (from coal) medium-temperature
high-temperature
 Analysis of solid fuels
Ultimate analysis
Composition is characterized by two types of analysis
Proximate analysis

Ultimate analysis - mass fraction of the elements present:

C, H, O, N, S and ashes (nowadays it includes Cl, Ca, ... )

Nitrogen (NP1012), Sulphur (ASTM D3177)

Proximate analysis - mass fractions according to the decomposition:

Moisture (determined at 110ºC)

Volatile matter (gases released by heating to 950ºC) - NP3423
Fixed carbon (computed from the difference to the remaining values)
Ash (residue obtained when fuel is burned in air) - NP1019

Note: NP – Portuguese Standard

Ultimate analysis

The composition of the fuel

is characterized by:

Moisture

Volatile matter

Fixed carbon

Ash content
 Bases of reporting
The following bases are generally used for reporting analysis of solid fuels:

As received (Ar - including moisture and ash)

Dry basis (Db - dry base by excluding moisture)

Dry ash free (Daf - excludes moisture and ash)

Usually the proximate analysis is Ar and the ultimate analysis is Daf

The conversion between bases is straightforward, e.g.

xCAr = xCDaf * (1 – xAshAr - xHumAr) (7.1)

xVolDb = xVolAr/(1 - xHumAr) (7.2)

 Characteristics of wood

Wood is a solid fuel with less maturity and can be considered renewable

Moisture in the trees varies between 25 to 50%,

and after drying at open air is 10 to 15%
The ash content is low (0,5%)
Wood consists of cellulose (including hemi-cellulose) (51-60%), lignin
(44-32%), resins (<2%), and water soluble (3-6%), apart from moisture

Wood can be burned directly or converted to gas or charcoal

The calorific value ranges from 17 to 19 MJ/kgAr, with cellulose being

16 MJ/kg and resins 32.5 MJ/kg
 Combustion of wood
The combustion of wood begins with heating, release of moisture, and
pyrolysis (which releases volatile matter)
The combustion of wood may occur (mainly!) with flame or at the air-solid
interface. This depends on the temperature at which pyrolysis occurs
Pyrolysis of cellulose:
k1
C6H12O6 → 6 CO + 6 H2 6 CO + 6 H2 + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O
k2
C6H12O6 → 6 C + 6 H 2O 6 C + 6 H2O + 6 O2 → 6 CO2 + 6 H2O

k k1

k2

T
predominance of predominance of
smouldering combustion with flame
 Carbonization and gasification
of wood
The combustion of wood can be inefficient and a large amount of volatile
matter may not be burned. Moreover the use of gaseous fuel is generally
more versatile

The wood heated at low temperature (<350 ° C) under oxygen deficiency

gives rise to approximately 40% of charcoal and 12 to 17% volatile matter
(≈ 30 MJ⋅kg-1)

The charcoal (already with very little volatile matter) burns without such
losses. The absence of flame can also be an advantage

The wood heated at high temperature (1000 to 1200 ºC) under oxygen
deficiency leads to approximately 20% of charcoal and high quantity
(≈ 2,75 m3⋅kg-1) of volatile matter (carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, hydrogen, and methane)
 Formation of coal

Peat
Lignite
Anthracite
Sub-bituminous Bituminous
Type and composition of coals

Type of coal Carbon Hydrogen Age

% mass % mass (years*106)
Anthracite 93 - 95 3.8 - 2.8 210 - 250
Carbonaceous 91 - 93 4.25 - 3.8 210 - 250
Bituminous 80 - 91 5.6 - 4.35 150 - 180
Sub-bitum. 75 - 80 5.6 - 5.1 60 - 100
Lignitous 60 - 75 5.7 - 5.0 20 - 60
Peat 50 - 60 6.1 - 5.8 1
Wood* 46 - 51 6.2 - 5.9 0

* Wood is considered renewable (non-fossil)

