aerospace

Article
Hybrid Electric Aircraft Propulsion Case Study for
Skydiving Mission
Richard Glassock 1, *,† , Michael Galea 1,† ID
, Warren Williams 2,† and Tibor Glesk 3
1 Institute for Aerospace Technology, The University of Nottingham, Innovation Park, Triumph Road,
Nottingham NG7 2TU, UK; michael.galea@nottingham.ac.uk
2 Engineering and Built Environment, University of Southern Queensland, West Street,
Toowoomba Q4350, Australia; warren.williams@usq.edu.au
3 Air Ute Pty Ltd., Caloundra Q4551, Australia; tibor.glesk@gmail.com
* Correspondence: richard.glassock@nottingham.ac.uk; Tel.: +44-0115-748-6449
† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Received: 30 June 2017; Accepted: 15 August 2017; Published: 18 August 2017

Abstract: This paper describes a case study for applying innovative architectures related to electrified
propulsion for aircraft. Electric and hybrid electric propulsion for aircraft has gained widespread
and significant attention over the past decade. The driver for industry interest has principally been
the need to reduce emissions of combustion engine exhaust products and noise, but increasingly
studies revealed potential for overall improvement in energy efficiency and mission flexibility of new
aircraft types. In this work, a conceptual new type for a skydiver lift mission aircraft is examined.
The opportunities which electric hybridisation offers for this role is analysed in comparison with
conventional legacy type propulsion systems. For a conventional commercial skydiving mission, an
all-electric propulsion system is shown as viable, and a hybrid-electric system is shown to reduce
aircraft fuel costs and CO2 emissions whilst maintaining conventional aero-engine operational
benefits. The new paradigm for aircraft development which hybrid electric propulsion enables has
highlighted significant issues with aircraft certification practices as they exist today. The advancement
of aircraft design and production to harness the value of new propulsion systems may require
adaption and development of certification standards to cater for these new technologies.

Keywords: turbo-electric; hybrid; aircraft; performance; simulation; propulsion; efficiency; utility;

mission; modular; configuration; certification

1. Introduction
Recent advancements in aircraft propulsion technology are trending toward more electric
propulsion and fully electric concepts. Over the past two decades, several key technologies for
electrical power and drive systems have matured to the extent where the power and energy density
has become suitable for certain aerospace applications and missions. The power density and reliability
of electric motors and drive electronics have become viable, while projections on the advancement of
battery storage energy density lead to industry-wide interest in aerospace electrical propulsion systems.
However, studies of presently available electrical technology invariably conclude a deficit compared
to traditional thermal engine propulsion for larger capacity transport missions due to the excessive
battery weight. Today, there are already certain aircraft types and missions which favour electrical
propulsion, but the limit is approximately two person-hours of flight time. This paper demonstrates
how this same limit favours the skydiving mission under typical commercial conditions and provides
an example of a new aircraft type.

Aerospace 2017, 4, 45; doi:10.3390/aerospace4030045 www.mdpi.com/journal/aerospace

Aerospace 2017, 4, 45 2 of 22

The addition of electrical propulsion systems (EPS) for aircraft functionality is not solely based on
overall efficiency considerations. The term “utility” is useful to consider as defined by “the state of
being useful, profitable, or beneficial” [1]. A certain minimum aircraft efficiency is clearly necessary to
perform the required mission, but a trade-off can exist against adequate utility. The value of hybrid
electric propulsion (HEP) must be assessed according to the combination of efficiency and utility of an
aircraft design to suit a mission and a market.

1.1. Skydiving Lift Mission

Skydiving is a popular aviation sport throughout the world. While the overall number
of participants is relatively small compared to many other usual sports, there is a continuous
popularity with hundreds of thousands of people active and approximately 1000 centres worldwide [2].
The United States Parachute Association alone recorded 36,770 members at the end of 2014 [3].
As compared to military parachuting operations, sports skydiving usually requires commercial
operators or clubs to utilise converted general aviation and small commuter type aircraft to get
participants to suitable jump altitude, typically up to 4000 m above ground level (AGL). The types in
use for commercial operations are frequently four-seat to 10-seat aircraft, which include light aircraft
and commuter category types. Examples of aircraft used include Cessna182, Cessna206 and 208, Piper
PA-31, Pilatus PC-6, PC-12, LET410, and Twin Otter types, or similar piston or turbo-prop powered
aircraft. As with any aircraft operation, the commercial viability of any choice is dependent on many
factors such as the demand and utilisation, operating costs (maintenance, fuel), insurance etc. In many
cases, the aircraft types which remain in service are aging legacy piston powered examples, typically
between 20 and 50 years old, or the younger but more capital intensive turbo-props.
New designs suitable for this role are warranted but there are limited options in the market
place. Apart from issues of safety with older legacy types which arise due to the demanding nature of
the mission and loading cycle, the overall energy utilisation and resulting emissions are significant
compared to the actual time spent engaged in the primary activity, free-fall and canopy time. Whereas
the sport is partly centred on natural environment experiential quality, the process is highly energy
intensive. The utilisation of more renewable green energy will reduce the carbon footprint [4] and offer
reduced participation costs for the sport. A new clean-sheet design could yield operational, safety and
environmental benefits.
Key technologies for electrical motors and power electronics systems have matured to the extent
where the power and energy density has become suitable for certain aerospace applications [5,6].
Battery storage energy density is improving incrementally, but the future potential must be led by
industry adoption of aerospace EPS which show viability even with modest battery performance.
Studies of presently available aircraft electrical propulsion technology invariably conclude a deficit
compared to traditional thermal engine propulsion for larger capacity transport missions due
to excessive battery energy storage weight [7,8] and hence a limited payload-range. Therefore,
little incentive exists to develop light commuter-class hybrid and electric aircraft, for existing and
near-term markets.
A new design utility aircraft suitable for skydiving and freight roles has been proposed by Air
Ute Pty Ltd. (Caloundra, Australia), as shown in Figure 1. This design features several notable design
attributes which provide a compelling case for development due to extraordinary mission versatility
and operational payload logistics. The skydiving role suitability is achieved according to fundamental
market configuration needs, internal volume, exit door size, wing and tail layout etc. In addition, the
aircraft will be highly suitable for freight and logistics roles with the capability of loading and carrying
two airline transport containers. No current production aircraft in this size and category can load
and carry the specified container. The aircraft itself will be able to be easily dismantled and packed
into a standard “intermodal container” for ease of conventional transport by road, rail and ship, thus
creating an ideal transport solution. This aircraft and its role make a very suitable baseline to consider
as a candidate for a hybrid electric comparison.
Aerospace2017,
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Figure 1. Conceptual prototype skydiver and freight role aircraft by Air Ute Pty Ltd. with conventional
Figure 1. propulsion
turboprop Conceptualsystem.
prototype skydiver and freight role aircraft by Air Ute Pty Ltd. with
conventional turboprop propulsion system.
1.2. Hybrid Electric Propulsion Suitability
1.2. Hybrid Electric Propulsion Suitability
Many examples of all-electric light aircraft are emerging with approximately two person-hours
Many
of flight timeexamples of all-electric
endurance. This makes lightaaircraft
role as are emerging
a primary with for
trainer approximately
example, where two person-hours
the mission
of flight time endurance. This makes a role as a primary trainer for example,
involves carrying an instructor and student pilot for a 1 h mission, feasible for an EPS. However, where the mission
a1h
involves carrying an instructor and student pilot for a 1 hour mission, feasible
endurance is generally considered inadequate when translated into a maximum range for transport for an EPS. However,
a 1commuter
or hour endurance is generally
roles. Any considered inadequate
future improvement when translated
in battery technology will beinto a maximum
instantly range
adaptable for
to an
transport or commuter roles. Any future improvement in battery technology
aircraft already designed for to integrate battery electric drives, further improving efficiency, reducing will be instantly
adaptable
costs, to an
but also aircraft role
expanding already
and designed for to integrate
mission suitability battery electric
to new markets withoutdrives,
requiring further improving
new design and
efficiency, reducing costs, but also expanding role and mission suitability to
manufacturing. However, the viability of currently and immediately foreseeable electrical propulsion new markets without
requiring new
technology mustdesign
be shown andinmanufacturing. However,
order to justify this the viability of currently and immediately
new development.
foreseeable electrical propulsion technology must be
The energy density of the battery must increase by at least shown inaorder
factortoofjustify
five tothis new
yield development.
a suitable range
The energy density of the battery must increase by at least a factor
commensurate with ordinary present day conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) propulsion of five to yield a suitable
range commensurate
equipped light aircraftwith[7]. ordinary
While new present
batteryday conventional
technology internal combustion
is envisaged to emerge inengine (ICE)
the future,
improving the range and endurance possibilities while maintaining some key advantages of the EPSthe
propulsion equipped light aircraft [7]. While new battery technology is envisaged to emerge in is
future, improving the range and endurance possibilities while maintaining
presently made possible by use of combined hybrid systems. An aircraft using HEP can utilise the some key advantages of
the EPS energy
superior is presently
densitymade possible by use
of hydrocarbon fuelof combined
and hybrid
the ICE over thatsystems. An aircraft battery
of electrochemical using HEP can
storage,
utilise the superior energy density of hydrocarbon fuel and the ICE over
while maintaining many of the benefits of superior mechanical efficiency and reliability of pure EPS.that of electrochemical
battery storage, while maintaining many of the benefits of superior mechanical efficiency and
reliability
2. Materials ofand
pureMethods
EPS.