 Typical compositions of solid fuels
Composition in % mass (dry base, ash free)
Fuel Volatile
Carbon Hidrogen Nitrogen Sulfur Oxigen Ash
matter
Cedar 49.0 6.4 − − 44.6 0.4
Pine 52.6 6.1 − − 41.3 0.1
Red pine 53.6 5.9 0.1 − 40.4 0.2
Birch 49.9 6.5 − − 43.6 0.3
Quercus (Oak) 50.5 6.6 − − 42.9 0.2
Populus (Poplar) 51.9 6.3 − − 41.8 0.7
Wood (typical) 52.2 6.1 0.1 − 41.6 79.3 1.5
Peat 57.5 5.5 1.6 0.4 35.0 68.0 8.0
Lignite 74.8 4.8 1.2 1.2 18.0 46.8 29.0
Semi-bituminous coal 72.5 4.8 1.5 4.0 17.2 47.5 17.5
Bituminous coal
(high content of 85.0 5.6 1.5 1.4 6.5 36.7 7.0
volatile matter)
Bituminous coal
(medium content of 89.0 5.0 1.7 0.6 3.7 22.9 3.0
volatile matter)
Bituminous coal
(low content of 89.8 5.0 1.6 0.8 2.8 16.8 5.2
volatile matter)
Anthracite A 89.8 4.0 0.9 2.6 2.7 8.7 19.5
Anthracite B 93.0 3.7 1.3 0.7 1.3 7.5 8.0
Charcoal 93.0 2.5 0.8 0.1 3.6 10.0 1.0
Coke 93.0 3.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 8.0 7.0
 Mass balance
The mass balance equations are generally made in mass basis

1kg Caol + s kg Air -> (1+s) kg Products

(xC C + xH H + xN N + xS S + xO O + xAsh Ash + xHum H2O) + λ xOstoic (O2 +

+ 3,31 N2 ) → xC CO2 + (xH + xHum) H2O + xS SO2 + (xN + 3,31 λ xOstoic) N2 +
+ xAsh Ash + (λ -1) xOstoic O2 (7.3)

32 16 32
where xOstoic= xC + xH + xS - xO (7.4)
12 2 32
1 – 0,232
Note that 3,31 =
0,232

The equation can also be written without ash (which is a solid product), and
can also be written on a molar basis for air and gaseous products.
 Calorific value
The calorific value can be expressed in different mass bases (Ar, Daf, Db),
with regard to the LHV and HHV at constant volume or pressure

Its determinations follows the standard ASTM D2205

The enthalpy of formation of coal is close to zero and the calorific value can
be calculated from the enthalpy of formation of combustion products

There are several approximate expressions

HHV ~ 33,8 xC + 144,3 (xH - xO/8) + 9,4 xS (Dulong) (7.5)

HHV ~ 34,1 xC + 132,3 [xH - (xO + xN)/11] + 6,8 xS – 1,5 xAsh (7.6)
(Mason and Gandhi, 1983)

(in MJ⋅kg-1 and dry basis. The second includes the effect of ash xAsh)
 Classification of coals

ASTM (USA)
In order to characterize the coals and NCB (UK)
reconciling various nomenclatures there
EC for bituminous coals
are several classifications
Seyler’s classification

Besides rank (maturity or age) and composition, the rankings include:

Swelling index (variation of the diameter in the pyrolysis)

Agglomerating character (it also indicates plasticity)

Coking and Caking indexes (behaviour of coal according to the rate of

heating – slow and fast, respectively)
ASTM classification
 NCB classification

The National Coal Board

uses numeric codes
associated with volatile
content, and coking power of
clean material

This concept is extended in the

classification of the European
Economic Community
E.C.E. classification
 Diagrams with analysis

Ultimate
Proximate

A – anthracite, B – semi-anthracite. Bituminous (1% to 5% moisture),

C – bituminous agglomerating, D – bituminous partialy agglomerating,
E – bituminous non-agglomerating, F – semi-bituminous (3% to 20%
moisture), G – lignitous (12% to 25% moistur),
H – peat (20% a 35% de humidade).
Diagram of Seyler (adapted)
 Seyler’s classification
B.S.
Hidrogen Volatile CV
Rank Carbon (%) Swelling
(%) matter (%) (MJ/kg)
index
Anthracite > 93.3 3.0-3.8 5-10 32.9 1
Carbonaceous
Semi-anthracite 3.8-4.4 10-14 37.4 1
93.3-91.2
Semi-bituminous 4.4-5.0 14-20 33.7 3.5
Bituminous
Meta- 91.2-89.0 4.4-5.4 20-28 33.5 9
Orto- 89.0-87.0 4.7-5.6 28-31 33.1 9
Para- 87.0-84.0 4.9-5.7 31-36 32.0 6
Lignitous
Meta- 84.0-80.0 5.0-5.7 36-42 30.5 2
Orto- 80.0-75.0 5.0-5.7 42-49 28.4 1
Lignite < 75.0 5.0-5.7 49-59 25.0 1