Analyticand
2. Materials andMethods
simulation methods have been used to qualify and quantify the expected
performance of the skydiver aircraft. The case study uses a numeric calculation tool based on flight
Analytic
mechanics and simulation
applicable methods
to given flight have been
conditions. usedstudy
A parallel to qualify and quantify
using X-Plane the software
simulation expected
performance of the skydiver aircraft. The case study uses a numeric calculation tool based
was conducted to corroborate the findings, contrast detailed configuration examples and provide on flight
a
mechanics way
convenient applicable to given
to compare flight conditions.
expected performance Awith
parallel study using
a well-known X-Plane
legacy simulation software
type.
was conducted to corroborate the findings, contrast detailed configuration examples and provide a
2.1. Mission Profile
convenient way to compare expected performance with a well-known legacy type.
The role and mission profile of skydiver lift aircraft in commercial operations is known [9]
2.1. Mission Profile
to favour carriage of eight jumpers (loads), to a height of 4000 m AGL with a duty cycle of 3 to
4 loadsTheperrole andAmission
hour. typicalprofile of skydiver
skydiving mission lift aircraft
profile in commercial
is shown in Figureoperations is known
2. This implies [9] to
a mission
favour
time (orcarriage of eight
endurance) of jumpers
between (loads),
15 and to
20a min,
heightwhich
of 4000 m AGL
when with
given thea duty
weightcycle
of of
the3 load
to 4 loads
and
per hour.
altitude A typical
required skydiving
is shown mission
below profile
to yield is shown
an energy in Figurewithin
requirement 2. Thisthat
implies a mission
available from time (or
current
endurance)
EPS of between 15 and 20 min, which when given the weight of the load and altitude required
technology.
is shown belowsuch
However, to yield an energy
a system would requirement within that
require a complete available
recharge, from current
or battery EPS technology.
replacement after each
mission. This concept is practically feasible, but we consider an alternative, the inclusion of an ICE
element in a hybrid scheme to ensure reserve energy availability, redundancy and reduced battery
re-charge or replacement frequency to avoid operating too close to hard limits of endurance without
safety margins or reserves.
Aerospace 2017,4,4,45
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Figure 2. Typical skydiving mission profile.

However, such a system would require a complete recharge, or battery replacement after each
mission. This concept is practically feasible, but we consider an alternative, the inclusion of an ICE
element in a hybrid scheme to ensure reserve energy availability, redundancy and reduced battery
re-charge or replacement frequency Figureto
Figure 2.avoid
2. Typical
Typicaloperating
skydivingtoo
skydiving closeprofile.
mission
mission to hard limits of endurance without
profile.
safety margins or reserves.
A standard
However, numerical
such simulation
a system simulation
would require technique,
a completetaking candidate
recharge, power-plant
or battery replacementandafter
aircraft
each
A standard numerical technique, taking candidate power-plant and aircraft
aerodynamic
mission. Thisperformance parameters
concept is practically into account,
feasible, but wehas been used
consider to obtain energy
an alternative, requirements
the inclusion for
of an ICE
aerodynamic performance parameters into account, has been used to obtain energy requirements for
the givenin
element mission.
a hybrid Byscheme
varyingtothe ratio reserve
ensure of installed power,
energy and energy
availability, storage between
redundancy and EPS and
reduced ICE
battery
the given mission. By varying the ratio of installed power, and energy storage between EPS and ICE
drive components,
re-charge certainfrequency
or replacement quantities such as
to avoid battery too
operating weight, climb
close to hard rate, fuel consumption and
drive components, certain quantities such as battery weight, climb rate, fuellimits of endurance
consumption without
and recharge
recharge
safety rate fororgiven technology constraints can be compared.
rate formargins reserves.
given technology constraints can be compared.
AA typical HEP numerical
standard concept is shown in Figure
simulation 3. The aircraft
technique, takingmay be designed
candidate to incorporate
power-plant andonboard
aircraft
A typical HEP concept is shown in Figure 3. The aircraft may be designed to incorporate onboard
recharging,
aerodynamic or convenient battery exchange for rapid on turn around for next mission.
recharging, orperformance parameters
convenient battery exchange into account,
for rapidhas beenaround
on turn used toforobtain
nextenergy
mission.requirements for
the given mission. By varying the ratio of installed power, and energy storage between EPS and ICE
drive components, certain quantities such as battery weight, climb rate, fuel consumption and
recharge rate for given technology constraints can be compared.
A typical HEP concept is shown in Figure 3. The aircraft may be designed to incorporate onboard
recharging, or convenient battery exchange for rapid on turn around for next mission.

Figure 3.
Figure Hybrid electric
3. Hybrid electric propulsion
propulsion architecture.
architecture.

The hybridisation
hybridisationratio
ratioorordegree
degree of of
hybridisation
hybridisation may be defined
may as the
be defined asratio of theof
the ratio electric motor
the electric
(EM) to(EM)
motor ICE power
to ICE availability. A moreA
power availability. useful
moremetric
usefulismetric
to consider the ratiothe
is to consider of EM toof
ratio total
EMinstalled
to total
power, thus,
installed HP =thus,
power, PEM /P
HPtot=, where
PEM/Ptota, where
fully electric
a fullyaircraft
electriccould be could
aircraft considered as havingas
be considered a unity
havingHPa,
and a fully ICE powered aircraft
unity HP, and a fully ICE powered an H of
Figure aircraft
3. Hybrid
P zero.
anelectric
HP of propulsion
zero. architecture.

2.2. The
2.2. The Proposed
TheProposed Models ratio or degree of hybridisation may be defined as the ratio of the electric
Models
hybridisation
motor (EM)
Case
Case to ICE
Study
Study power
11 uses
uses anavailability.
an analytical A moredeveloped
analytical model
model useful metric
developed is to consider
according
according the ratio of
to conventional
to conventional EM toflight
aircraft
aircraft total
flight
installed
mechanics for
mechanics power,
for climb thus,
climb and H = P
and descent /P , where
descent performance.
P EM a fully
performance. Parameters
tot electric
Parameters are aircraft could
are included
included to be considered
to vary
vary the as
the electricalhaving
systema
electrical system
unity HP, and
contribution
contribution a energy,
for
forfully ICE
energy, powered
power
powerandandaircraft
mass mass anthrough
throughHP aofrange
zero.
a of hybridisation
range ratios. The
of hybridisation critical
ratios. Theoutcomes
critical
are the required electrical system mass, including battery, and climb rate for the resulting
outcomes are the required electrical system mass, including battery, and climb rate for the resulting gross weight.
2.2. The
This Proposed
yields Models cycle time, and a case for viability when compared to current technology
theThis
mission
gross weight. yields the mission cycle time, and a case for viability when compared to current
aircraft structural
Case Study 1 usesand aerodynamic
an analyticallimits for basic
model and useful
developed load capability.
according The modelaircraft
to conventional aims toflight
give
qualitative and quantitative data related to mission parameters against the level
mechanics for climb and descent performance. Parameters are included to vary the electrical system of hybridisation.
contribution for energy, power and mass through a range of hybridisation ratios. The critical
outcomes are the required electrical system mass, including battery, and climb rate for the resulting
gross weight. This yields the mission cycle time, and a case for viability when compared to current
technology aircraft structural and aerodynamic limits for basic and useful load capability. The model
aims to give qualitative and quantitative data related to mission parameters against the level of
hybridisation.
The2017,
Aerospace fundamental
4, 45 equation used to determine the climb rate, VC for relatively small thrust-to-
5 of 22
weight ratios is;