The bituminous coal may distort during the volatilization

The volatile matter content is given by:
VM = 10,61 xH – 1,24 xC + 84,15

except for anthracite:

ln(VM) = 0,23364 xH – 0,02706 xC + 2,579
 Other important properties
Temperature of melting of ashes
at different stages: IDT, Hemi, Fluid

Indexes of grading Hardgrove (HGI) and of abrasiveness

Indexes of Fouling and Slagging

(deposit formation based on the ashes)

Apparent density (1.2 – 1.8 103 kg⋅m-3)

Porosity (varies during combustion)

Internal area (~ 100 m2⋅g-1)

 Other properties
Temperature
Higher Initial Apparent
range for Swelling Hardgrove #
Fuel CV moisture
melting of index index
density (A/F)stoich, mass
(MJ/kg) (% mass) (kg/m3)
ashes (K)
Cedar 19.62 5.92
Pine 20.72 20 6.37
Red pine 21.07 50 6.46
Birch 20.18 Non 6.10
1300-1600 Non
Quercus (Oak) 20.53 8 applicable 6.23
applicable
Populus (Poplar) 20.89 6.34
Wood (typical) 20.88 48 6.31
Peat 20.93 93 53-79 700-1100** 7.0
Lignite 27.80 47 1310-1480 66-82 400 9.48
Semi-bituminous coal 28.97 26 100 640-800 9.25
Bituminous coal
(high content of volatile 35.82 1.5 1830 + 3-7.5 57-62 11.42
matter)
Bituminous coal
(medium content of 36.37 3.5 1610 + 8.5 44-54 11.80
volatile matter)
Bituminous coal
(low content of volatile 26.68 3.8 8.5-9 68 11.93
matter)
Anthracite A 34.66 6.3 1520 25-35 11.59
Anthracite B 36.28 1.0 Non 11.91
Charcoal 34.75 2.0 applicable 300-600 11.40
Coke 34.33 8.0 > 1600 370-510 11.64
 Variation of properties

Apparent density Specific internal area

 Coal preparation
The coal preparation is intended to
obtain a fuel with the appropriate
characteristics to the equipment and
application concerned

separation of coal types (hards

and brights)
screening of different sizes
hand-picking (D > 100 mm)
crushing of larger sizes (avoiding
creating very small particles)
cleaning (to remove inorganic
impurities)
drying (when small-sized coal are
washed
blending (to modify properties of a coal
 Storage of coal
Coals deteriorate during storage by low-temperature oxidation

Factors affecting deterioration by oxidation:

volatile matter content ⇒ oxidation
surface / volume ratio ⇒ oxidation
ventilation of the coal pile ⇒ oxidation

If the temperature does not exceed 50 ºC for lignite and 80 ºC for the
bituminous spontaneous ignition does not occur. However, coal deteriorates:

– decrease in calorific value CV

– decrease in C and H
– increase in O
– reduction in size grading
The critical period for the occurrence of spontaneous ignition is 4 to 5 weeks
after extraction. Coal stored for more than six months usually will not be
subject to spontaneous ignition

Summary (Fuels and Fuel Technology - W Francis & M C Peters - 1980)

 Classification of liquid fuels
Liquid fuels can be classified into natural fuels and manufactured
(or artificial) fuels

The natural fuels are essentially those derived from petroleum (though they
result from human intervention). They are sometimes classified as light
(petrol, oil, diesel, ...) and heavy (heavy fuel-oil and bunker). The former are
mainly used in engines, and the latter in boilers and large (and slow) engines

alcohols
products from the synthesis of hydrocarbons
Manufactured liquid fuels products from the synthesis of coal
biofuels
...
 Hydrocarbons (and alcohols)
Almost all of the liquid fuels are formed by hydrocarbons or oxygenated
hydrocarbons