The fundamental equation used to determine − the climb rate, VC for relatively small
= (1)
thrust-to-weight ratios is;
where PA = power available, PR = power required. P − PR knowledge of thrust available at various
VC = IfAdetailed (1)
climb speeds and altitudes is known, then PA is calculated W as the product of true airspeed and the
thrust PA = poweralong
wherecomponent available, PR = power
the flight required. If detailed
path. Alternatively, knowledge
an estimate for PA ofcanthrust
be madeavailable
as theatproduct
various
climb
of speedsshaft
propeller and power
altitudes
andis the
known, then PAefficiency
propulsive is calculated [10]. as
PRthe
may product of true by
be estimated airspeed and the
the following
thrust component
formula [11]; along the flight path. Alternatively, an estimate for PA can be made as the product
of propeller shaft power and the propulsive efficiency / [10]. PR may be estimated by the following
4√2 ( / )
formula [11]; _ = /
(3 )
√ 1/4 s
4 2CD0 (W/SW )
where estimates are required for PR_minimum
CD0 the zero= lift drag co-efficient,
3/4
W and , the Oswald efficiency factor.
(3πeR A ) ρ
RA, the wing aspect ratio taken as 10 and SW the wing area, 20 m2 are given from the basic aircraft
where estimates
geometry while are therequired
ambientfor airCdensity
D0 the zero
variesliftwith
dragflight
co-efficient,
altitudeand e, the Oswald
according efficiency
to a standard factor.
function.
R , the wing aspect ratio taken as 10 and S the wing area, 20 m 2 are given from the basic aircraft
ForA the purposes of this analysis, CD0 assumed W as 0.025 and equal to 0.835. The significant variables
geometry
when while ρacross
comparing the ambient air propulsion
different density varies with flightare
installations altitude according
therefore only W, tothe
a standard function.
weight which is
For sum
the the purposes of thisweight
of the empty analysis, CD0 assumed
(including as 0.025
battery and and e equal
nominal to 0.835.
fuel) The significant
plus payload, variables
and propeller
when comparing
efficiency. Using across different propulsion
this technique, the direct installations
effects of the arepropulsion
therefore only W, themass
system weightandwhich is the
propeller
sum of thecan
efficiency empty weightand
be isolated (including
examined. battery and nominal fuel) plus payload, and propeller efficiency.
Using this technique,
Figure 4 illustratesthe direct effects
a conceptual of the propulsion
prototype “Skybrid”system hybridmass andskydiving
electric propelleraircraft
efficiency canon
based be
isolated and examined.
the Air Ute development. In comparison to
Figure 4 illustrates a conceptual prototype “Skybrid” hybrid electric skydiving aircraft based on
Figure
the Air Ute1,development.
the nose mounted turboprop power-plant
In comparison to Figure 1, the is augmented
nose mounted by two wing-mounted
turboprop electricis
power-plant
augmented
motor by two wing-mounted
and propeller installations. Thiselectric motorlayout
propeller and propeller installations.
is effectively the sameThisas thepropeller layout
rather simple
is effectively
and the same “tri-motor”
well established as the ratherseen simple and well
in many established
types “tri-motor”
historically; however, seennewin many types
significant
historically;of
advantages however, new significant
this distributed propulsionadvantages
system of this adistributed
using propulsion
hybrid electric scheme system using a which
are available hybrid
ordinary legacy are
electric scheme multi-engine layoutsordinary
available which cannot offer.
legacy multi-engine layouts cannot offer.

Figure 4.
Figure Conceptualprototype
4. Conceptual prototype “Skybrid”
“Skybrid” hybrid
hybrid electric
electric skydiving/freight
skydiving/freightaircraft.
aircraft.

2.3.Mission
2.3. MissionEnergy
Energy
Theoverall
The overallmission
mission energy
energy required
required is
is calculated
calculated from
from the following items:

•• Potential
Potential energy
energy requirements
requirements toto climb;
climb;
•• Drag
Dragenergy
energy expended
expended in
in climb;
climb;
•• Energy
Energy regeneration
regeneration during
during descent.
descent.
ItIt is
is noted
notedthat
thatthethe drag
drag energy
energy expended
expended during
during the descent
the descent phase ofphase of the
the flight can flight can be
be considered
considered to be fully regenerated
to be fully regenerated from theenergy
from the potential potential energy
gained gained
during during
climb climb
(a pure (a pure
glide), and glide), and
is a form of
isregeneration.
a form of regeneration. However, for operational reasons, for non-hybrid, or very low proportions
However, for operational reasons, for non-hybrid, or very low proportions of electric
of electric propulsion,
propulsion, the ICE must thebe
ICE must be
running running
during during the
the descent. Thedescent. The aircraft
aircraft must maintainmust
the maintain
capabilitythe
for
re-routed flight profiles such as dictated by air traffic control, or events such as go-arounds, holds, or
diversions. An ICE unit takes a certain amount of time to start and warm-up; therefore, it is typical
and usually mandatory for the ICE to be running even during a full glide descent profile. The thermal
efficiency of the ICE at flight idle is typically lower than at climb or cruise conditions.
Aerospace 2017, 4, 45 6 of 22

Regeneration for hybrid electric propulsion can include energy derived from using the propeller
as an air turbine during unpowered descent. Although the efficiency of the “wind-milling” operation
is low due to the incorrect shape of the propeller as a turbine, and due to the Betz limit, it has
been shown that between 5% and 40% [7,12] of the potential energy can be regenerated in this way.
The resulting battery recharge quantity is very low, since much of the climb energy expenditure is
not toward gravitation potential, but is lost as drag. However, the small gain comes with added
benefits. For the skydiving operation, a rapid descent is necessary to allow improved cycle time.
Ordinary aircraft descent rates are limited by the maximum permissible airspeed and deployable drag.
Extra drag to allow steeper descent is usually afforded by the use of wing-flaps. Utilising the aircraft
propeller as a turbine implies very high drag, this can enable very steep descent within certificated
airspeed limitations.
Propulsion efficiency for propeller driven aircraft is determined by the design airspeed, thrust
requirements and the propeller design characteristics. The primary design variables are the propeller
pitch and diameter, and both must also suit the characteristics of the power-plant. Current technology
aircraft have a very well-established design synthesis which can often yield a propulsive efficiency
above 85% for specific flight conditions. In this case, there is not very much improvement available,
but the implementation of hybrid electric components should aim to allow improvement to either
the range of high efficiency throughout the flight profile, or a reduction in the complexity required to
obtain the peak efficiency. For example, the addition of the EPS to the ICE can allow torque application
characteristics which can eliminate the need for variable pitch propeller mechanisms, or allow larger
diameter propellers without gear boxes, more suitable for high efficiency lower speeds [12].
Utilisation of EPS can provide more overall propeller disk area for a particular aircraft
configuration, and thus improve propulsive efficiencies, particularly at lower speeds. Adding extra
propeller disk area may be accomplished by adding EPS units, far more easily than adding extra ICE
units, as shown by the concept illustrated in Figure 4. The mass specific power of the EM is presently
comparable to the best ICE and is forecast to further improve in the near term while being orders of
magnitude simpler in terms of parts count, manufacturability and a range of other attributes. The EM
is extremely easy to mount on the airframe without significant structural or systems weight and
complexity, these qualities are enabling many new aircraft designs both in concept and practice today.
The provision of increased thrust, at lower airspeeds for a given aircraft mass implies that steeper climb
angles are possible. In general, a steeper climb angle, at a lower airspeed can result in significantly
reduced drag for a given climb rate. In particular, the induced drag decreases with the climb angle,
and the induced drag is typically triple the value of parasite drag in climb configurations [11].
Aerodynamic efficiency improvements are also feasible by taking advantage of carefully integrated
thrust characteristics which can reduce drag. Often a distributed propulsion (DP) scheme is used to
provide powered lift capability in order to reduce the required wing area [13], or may be selected
to ingest the turbulent boundary layer in order to reduce overall drag [14]. In this analysis, such
advantages are not considered in depth, but remain as further potential for a conservative approach.
Another item of propeller efficiency is related to the slipstream effect on the airframe components
according to the location of the propeller. This appears to have a very significant influence and is
discussed in further in this work.

2.4. ICE Limitations

For the skydiving mission, the maximum rate of descent for the aircraft is an important parameter,
as it directly affects the mission cycle time. Several aspects of ICE installation can limit the maximum
descent rate. The natural wind-milling characteristic of propellers can be a disadvantage. Depending
on the ICE in use, piston or turbine, and the propeller type, fixed or variable pitch, the engine can be
damaged if over-driven by the wind-milling propeller. This damage must be avoided by limiting the
descent rate and airspeed.
Aerospace 2017, 4, 45 7 of 22

Another limiting factor for conventional ICE powered aircraft descent is the behaviour of the ICE
cooling system. Air cooled piston engines of the type very often used in current skydiving operations
are particularly susceptible to shock cooling, caused by transition from high power settings at low
airspeed to low power at high airspeed. This is the typical situation for aircraft in this role. Turboprop
powered aircraft are less susceptible to shock cooling, but nonetheless, strict attention to temperature
limits and variation must be observed.

2.5. Rated ICE Power

Internal combustion engine maximum output power is typically limited by any of three stress
factors: pressure, engine speed (RPM) and temperature. The internal gas pressure developed during the
operating cycle is dependent on the ambient atmospheric pressure but can be significantly modified
by the nature of the engine mechanical systems. A maximum rating will usually be limited to a
particular continuous operating time, and is typically given for a standard day sea level temperature
and pressure.
A “naturally aspirated” piston engine’s maximum power output varies with altitude due to the
change in air density and therefore the amount of fuel which can be burned. A “forced induction”
piston engine is fitted with a compressor to increase the density of the incoming air and is able to
maintain full-rated power at higher altitudes. Gas turbine engines always feature a compressor and
also have the potential to maintain full-rated power at higher altitudes.
Nevertheless, because the rated power of an engine is always limited by maximum stress,
a compressor equipped type may need to be operated below its theoretical maximum power when
at lower altitudes. The resultant power rating is termed “flat”, when the available maximum engine
power is constant up to some altitude. In this paper, a flat-rated engine is considered as having the
same performance as a full-rated unit (at sea level) except that it maintains maximum rated power at
altitude. Whereas the full-rated unit is assumed to lose power proportionally by the ratio of air density
at altitude versus sea level. It is a notable attribute of EPS power-plants that they are not subject to
output variation due to altitude, although thermal and RPM limits are still applicable.

2.6. Recharge Cases

Two particular HEP cases are analyzed and discussed in this work. This comparison shows
advantages and disadvantages according to how the battery charging of a HEP aircraft should
be managed.
Case A considers a hybrid electric aircraft propulsion system configured with a battery which is
recharged using the on-board engine. Therefore, the aircraft can be fully self-contained and reliant
only on consumable fuel, always maintaining a fully charged battery at the end of the mission. In this
strategy, the ICE and EPS would provide power for flight but the duty cycles would be specified
such that the ICE could always be capable of recharging the battery as required during the mission.
An inevitable consequence of this strategy is that the electrical energy comes at the cost of the ICE
efficiency, which is seldom better that 25%. Another problem with this approach is that the generator
system capacity must be sized according to the engine as well as a time allocation based on the descent
time. In the skydiving role, the descent time must be minimized to ensure high mission rates, and the
electrical energy used from the battery during climb must be replaced during descent. The intent is
to reduce the size and power of the ICE required for the mission, while retaining the capability for
ICE-only operations independent of EPS storage. In addition, the cost and complexity of ICE units
strongly favour the use of a single engine, and the accompanying EPS when in generator mode must
then be sized to take the full ICE power. For a single ICE configuration, at higher HP levels the power
applied to non-ICE EPS units in climb will be significantly more than that able to be regenerated during
descent. This adversely affects the recharge time which should be minimized as necessary to complete
within the prescribed descent cycle time.
Aerospace 2017, 4, 45 8 of 22

An inherent complication with “Case A” configuration is the sizing of the EPS equipment for
efficient utilisation of ICE electrical generation. Clearly, a low HP aircraft will have a lot of excess
ICE power to recharge on descent, but also a low EPS capacity, whereas a high HP aircraft would
have a low ICE power available but a high EPS charging capacity and requirement. These factors will
influence the viability of the “Case A” type for this mission.
Case B considers a hybrid electric aircraft propulsion system configured with a battery which
is recharged by ground based sources. The battery can be removed and refitted easily such that the
aircraft can resume operation for the next mission using a pre-charged exchange battery. It is shown
that Case B is a superior system in terms of energy efficiency, direct operating costs and emissions, but
may be significantly restricted in operational versatility. Nevertheless, the Case B system is presently
feasible given current EPS technology, and will be ready for any and all improvements in battery
storage technology over time which only improve upon original performance and utility.

3. Results

3.1. Hybrid Electric

Modelling has yielded results as presented later in this section which show that the full spectrum
of hybridisation ratio is feasible right through to full electric operation for this aircraft type and mission.
The modelling for Case A indicates that the overall fuel consumption will increase if an on-board
powerplant is used to recharge the battery during the operating cycle, using a conventional gas turbine
unit. The specific fuel consumption for the preferred candidate type of ICE available, a gas turbine,
turbo-prop or turbo-shaft unit is typically around 0.3 kg per kilowatt-hour [8]. While this type of engine
has significant advantages in terms of mass specific power, approximately 4 kW per kilogram, and
is a mature propulsion system within aerospace applications, significantly higher thermal efficiency
would be required to make it viable for on-board recharging compared to ground based power sources.
The application of electrical power to the aircraft, necessitates carriage of extra weight for batteries and
power electronics, therefore the energy required for the flight is increased, unless efficiency is gained
in either propulsion or aerodynamic efficiency. Nevertheless, the capability of configuring the aircraft
for different missions using the EPS at certain HP levels could find utility for some operators.
The modelling for Case B, indicates that HEP has the potential to significantly reduce emissions
and direct operating costs for the flight operations.

3.2. Model Assumptions

The analytic model is based on standard flight mechanics run as a MATLAB tool. Without highly
detailed analysis and wind-tunnel testing, certain assumptions on aerodynamic characteristics are
required as input variables. The primary aerodynamic variable which must be estimated for this
model is known as the Oswald efficiency factor (e). This is a parameter which expresses the total
variation of drag with lift. It is sometimes called the span efficiency factor and would equal 1.0
for an elliptically-loaded wing with no lift-dependent viscous drag, for practical aircraft “e” varies
from about 0.75 to 0.90 [15]. The other main variable which must be assumed for the model is the
propeller efficiency. Again, values between 0.75 and 0.90 are typical [11] for the type of aircraft under
consideration. Also, as noted below, the best propeller efficiency may be considered as dependent on
the detailed aircraft configuration, with wing mounted propellers usually resulting in greater efficiency
than a front fuselage mounted unit due to reduced slipstream “scrubbing”. For the results below,
an “e” value of 0.835 was used, and propeller efficiency varied between 0.75 and 0.85 respectively
for the non-hybrid through to fully electric models assuming any EPS is accomplished by adding
wing-mounted propellers. For intermediate HP , the propeller efficiency was linearly scaled. Increasing
HP in this analysis implies increasing both the propeller area and the proportion assumed to be wing
mounted and unobstructed by the fuselage. The battery mass required is calculated by a numerical
iterative process taking into account the energy requirement according to the time required for climb
 Aerospace 2017, 4, 45 9 of 22
Aerospace 2017, 4, 45 9 of 22
assumed to be wing mounted and unobstructed by the fuselage. The battery mass required is
calculated by a numerical iterative process taking into account the energy requirement according to
at the
changing weight and
time required fordrag
climbconditions. The overall
at changing weight EPS
and mass
dragisconditions.
calculated using the proportion
The overall EPS mass of is
installed power multiplied by the power density and is added to battery mass. The same
calculated using the proportion of installed power multiplied by the power density and is added technique is to
used to calculate
battery the same
mass. The ICE mass in proportion
technique is used to HP to arrive
to calculate the at
ICEa take-off
mass inweight giventothe
proportion HPaddition
to arriveof
at a
sufficient mission fuel. Table 1, power system analytic model parameters, and Table 2, aircraft
take-off weight given the addition of sufficient mission fuel. Table 1, power system analytic analytic
model
model parameters,
parameters, and show
Tablethe key parameters
2, aircraft analytic used
modelinparameters,
the analytical calculations.
show the key parameters used in the
analytical calculations.
Table 1. Power system analytic model parameters.

Table 1. Power system analytic model parameters.

Component Energy Density (Wh/kg) Power Density (kW/kg) Efficiency
EMComponent Energy Density
− (Wh/kg) Power Density
6 (kW/kg) Efficiency
0.9
Power Electronics
EM − − 66 0.90.9
Battery 200 − 0.9
Power
ICE Electronics − 46 0.9
0.26
Battery 200 − 0.9
ICE 4
Table 2. Aircraft analytic model parameters. 0.26

Installed Table 2. Aircraft

Empty Weight analytic Payload
model parameters. Oswald Propeller
Aircraft Model 1 (kg)
Power (kW) Weight 1 (kg) Efficiency Factor Effciency
Installed Empty Payload Oswald Propeller
Aircraft Model
AUXX
Power (kW) Weight
670 2700 1 (kg) Weight
800 1 (kg) Efficiency
0.835 Factor Effciency
0.75
Conventional
AUXX
AUXX Hybrid 670 670 2700 + %EPS 800 0.835 Scaled
2700 800 0.835 0.75
Conventional
AUXX
AUXX Hybrid 670 670 3500+ %EPS
2700 800
800 0.835
0.835 0.85
Scaled
All-Electric
AUXX All-Electric 1 Weight670 3500 800 0.835
given as mass in kilograms including nominal mission fuel.
0.85
1 Weight given as mass in kilograms including nominal mission fuel.