Paraffin (alkanes)
branched-
n-alkane chain

Olefin (alkenes) - paraffin with double bonds

Alkyne (alkynes) - paraffin with triple bonds

Naphthenic (cyclo-paraffin)

Aromatic single multiple

ring rings
 Petroleum oil and crude
Petroleum oil is generally considered to be formed from the decomposition
of plants (mostly marine - and also animals) in the near absence of oxygen.
Once extracted and with no gas nor solids, is usually called by crude

Typical composition
Carbon 80 a 89 %
Hydrogen 12 a 14 %
Nitrogen 0,3 a 1 %
Sulphur 0,3 a 3 %
Oxygen 2 a 3%

Petroleum oil classification

Paraffinic
Naphthenic
Asphaltic
(aromatic)
 Fractional distillation
Crude oil is distilled in distillation towers. The heavier fractions are distilled
again at sub-atmospheric pressures
Gas and light LPG G
fractions A
Gasolina Ethylene
Etileno S

Gasoline

L
Light gas oil I
Q
U
Heavy gas oil I
D
Lubricating oils
Óleo base mineral
Bitumen
Distillation tower (source: BP)
 Gas
Fractional distillation at C1 to C3
atmospheric pressure Naphtha
and at low pressure

C1 to C4
Water
Gasoline vapour

Kerosine Light
Diesel fuel
Light Diesel
fuel
Water
Medium vapour
Diesel fuel
Heavy
Diesel fuel

Buthane Propane
Crude Residue
Atmospheric Low-pressure Buthane Propane
Boyler destillation Boyler destillation extraction extraction
tower tower unit unit

Although much depends on its type 20 to 30 % of gasoline

(paraffinic, naphthenic, asphaltic), 30 to 45 % of intermediate fractions
an average crude oil could lead to 25 to 50 % of residual fuel oil

The vacuum distillation allows more light and intermediate fractions

Cracking processes allow to obtain lighter grades

thermal cracking – heating (≈ 500 º C and 25 bar) of

heavy oil above its decomposition temperature, yielding
50 to 70% of low-quality gasoline

thermal reforming – similar to thermal cracking but

with heating at higher temperatures, yielding 50 to
70% of gasoline of better quality

catalytic cracking – heating in the presence of a catalyst

of aluminium and silica, yielding good quality gasoline

hydrocracking – heating in the presence of

catalysts and hydrogen, yielding large amounts of
kerosine and diesel fuel
 Types of liquid fuels
Gasoline – mixture of light hydrocarbons, mainly used in internal combustion
engines. Additives are added to gasoline to suit the required
applications
Kerosine – mixture of heavier hydrocarbons than those of gasoline. Used in
gas turbines, ram-jets, heating and lighting
Light Diesel fuel – mixture of heavier hydrocarbons than those of kerosine.
Used in high-speed diesel engines
Medium Diesel fuel – the next mixture. Used in medium-speed diesel
engines

Heavy Diesel fuel – the next mixture. Used in low-speed diesel engines
Residual fuel – distillation residue. Very viscous (needs pre-heating). It has a
high amount of sulphur, and some contain metal compounds (which
give rise to adverse reactions). It is used in boilers and in very large
(and slow) Diesel engines
 Properties
Some typical values for liquid hydrocarbons
Mean Tboiling (ºC) Kinematic
LHV Density
Fuel composition viscosity
(MJ⋅kg-1) (kg⋅m-3) (at 1.0 bar)
(approx.) (cSt @ 50ºC)

Gasoline C8H15 44.0 750 30 to 200 0.8 (@ 20ºC)

Kerosine C10,5H20 44 800 150 to 300 -

Light Diesel fuel C11H19 43.2 810 210 to 235 2.5 (@ 20ºC)

Medium Diesel fuel C12,3H22 43.0 840 185 to 360 2.8

Heavy Diesel fuel C14,5H25 42.8 900 > 200 8

Residual (fuel-oil) > C14,5H25 40 950 - 180 to 380

Notes: – almost all values given show appreciable variations. Only for Tboiling
variations were presented
– references used are varied and not always very coherent, which is mainly
due to the wide variety of hydrocarbon mixtures that these fuels may have
Note that some properties vary very little and others vary widely

Calorific values vary very little (43 to 44 MJ⋅kg-1, except for residual fuels) as
well as the stoichiometric mass air/fuel ratio (typically 14.4 to 14.6)

The density also varies little, and only in residual fuels is a little higher,
approaching the water’s (which raises major problems in the separation of
water from the fuel !)