Figure 5 shows
Figure 5 showsthethe
recharge
recharge time over-run
time over-runforfor
a “Case A”A”
a “Case hybrid mission
hybrid using
mission a single
using ICE/EPS
a single ICE/EPS
unit (single
unit propeller).
(single TheThe
propeller). “time over-run”
“time is the
over-run” is amount
the amountof time the engine
of time driven
the engine generator
driven would
generator be
would
required to continue running on the ground after landing to recharge
be required to continue running on the ground after landing to recharge the battery. the battery. As the H increases,
P As the HP
more batterymore
increases, energy is consumed
battery energy isfor the climb,
consumed for but less ICE
the climb, butpower is available
less ICE for both the
power is available climbthe
for both
and the descent
climb and the phase.
descentThe practical
phase. HP limit H
The practical for Case for
P limit A must
Case lie somewhere
A must before the
lie somewhere knee the
before of the
knee
curve, around H = 0.8. However, at the
of the curve, Paround HP = 0.8. However, at the value H P = 0.5, the over-run is 10%, which would represent
value HP = 0.5, the over-run is 10%, which would a
reasonable
representlimit considering
a reasonable limitthe ground handling
considering and operational
the ground handling and margins.
operational margins.

Figure
Figure 5. Hybridisation
5. Hybridisation proportion
proportion vs.vs. Case
Case A charge
A charge time
time over-run;
over-run; single
single EPS.
EPS.

If multiple EPS units are used (three in this example), with a single ICE, the problem of recharge
If multiple EPS units are used (three in this example), with a single ICE, the problem of recharge
time becomes even more severe; as shown in Figure 6, where the useful HP value is reduced to 0.25.
time becomes even more severe; as shown in Figure 6, where the useful HP value is reduced to 0.25.
 Aerospace 2017, 4, 45 10 of 22
Aerospace 2017, 4, 45 10 of 22
Aerospace 2017, 4, 45 10 of 22

Figure 6. Hybridisation proportion vs. Case A charge time over-run; multiple EPS.
Figure
Figure 6. Hybridisation
6. Hybridisation proportion
proportion vs. vs.
CaseCase A charge
A charge time
time over-run;multiple
over-run; multipleEPS.
EPS.
The problems inherent in Case A strategy in terms of mission cycle time are minor compared to
theThe The problems
significant increaseinherent in Case
overall A strategy
energy in terms of mission
consumption. cycle time are minorfuel
compared to
problems inherent in Case A strategy in terms Figure 7 shows
of mission cycle the
timemission recharge
are minor compared
the significant increase overall energy consumption. Figure
That is77additional
shows the missionfuel fuel required
recharge
torequirements
the significantincrease
increasewith increasing
overall energyhybridisation
consumption. ratio.Figure shows therecharge
mission fuelis recharge
requirements increase with increasing hybridisation ratio. That is additional recharge fuel is required
to fully recharge
requirements batteries
increase during a typical
with increasing skydiving mission, based on a mission of fuel
duration 15–20
to fully recharge batteries during ahybridisation ratio.
typical skydiving That is
mission, additional
based recharge
on a mission is required
of duration 15–20
min.
to fully recharge batteries during a typical skydiving mission, based on a mission of duration 15–20 min.
min.
Hybridization versus Mission Fuel Case A On-board Recharge
70 Hybridization versus Mission Fuel Case A On-board Recharge
70
Mission Fuel required Flat Rated
65 Mission
Mission Fuel
Fuel required
required Flat
Full Rated
Rated
65 Mission Fuel required Full Rated
60
60
55
55
50
50
45
45
40
40
35
35

30
30

25 25

20 20
0 0 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.30.3 0.40.4 0.50.5 0.60.6 0.70.7 0.8
0.8 0.9
0.9 11
Hybridization Proportion
Hybridization Electric
Proportion Electric

Figure
Figure 7.7.On-board
Figure On-board ICE
7. On-board
ICE recharge
ICE mission
recharge
recharge fuel
mission
mission required,
fuel
fuel assuming
required,
required, assuming
assuming no
no charge
nocharge time
chargetime limit.
timelimit.
limit.

In this case,
In this a non-hybrid
case, a non-hybrid ICE-only
ICE-only system
system would
woulduse useabout
about2525kg
kgofoffuel
fueltotocomplete
complete the the mission.
In this case, a non-hybrid ICE-only system would use about 25 kg of fuel to complete the mission.
ForFor
a flat-rated engine
a flat-rated engine at at
thethe
HPHvalue
P valueofof
0.25,
0.25,which
whichasasnoted
notedabove
abovewould
wouldbe bethe
themaximum
maximum for viable
For a flat-rated engine at the HP value of 0.25, which as noted above would be the maximum for
mission
mission time
time utilisation,
utilisation, thethemission
missionfuelfuelisisincreased
increasedby by40%.
40%.Clearly,
Clearly, the the “Case
“Case A” A” strategy
strategy is
viable mission time utilisation, the mission fuel is increased by 40%. Clearly, the “Case A” strategy is
counterproductive
counterproductive fromfrom a fuel
a fuel consumption
consumption perspective,and
perspective, andshows
showswhy,
why,historically,
historically, hybrid
hybrid electric
counterproductive
aircraft concepts from
were a fuel considered
consumption perspective,
However,and shows why, historically, hybrid electric
aircraft concepts were notnotconsidered useful.useful. However, there
there arecertain
are certain advantages which
advantages which must be
aircraft concepts
considered, were
and not
tend considered useful. However, there are certain advantages sections.must
which
considered, and tend to to favour
favour hybridisation,such
hybridisation, suchasasthose
thoseshown
shownin inthethe following
following sections. The
bejustification
considered,
justification and
of hybrid
tend
of hybrid to favour
electric
electric aircraft
hybridisation,
aircraft from
from thethefuel such as thoseperspective
fuelconsumption
consumption shown in is
perspective the following
isheavily
heavily sections.
dependent
dependent on
on
The justification
any electric of hybrid
machine, electric
propulsive aircraft
and from the
aerodynamic fuel consumption
efficiency gains perspective
which
any electric machine, propulsive and aerodynamic efficiency gains which can be made as well as the can beis heavily
made as dependent
well as the
onenergy
any electric
energy densitymachine,
density of of
batterypropulsive
battery storageand
storage aerodynamic
systems.
systems. Eachofofefficiency
Each thesefactors
these gains
factors are
are which
shown
shown can inbe
in made asto
literature
literature towell
be
be
asadvancing
theadvancing
energyand density
and haveof battery
a positive storage systems.
development
have a positive development future [16]. Each
future of
[16]. these factors are shown in literature to be
advancing
TheThe and
Case have
Case B atype
B type positive
can can development
include
include on-board
on-board future [16]. ififdesired,
recharging
recharging desired,but
butthethebaseline
baseline is is to
to replace
replace and
and
ground
The Caserecharge
B type the
can battery
include each mission.
on-board When
recharging battery
if recharging
desired, but
ground recharge the battery each mission. When battery recharging is conducted via ground basedis
the conducted
baseline via
is toground
replace based
and
groundsources,
sources, renewable
recharge the battery
renewable and and green energy,with
eachenergy,
green mission. with
When many
many batterywider
wider societaland
recharging
societal and technical advantages
is conducted
technical advantages
via groundcan can be
based
be
utilised.
sources, This system
renewable guarantees
andguarantees
green energy, thewith
best many
emissionswiderreduction
societal and
and provides
technical theadvantages
best futurecan utility
be
utilised. This system the best emissions reduction and provides the best future utility
potential
utilised. This as batteryguarantees
system storage limits increase in the future.
potential as battery storage limitsthe best emissions
increase in the future. reduction and provides the best future utility
potential as battery storage limits increase in the future.
Aerospace 2017, 4, 45 11 of 22
Aerospace 2017, 4, 45 11 of 22

IfIfthe
thepresumption
presumptionisismade
madeforforCase
CaseB,B,where
wherethe
thebattery
batteryisisreplaced
replacedororrecharged
rechargedwithout
withoutusing
using
the
theon-board
on-boardICE, ICE,the
themission
missionfuel
fuelrequired
requirednaturally
naturallytends
tendstotozero
zerowhen
whenthetheaircraft
aircraftisissolely
solelyelectric
electric
powered
powered(H P P==1),
(H 1),as
asshown
shownininFigure
Figure8.8.

Figure8.8.Skydive
Figure Skydivemission
missionfuel
fuelrequired
requiredassuming
assumingoff-board
off-boardrecharge.
recharge.

The fuel required is nearly in proportion to the hybridisation for the flat-rated engine. In
The fuel required is nearly in proportion to the hybridisation for the flat-rated engine. In addition,
addition, clearly notable from Figure 8 is the difference between the flat-rated and full-rated engine
clearly notable from Figure 8 is the difference between the flat-rated and full-rated engine type.
type. The principle reason for the extra fuel required for the full-rated engine is the extra time
The principle reason for the extra fuel required for the full-rated engine is the extra time required for
required for the climb. This effect diminishes with increased HP but would make hybridisation more
the climb. This effect diminishes with increased HP but would make hybridisation more favourable if
favourable if use of a full-rated engine was necessary for any reason. The choice of hybridisation
use of a full-rated engine was necessary for any reason. The choice of hybridisation proportion can be
proportion can be made according to preferences for the energy source and hence emission
made according to preferences for the energy source and hence emission characteristics, operating
characteristics, operating costs, weight or other operational characteristics. The fuel required reflects
costs, weight or other operational characteristics. The fuel required reflects the direct operating cost
the direct operating cost of the mission as well as CO2 and NOx emissions. The overall energy required
of the mission as well as CO2 and NOx emissions. The overall energy required for the mission may
for the mission may increase for higher HP because of the inherent electric energy source, distribution,
increase for higher HP because of the inherent electric energy source, distribution, conversion and
conversion and storage inefficiencies. Carefully selecting the nature of the energy supply can easily
storage inefficiencies. Carefully selecting the nature of the energy supply can easily reduce the cost and
reduce the cost and environmental impact. For example, converting the energy in coal to electricity
environmental impact. For example, converting the energy in coal to electricity to charge batteries via
to charge batteries via a conventional national grid for flight purposes is counterproductive to
a conventional national grid for flight purposes is counterproductive to efficiency and emissions goals,
efficiency and emissions goals, but utilizing solar, wind or even nuclear energy sources can reduce
but utilizing solar, wind or even nuclear energy sources can reduce the emissions. Nevertheless, the
the emissions. Nevertheless, the EPS system weight for a given flight will exceed that required for
EPS system weight for a given flight will exceed that required for pure ICE operation, this translates to
pure ICE operation, this translates to more energy being required to account for the higher drag due
more energy being required to account for the higher drag due to increased required wing lift and
to increased required wing lift and more work done to raise the mass against gravity during the
more work done to raise the mass against gravity during the climb.
climb.
The Case B fuel consumption naturally favours this hybridisation model; however, the viability of
The Case B fuel consumption naturally favours this hybridisation model; however, the viability
using such an amount of electrical storage in terms of the aircraft structural and performance capability
of using such an amount of electrical storage in terms of the aircraft structural and performance
must be verified.
capability must be verified.
At the maximum HP , the battery weight including a 20% margin amounts to 800 kg. This battery
At the maximum HP, the battery weight including a 20% margin amounts to 800 kg. This battery
weight is considered feasible for an aircraft with a take-off weight of 4500 kg and a payload of 800 kg.
weight is considered feasible for an aircraft with a take-off weight of 4500 kg and a payload of 800
Figure 9 shows the battery weight implication for both the full-rated and flat-rated hybrid electric
kg.
scenarios, while Figure 10 shows the effect on take-off weight.
Figure 9 shows the battery weight implication for both the full-rated and flat-rated hybrid
The mission cycle time is naturally dependent on the best climb rate achievable, as well as the
electric scenarios, while Figure 10 shows the effect on take-off weight.
descent rate. For an identical installed propulsive power of 670 kW, the analytic model shows climb
The mission cycle time is naturally dependent on the best climb rate achievable, as well as the
times for the range of HP given the full-rated and flat-rated hybrid electric scenarios shown in Figure 11.
descent rate. For an identical installed propulsive power of 670 kW, the analytic model shows climb
times for the range of HP given the full-rated and flat-rated hybrid electric scenarios shown in Figure
11.
Aerospace 2017, 4, 45 12 of 22
Aerospace 2017, 4, 45 12 of 22
Aerospace
Aerospace 2017,
2017, 4,
4, 45
45 12
12 of
of 22
22
Hybridization versus Battery Mass
800
Hybridization
Hybridization versus
versus Battery Mass
BatteryBattery
MassMass Flat Rated
800
800 Battery Mass Full Rated
700
Battery
Battery Mass
Mass Flat
Flat Rated
Rated
700 Battery
Battery Mass
Mass Full
Full Rated
Rated
700
600

600
600
500

500
500
400
400
400
300
300
300
200
200
200
100
100
100 Eta p = 0.75 Eta p = 0.85
0 Eta Eta
Etapp == 0.85
Etapp == 0.75
0.75 0.85
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
0
00 0.1
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
0.2 Hybridization
0.3 0.5 0.6
0.4 Proportion
0.5 0.7
0.6 Electric
0.7 0.8
0.8 0.9
0.9 11
Hybridization
Hybridization Proportion
Proportion Electric
Electric
Figure 9. Battery mass requirements.
Figure 9.
Figure9.
Figure Battery
Battery mass
9.Battery mass requirements.
mass requirements.
requirements.
Hybridization versus Take-off Weight
4500 Hybridization
Hybridization versus
versus Take-off
Take-off Weight
Weight
4500
4500
Take-off Weight Flat Rated
Take-off
Take-off Weight Flat Rated
4400 Take-offWeight
WeightFlat Rated
Full Rated
4400 Take-off
4400 Take-off Weight
Weight Full
Full Rated
Rated

4300
4300
4300

4200
4200
4200

4100
4100
4100

4000
4000
4000

3900
3900
3900

3800
3800
3800
Eta
Eta
Eta ===0.75
0.75
0.75
3700
3700
3700 ppp
Eta
Eta = 0.85
p ==0.85
Etap p
0.85
3600
3600
3600 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 11
00 0.1
0.1 0.2
0.2 0.3
0.3 0.4
0.4 0.5
0.5 0.6
0.6 0.7
0.7 0.8
0.8 0.9
0.9 1
Hybridization
Hybridization Proportion
Proportion Electric
Hybridization ProportionElectric
Electric

Figure 10.
10. Take-off
Figure10. gross
gross weight
Take-off gross weight vs.
vs. hybrid proportion.
Figure
Figure 10. Take-off
Take-off gross weight
weight vs. hybrid
vs. hybridproportion.
hybrid proportion.
proportion.
Hybridization
Hybridization versus
versus Climb
Climb Time
Time
14
14 Hybridization versus Climb Time
14 Climb
Climb Time
Time Flat
Flat Rated
Rated
13
13 ClimbTime
Climb Time Flat
Full Rated
Rated
Climb Time Full Rated
13 Climb Time Full Rated
12
12
12
11
11
11
10
10
10
99
9
88

8
77

76
6
Eta
Etapp == 0.75
0.75
65 Eta
5 Etapp == 0.85
0.85
Eta p = 0.75
54 Eta p = 0.85
4
00 0.1
0.1 0.2
0.2 0.3
0.3 0.4
0.4 0.5
0.5 0.6
0.6 0.7
0.7 0.8
0.8 0.9
0.9 11
4 Hybridization
Hybridization Proportion
Proportion Electric
Electric
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Hybridization Proportion Electric
Figure
Figure 11.
11. Time
Time to
to climb
climb vs.
vs. hybrid
hybrid proportion
proportion for for flat-rated
flat-rated and
and full-rated
full-rated ICE.
ICE.
Figure 11. Time to climb vs. hybrid proportion for flat-rated and full-rated ICE.
Figure 11. Time to climb vs. hybrid proportion for flat-rated and full-rated ICE.
The
The time
time toto climb
climb for
for aa fully
fully electric
electric example
example is is acceptable,
acceptable, and
and thethe improvement
improvement over over aa full-
full-
rated
rated powerplant
powerplant operating
operating to
to the
the prescribed
prescribed altitude
altitude is
is very
very significant.
significant.
The time to climb for a fully electric example is acceptable, and the improvement over a full-
The time
The to climb
effect of for a fully
propeller electric
efficiency example
(Eta pp)) on theisclimb
the acceptable, and theininimprovement over sensitive.
a full-rated
The effect
rated powerplant ofoperating
propeller efficiency
to (Eta
the prescribed onaltitude
climb is performance
performance
very significant. this
this model
model is
is very
very sensitive.
powerplant
The
The operating
foregoing
foregoing examples to the prescribed
used Eta altitude
Etapp values linearly is scale
very from
significant.
0.75
0.75 to
to 0.85
0.85inon the H
HPP domain and show
The effect ofexamples
propellerusedefficiency values
(Etaplinearly
) on thescale
climb from
performance onthis
themodeldomain and
is very show
sensitive.
The
adequateeffect
adequate of propeller
performance.
performance. If
If efficiency
the
the (Eta
propeller
propeller ) on
efficiency
efficiency
p the climb
is
is held
held performance
constant
constant (0.75
(0.75 in this
for
for model
example),
example), is very
and
and sensitive.
all
all other
other
The foregoing examples used Etap values linearly scale from 0.75 to 0.85 on the HP domain and show
The foregoing examples used Etap values linearly scale from 0.75 to 0.85 on the HP domain and show
adequate performance. If the propeller efficiency is held constant (0.75 for example), and all other
adequate performance. If the propeller efficiency is held constant (0.75 for example), and all other
 Aerospace 2017, 4, 45 13 of 22

variables
Aerospace remain
2017, 4, 45 the same, the following plot of hybridisation versus climb time is produced shown
13 of 22
in Figure
Aerospace 12.4, 45
2017, 13 of 22
In this case, the climb rate has decreased significantly with increasing HP and would have
variables remain
negative
variables thethe
remain same,
implications forthe
same, following
aircraft
the utility.plot
following This of
plot hybridisation
indicates
of versus
the extreme
hybridisation climb
climbtime
importance
versus of is
time isproduced
improving shown
items
produced of in
shown
efficiency
Figure 12.
in Figure 12.in order to enable hybrid electric propulsion systems to be viable.
In this case, the climb rate has decreased significantly with increasing HP and would have
negative implications for aircraft
14 utility. Hybridization
This indicatesversus Climb Time
the extreme importance of improving items of
efficiency in order to enable 13hybrid electric propulsion systems to be viable.
Climb Time Flat Rated
Climb Time Full Rated