Important differences are found in volatility (illustrated in the table by the

boiling temperature), and viscosity. This is very important in the formation of
drops (and droplets), and therefore in the characteristics of sprays.
The more viscous fuel must be preheated for pumping and/or injection

Another important difference is the sulphur content of the fuel, substantially

increasing from gasoline (≈ 0.07 wt%) to heavy diesel (≈ 1.7%). The fuel-oils
have much higher values (2.5 to 4%)

Another important difference in engines is the ease (or difficulty) of

spontaneous ignition. This behaviour is characterized by the Cetane and the
Octane Numbers
 Alcohols
Alcohols are oxygenated hydrocarbons where a hydrogen atom was replaced
by an OH radical
There are many alcohols, but the most common are methanol and ethanol
Methanol is produced as a product of the carbonization of wood, or through a
synthesis process 2 H2 + CO → CH3OH
The process yields about 75% methanol and 25% heavier alcohols, which
are then separated by fractional distillation
Ethanol is obtained from fermentation of sugars, followed by fractional
distillation
Methanol and ethanol are good fuel for spark ignition engines. But they have
a high latent heat of vaporization, which can cause problems when starting
from cold. They are good solvents, so their blend with gasoline provides a
cleaner operating engine. However, they cause some problems of corrosion
and attack the elastomers.
 Other biofuels
The demand for alternative fuels to products derived from petroleum oil has
led to development of techniques for production of vegetable oils specifically
for combustion (although from ancient times animal and vegetable oils have
been used as fuel)

The oils obtained are not compatible with spark ignition engines, but are (up to
a point) compatible with diesel engines. A great deal of research has been
done to allow a mutual adaptation of these oils and diesel engines, mainly for
diesel-biodiesel blends

These biofuels (particularly biodiesel) are made from oils extracted from
plants (sunflower, palm, soybean, rapeseed, ...), using a chemical process
called transesterification, which makes the extracted oil to react with an
alcohol in the presence of catalysts
 Classification of gaseous fuels
petroleum
Natural gas coal
biogas
wood gas (distillation or carbonization)
peat gas (distillation or carbonization)
coal gas (carbonization)
producer gas (gasification in air)
from coal coal gas (hydrogenation)
water gas (gasification in air and steam)
Lurgi gas (gasification in O2 and steam)
Manufactured gas
refinery gas (cracking)
from oil gas (hydrogenation)
petroleum oil gas (partial oxidation)
and oil shale oil gas (water gas reaction)

acetylene (reaction of water and carbide)

hydrogen (electrolysis)
 Typical composition
CH4 93 to 99 %
CH4 ≈ 75 %
Natural gas C 2H 6 up to 3 %
Biogas CO2 ≈ 25 %
from coal CO2 up to 4 %
LHV 29.6 MJ⋅m-3 (0ºC, 1 bar)
N2 and up to 4 %
inerts

CH4 75 to 95 %
Natural gas from petroleum deposits C 2H 6 3 to 12 %
C 3H 8 up to 6 %
 Biogas
Biogas is obtained from the Pressure can be adjusted with weights

decomposition of organic matter by Floating metallic ceiling

Gas output
above the gas
bacteriological action in closed
digesters, in the absence (or nearly)
oxygen. It requires a high moisture
content Pasty Solid
manure waste
Fermentation
Organic matter (provided it has high chamber

moisture content) can be of various

origins, either plant or animal, being
very common the use of organic
manure Baffle

In operation the digesters maintain a temperature around 30 to 40 °C

Since the process is not totally anaerobic, the gas has a significant
percentage of CO2, but the solid waste is a good fertilizer
 Use of Natural Gas
Natural gas has a high calorific value, is uniform in its properties
(depending on its source), and contains no harmful impurities
(or their content is very low)