12
Hybridization versus Climb Time
14
11
Climb Time Flat Rated
13
10 Climb Time Full Rated

12
9

11
8

7
10

69
Etap = 0.75
58 Etap = 0.75

47
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
6 Hybridization Proportion Electric

p
Eta = 0.75
Figure 12. Time to5 climb vs. hybrid proportion givenEta = 0.75
constant
p propeller efficiency.
Figure 12. Time to climb vs. hybrid proportion given constant propeller efficiency.
4
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Results obtained using the X-PlaneHybridization simulation as detailed in the following section show a
Proportion Electric
In this improvement
definite case, the climbinrate ratehas decreased
of climb for the significantly
hybrid models increasingtoHconventional
withcompared P and wouldpropulsion.
have negative
implications
The X-Plane Figure
formodels 12.
aircraft Time
utility.
were toThis
climbindicates
configured vs.athybrid proportion
the
a constant extreme given constant
importance
HP of 0.67. The propeller
of improving
analytical study efficiency.
items
shown of efficiency
above does
in order to enable
not reflect such anhybrid electric propulsion
improvement given the assumed systemspropeller
to be viable.
efficiency parameters, so it is of interest
Results
toResults
see what obtained
change of using the
propeller X-Planewould
efficiency simulation results as detailed in the following section show The a
obtained using the X-Plane simulationyield as detailedwhich in theconcur
following withsection
the simulation.
show a definite
definite improvement
original propeller in rate
efficiencies of climb for the hybrid models compared to conventional propulsion.
improvement in rate of climb for used in the models
the hybrid above calculations
compared to varied proportionally
conventional from 0.75
propulsion. The for a
X-Plane
The X-Plane models
conventional wereusing
non-hybrid configured
a single atpropeller
a constant HP of 0.67.
through to The
0.85 analytical
for a fully studypropulsion
hybrid shown above does
system
models were configured at a constant HP of 0.67. The analytical study shown above does not reflect
not reflect
using twosuch an improvement
additional wing given the assumed propeller efficiency areparameters, so it reasonable
is of interest
suchto an
seeimprovement
what change given
of the mounted
propeller assumed
efficiency
propellers.
propeller
would
These numbers
efficiency
yield results parameters,
which concur
arbitrary
so it is ofthe
with
and
interest to seeThe
simulation. what
assumptions, but a much more rigorous and comprehensive study of particular detailed designs
change of propeller
original propeller efficiency
efficiencies wouldinyield resultscalculations
which concur with the simulation. The
0.75original
would be necessary to improveused estimates, the orabove
the flight testing of varied proportionally
prototypes to verify realfromoutcomes for a
propeller efficiencies
conventional used
non-hybrid in the
using above
a single calculations
propeller varied
through proportionally
to 0.85 for a fully from
hybrid 0.75 for a
propulsionconventional
system
would be required. However, for the purposes of this study, a new set of possible propeller efficiency
non-hybrid
using two using a singlewing
additional propeller
mounted through to 0.85 for a fully hybridare propulsion system using two
numbers can be conveniently input and propellers.
the resultingThese numbers
performance calculated arbitrary
to find and
a matchreasonable
to the
additional wing
assumptions,
simulation. mounted
but
Figure a13
much propellers.
shows more These
the rigorous
result numbers
and
using more are
a comprehensive arbitrary
extreme studyand
improvementofreasonable
particular assumptions,
detailed
of propeller designs
efficiency but
a much
would more
be rigorous
necessary and
to comprehensive
improve estimates, study
or the of particular
flight testing detailed
of prototypes
terms through the domain of HP. Figure 13 shows that the climb time has reduced by a similar amount designs to would
verify be
real necessary
outcomes
to improve
would beestimates,
required.
as the simulation orpredicts.
the flight
However,
tool for thetesting
purposesof prototypes
of this study, to verify
a new set realofoutcomes would be
possible propeller required.
efficiency
However,
numbersfor can thebepurposes
conveniently of this
input study,
and a thenew set of performance
resulting possible propeller calculatedefficiency
to findnumbers
a match tocan thebe
simulation.input
conveniently Figure
and13the
shows the result
resulting using a calculated
performance more extreme to find improvement
a match to the of propeller
simulation. efficiency
Figure 13
terms
shows thethrough the domain
result using a moreofextreme
HP. Figure 13 shows that
improvement the climb efficiency
of propeller time has reduced by a similar
terms through amountof
the domain
as the simulation tool predicts.
HP . Figure 13 shows that the climb time has reduced by a similar amount as the simulation tool predicts.

Figure 13. Time to climb vs. hybrid proportion at significantly improved propeller efficiency.

Figure 13. Time to climb vs. hybrid proportion at significantly improved propeller efficiency.
Figure 13. Time to climb vs. hybrid proportion at significantly improved propeller efficiency.
Aerospace 2017, 4, 45 14 of 22

Table 3 shows the analytic results data from Figure 13, where the propeller efficiency assumed
increases from 0.65 to 0.95 along the HP domain, against measured times from X-Plane simulation
flights. The times for each completely independent analysis method are now reasonably close, and
the trend in changing to the distributed propulsion (three propeller) hybrid layout is very distinct.
It is stressed that changes to the X-Plane model between the conventional and hybrid propulsion
models created were the empty weight and the extra propellers and nacelles. The total installed power
remained constant for both models.

Table 3. Calculated and simulated climb data.

Climb Time Climb Time

Installed Empty Payload
Aircraft Model Analytic Simulation
Power (kW) Weight 1 (kg) Weight 1 (kg)
(minutes) (minutes)
AUXX
670 2400 800 9 10.6
Conventional
AUXX Hybrid 670 3300 800 7.4 8.6
1 Weight given as mass in kilograms including nominal mission fuel.

These results should be interpreted as trends only, as the input parameters are coarse estimates,
however the underlying theory and technique for the analysis is based on fundamentals and
well known properties. These trends reiterate that hybrid electric aircraft propulsion has many
compelling advantages which can improve aircraft performance for particular mission requirements.
These include:

• High power/weight (where battery storage capacity requirements are low);

• Ease of adding propeller area for any given installed power, allowing greater propulsive efficiency
under particular conditions.

While at the same time reducing direct operating costs for energy.

3.3. All-Electric
From a survey of conventional aircraft types suitable for the skydiving mission as considered
here indicates that a reasonable operating empty weight (the basic weight of an aircraft including the
crew, all fluids necessary for operation such as engine oil, engine coolant, water, unusable fuel and all
operator items and equipment required for flight but excluding usable fuel and the payload) [17], for
this class of aircraft is approximately 2500 kg.
Calculating the required energy for the mission and using the lithium battery technology mass
specific energy of approximately 200 Watt-hours per kilogram [7] and suitable allowances for other
electric power system components yields a take-off weight within the maximum allowable for typical
candidate example aircraft types. This calculation takes into account performance variations according
to the power usage at any mass according to the installed components.
This result concurs with the fact that present state of the art all-electric aircraft such as Pipistrel
“Alpha-Electro” are capable of carrying a payload of two people with a short endurance of 1 h in circuit
climb and descent mission profile [18].
An all-electric skydiving lift aircraft has been found to be viable using current state of the art
EPS technology from an aerodynamic standpoint given the condition that the battery is replaced or
recharged for each mission. The primary parameter governing the aerodynamic viability is the weight
of the battery required. In this case, given the short overall mission time, a battery mass is feasible
which in addition to the payload is within the aircraft load carrying capability.
Aerospace 2017, 4, 45 15 of 22