Its flame propagation speed is relatively low, requiring special burners

Its flame is not sooty, rendering heat transfer by radiation very difficult.
This is an advantage when reducing heat loss is a goal, but it is a drawback
if heat transfer by radiation is the objective (e.g., boilers); therefore large
areas for heat exchange by radiation are required

It has a high octane rating (it is good resisting self-ignition) and it is a

good fuel for spark ignition engines (but incompatible with Diesel - except
in Dual-Fuel version). It is also a good fuel for gas turbines
Natural gas forms explosive mixtures with air (within the Limits of
Flammability). Safety devices are required, particularly to allow
the starting and stopping the firing systems

However its density is lower than that of the air, so they are easily dispersed
in the atmosphere, reducing the risk of formation of explosive mixtures in air

The calorific value per unit volume of natural gas is very low. Thus, in its
storage or transport compressed or liquefied gas is used. In large pipelines it
is typically compressed to 60 to 70 bar (at room temperature). The pressures
of storage are around 200 to 250 bar. Its density is much higher when
liquefied, so that the transport and storage in the liquid phase is very
attractive. However the temperature required is very low (≈ -160 °C).
Hence, the vessels must be cryogenic. The temperature is kept very low by
letting some of the liquid to vaporize. This is indeed a loss of fuel, which
should be burned afterwards
 Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPG)
The liquefied petroleum gas are hydrocarbons (or mixtures of hydrocarbons)
that are gaseous at normal atmospheric pressure and temperature, but that
can be stored in the liquid phase at atmospheric temperature at relatively low
pressures

They end up having the usual advantages associated with gas together with
the high energy density per unit volume associated with liquids

Main components of LPG

Propane Propylene N-butane Iso-butane 1-butene
=

The main sources of LPG are natural gas, crude oil, thermal and catalytic
cracking, as well as thermal reforming
 Bottled gases
Commercial liquid butane consists mainly of saturated and unsaturated C4
hydrocarbons, with less than 20% of C3 and less than 2% of C5 hydrocarbons

Commercial liquid propane consists mainly of C3 hydrocarbons (propane

and propylene if obtained from refinery gases), with less than 5% of C2
hydrocarbons and less than 10% of C4 hydrocarbons

They contain low percentages (<0.02%) of sulphur compounds. Evil-smelling

organic sulphides may be added to give warning of leaks

Propane is often used in pressurized burners

When the rate of evaporation is intense freezing can occur in the

depressurization valve (L = 0.22 MJ⋅dm-3 at atmospheric pressure). In this
case it is necessary to heat the valves
Propane is an excellent fuel for spark ignition engines (terrible for Diesel)
because of its high octane number and low ratio C/H, resulting in low
formation of carbon deposits

It is used in oxy-propane torches. The flame temperature is lower than that

of oxy-acetylene torches, but is sufficient for many applications. The flame
propagation speed is lower than the one for oxygen-acetylene mixtures,
hence decreasing the problems of flashback,, and the flammability limits are
much narrower (2 to 10% in air compared with 2.5 to 80% for acetylene),
highly reducing the risk of explosion

Butane and propane can be added to other gases to increase the calorific
value of the mixture

Butane is best suited for domestic applications. Propane is more suitable for
industrial applications due to its higher storage pressure
 Propane Butane

Boiling point (atmospheric pressure) (ºC) - 42 -6

Specific gravity of the liquid (at 15 ºC) 0.51 0.59
Density of the gas (relative to the air) 1.5 2,0
HCV 50.0 49.3
Latent heat of vaporization (atmospheric pressure) (MJ⋅kg-1) 0.43 0.45
Latent heat of vaporization (atmospheric pressure) (MJ⋅dm-3) 0.22 0.22
Flammability limits (% of gas in the mixture) 2.0 to 9.5 2.0 to 8.5
Stoichiometric air (m3air / m3gas) 23 30
Ignition temperature (ºC) 500 480
Adiabatic flame temperature (ºC) 1950 1880
Storage pressure (at 20 ºC) (bar) 8.6 2.0
 Wobbe index
Gaseous fuels are grouped into families based on the Wobbe index in
accordance with similar combustion characteristics

CV CV – calorific value (7.7)

W=
d d – density relative to the air (section 1.4.11 of NP-927)

This classification seeks to group gaseous fuels with similar characteristics of

burning. These characteristics are so distinct from family to family that two
different families of gases are not interchangeable, and changing from one
family to another requires the conversion of the burning equipment

Therefore, equipment, burners, and gas appliances are manufactured

specifically for each indicated family of gases
1st Family (town gas) – Wobbe index from 21.5 to 28.7 MJ⋅m-3.
Mainly these are gases obtained from coal and, more recently, from gases of
similar characteristics produced from gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons.
Their main components are hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide and inert
gases C02 and N2.

2nd Family (natural gas) – Wobbe index from 37.1 to 52.4 MJ⋅m-3.
It includes all natural gases in which the main component is methane, as well as the
manufactured gases for replacement of natural gas

3rd Family (LPG) – Wobbe index from 72.0 e 85.1 MJ⋅m-3.

It includes all gaseous hydrocarbons usually supplied as liquids in vessels or
bottles, in which the main constituents are butane and propane
 Comparison of fuels
Source: Ferreira dos Santos (1986)

From the standpoint of the consumer, readiness and certainty of supply are
factors of great importance. Thus, to make a choice of fuel, one must
consider the place of production, transport and mode of delivery, and
consumption points, in addition to the actual use

Solid fuels

These, including coal and coke, have the following advantages over other
energy sources:

a) their prices are lower;

b) they can be stored in large quantities in hard, flat surfaces;
c) having a low hydrogen content, a larger proportion of their HCV can be
used;
d) the average value of sulphur in coal is lower (less than half the average
level found for the residual fuel oil), hence creating less pollution and
corrosion problems;
e) coal ash has hardly any vanadium, which exists in the oil;
f) coal can be used in its powdered form, whose advantages are similar to
those of the oil;
g) they have a greater diversification of suppliers.

However, there are disadvantages related to their handling and use:

h) their operation in terms of handling is dirty due to dust. Transportation

systems are often subject to halts;
i) they suffer deterioration during storage with reduced particle size and
calorific value. In extreme cases, spontaneous combustion can occur;
j) sometimes they have high proportions of mineral matter, which present in
the ash can cause serious problems;
k) the presence of sulphur leads to the formation of sulphur oxides during
combustion, which accounts for problems of corrosion and pollution;
l) controlling the combustion of solids is more difficult to perform than that of
liquid and gaseous fuels, enhanced by a wide range of quality and sizes.

Liquid fuels

With regard to solid fuels, liquid fuels have the following advantages:

a) they can be stored more compactly. On the basis of calorific value /

weight the oils contain about 50% more energy than coal. Based on area
occupied, the oil storage is almost 5 times more compact;
b) handling and transport takes place more easily than solids. Thus, the
pumping equipment, transport and control becomes cheaper;
c) the higher calorific value implies a higher power for a given mass of fuel;
d) regulation and control of combustion processes are easier;
e) the burners are more easily adaptable to different calorific powers;
f) start-up is also simpler than in coal plants;
g) minimum excess air is lower, so temperatures are higher. Furthermore,
the use of aromatic oils leads to brighter flames and therefore more heat
transfer by radiation;
h) the supply of fuel is more uniform in composition than that of coal. There
are no problems of dust when loading and unloading;
i) oils have very low levels of ashes. There are no problems with pitch, nor is
there deposits ("bird nesting") in the boilers;
j) coal has problems of spontaneous ignition during storage. Oil does not;
k) the light distillates (diesel and kerosine) have less sulphur than coal. They
are suitable for central heating and domestic applications.
 Gaseous fuels

The use and handling of gaseous fuels have great advantages over other
solid and liquid fuels:

a) they are clean, and their combustion does not produce ash, dust nor
particles that can pollute the atmosphere;
b) any compound of sulphur or sulphur itself that may exist in the gas is
easily removed by simple and economic processes before the gas being
burned ;
c) can be burned efficiently with minimal amounts of excess air (50-10%) and
produce no fumes if there is good control on combustion;
d) can be burned uniformly without requiring any special process for control
and handling;
e) can be easily distributed to various locations using underground piping, as
was the case of town gas and is currently the case with domestic natural
gas;
f) its purity and calorific value are always well defined;
g) only with LPG special care concerning weather conditions must be taken
for storage.