4. X-Plane Modeling
X-Plane
Aerospace 2017, 4,is45a flight simulation and modeling software tool available online and commercially. 15 of 22
In this section X-Plane simulation was conducted to corroborate the findings, of the analytical analysis
tool
tool detailed
detailedabove aboveandandto contrast propulsion
to contrast configuration
propulsion examples.
configuration Also provided
examples. Also isprovided
a comparison
is a
of expected performance
comparison with a well-known
of expected performance legacy type.legacy
with a well-known The software
type. Thecan provide
software canhigh accuracy
provide high
simulation
accuracy
Aerospace [19]
4, 45and uses
simulation
2017, [19] blade element
and uses bladetheory
elementaccording to specified
theory according to geometry to integrate
specified geometry to resulting
integrate
15 of 22
forces, accelerations
resulting and consequent
forces, accelerations and flight behavior.
consequent “FAA
flight Certifications:
behavior. “FAA X-Plane can provide
Certifications: Federal
X-Plane can
Aviation
provide
tool Administration
Federal
detailed Aviation
above and(FAA)-certified
Administration simulation and vehicle
(FAA)-certified
to contrast propulsion models.
simulation
configuration This allows
and vehicle
examples. researchers
models.
Also is to
This allows
provided a
achieve
comparisonhigh
researchers to levels of confidence
achieve high
of expected in simulation
levels of with
performance confidenceresults” [20].
in simulation
a well-known Three X-Plane
results.”
legacy type. models
The[20] were
Threecan
software developed
X-Plane
providemodels to
high
simulate
accuracy relevant
were developed
simulation toconfigurations
simulate usesofblade
[19] andrelevant aircraft for comparison.
configurations
element of aircraft
theory for comparison.
according to specified geometry to integrate
resulting
1. AUXX forces, accelerations and
1×224
224kW consequent
kW Turbo-Propflight
plusbehavior.
2×224
224kWkW“FAA Certifications:
Electric Motors,FiguresX-Plane
Figures 14–16;can
1. AUXX Hybrid Electric 1× Turbo-Prop plus 2× Electric Motors, 14–16;
provide
2. AUXX Federal Aviation Administration
AUXX Conventional Single Turbo-prop 670 kW, (FAA)-certified simulation and vehicle models. This allows
kW, Figure
Figure 17;17;
researchers to achieve high levels of confidence in simulation results.” [20] Three X-Plane models
3. Cessna208
Cessna208 Grand Caravan equipped with 900 HP (670 kW) engine, Figure 18.
were developed to simulate relevant configurations of aircraft for comparison.
Figure 14 is a screenshot from X-Plane “Planemaker” software environment showing the AUXX
1. AUXX
hybrid aircraft Hybrid Electric 1× 224 kW Turbo-Prop plus 2× 224 kW Electric Motors, Figures 14–16;
aircraft model.
model.
2. AUXX Conventional
The Planemaker model Single Turbo-prop
is flown 670 kW,simulation
in the X-Plane Figure 17;environment in the same way as any
3.
ordinary computer flight simulator. Aerodynamics are(670
Cessna208 Grand Caravan equipped with 900 HP kW) engine,
modeled using Figure 18. features of the
the physical
Planemaker
Figure 14 mode,l including from
is a screenshot effects of wing“Planemaker”
X-Plane sections, planforms,
softwareweight and balance
environment etc. The
showing the AUXX
Hybrid is shown
hybrid aircraft model. in Figure 15.

Figure 14. X-Plane “Plane-Maker” AUXX hybrid model.

The Planemaker model is flown in the X-Plane simulation environment in the same way as any
ordinary computer flight simulator. Aerodynamics are modeled using the physical features of the
Planemaker mode,l including
Figureeffects of wing
14. X-Plane sections, planforms,
“Plane-Maker” weight
AUXX hybrid and balance etc. The AUXX
model.
Figure
Hybrid is shown in Figure 15. 14. X-Plane “Plane-Maker” AUXX hybrid model.

The Planemaker model is flown in the X-Plane simulation environment in the same way as any
ordinary computer flight simulator. Aerodynamics are modeled using the physical features of the
Planemaker mode,l including effects of wing sections, planforms, weight and balance etc. The AUXX
Hybrid is shown in Figure 15.

Figure 15. X-Plane AUXX Hybrid unrendered model in simulation flight.

Figure 15. X-Plane AUXX Hybrid unrendered model in simulation flight.

X-Plane can generate well-rendered visual models by draping 2-D image files over a 3-D
Planemaker-created aircraft, or by importing 3D graphic files. The aircraft model details rendered in
this way do not affect
Figurethe
15. flight
X-Planephysics but areunrendered
AUXX Hybrid a useful cosmetic
model inenhancement depicted in Figures
simulation flight.
16 and 17.
X-Plane can generate well-rendered visual models by draping 2-D image files over a 3-D
Aerospace 2017, 4, 45 16 of 22
Aerospace 2017, 4, 45 16 of 22
Aerospace 2017,
Aerospace 2017,4,
4,45
45 16 of
16 of22
22

Figure 16. AUXX hybrid rendered model for X-Plane simulation.

Figure 16. AUXX hybrid rendered model for X-Plane simulation.
Figure 16.
Figure 16. AUXX
AUXX hybrid
hybrid rendered
rendered model
model for
for X-Plane
X-Plane simulation.
simulation.

Figure 17. AUXX conventional rendered model for X-Plane simulation.

Figure 17.
Figure 17. AUXX
AUXX conventional
conventional rendered
rendered model for
for X-Plane simulation.
simulation.
Figure 17. AUXX conventional rendered model
model for X-Plane
X-Plane simulation.
In order to compare the performance of the AUXX models in X-Plane with an existing type, a
In order
Cessna
In order
208 to compare
Grand
to compare
Caravan the
the performance
model of the
was employed.
performance of the AUXX
AUXX models
This model
models wasinmodified
in X-Plane with
X-Plane with an existing
existing
to incorporate
an thetype,
same
type, aa
X-Plane
Cessna 208
propulsion can
Grand
layoutsgenerate
Caravan
as the well-rendered
model
AUXX was
but visual
employed.
otherwise models
This by
model
remained draping
was 2-D
modified
standard. The image
to
C208 files
incorporate
Cessna 208 Grand Caravan model was employed. This model was modified to incorporate the samemodel is over
the
shown a 3-D
samein
Planemaker-created
propulsion
Figure layoutsaircraft,
18. layouts
propulsion as the or
as the by importing
AUXX
AUXX but 3D graphic
but otherwise
otherwise files. standard.
remained
remained The aircraftThe
standard. model
The details
C208
C208 model
modelrendered
is shown
is shown in this
in
in
way do not
Figure 18.
Figure 18.affect the flight physics but are a useful cosmetic enhancement depicted in Figures 16 and 17.

Figure 18. X-plane C208 model in simulated flight.

Figure 18.
Figure 18. X-plane
X-plane C208
C208 model
model in
in simulated
simulated flight.
flight.
Each model was flownFigure
in the18. X-plane from
simulator C208 take-off
model inat simulated
maximum flight.
rate of climb to 4267 m (14,000
Each model
model
ft) altitude.
Each was
The was flownclimb
average
flown inthe
in therate
simulator from take-off
was observed
simulator from take-off atmaximum
for at maximum
each rate
aircraft rate of climb
model.
of climb to
The to 4267simulator
flight
4267 m(14,000
m (14,000
ft) altitude. The average climb rate was observed for each aircraft model. The
ft) altitude. The average climb rate was observed for each aircraft model. The flight simulatorflight simulator
Aerospace 2017, 4, 45 17 of 22

In order to compare the performance of the AUXX models in X-Plane with an existing type,
a Cessna 208 Grand Caravan model was employed. This model was modified to incorporate the
same propulsion layouts as the AUXX but otherwise remained standard. The C208 model is shown in
Figure 18.
Aerospace 2017, 4, 45 17 of 22
Each model was flown in the simulator from take-off at maximum rate of climb to 4267 m
(14,000 ft) altitude. The average climb rate was observed for each aircraft model. The flight simulator
software includes a full “autopilot” facility which enables straight-forward and repeatable simulated
software includes a full “autopilot” facility which enables straight-forward and repeatable simulated
flights. In this work, the autopilot setting maintained a given pitch and roll angle throughout the
flights. In this work, the autopilot setting maintained a given pitch and roll angle throughout the climb.
climb. The roll angle was set as close as possible to zero, while the pitch angle setting was decided
The roll angle was set as close as possible to zero, while the pitch angle setting was decided through
through experiment to give best climb speed. It was noted that the indicated airspeed reduced
experiment to give best climb speed. It was noted that the indicated airspeed reduced slightly during
slightly during the climb for all models, while the rate of climb steadily reduced as expected.
the climb for all models, while the rate of climb steadily reduced as expected.
Of particular interest in determining relative performance and efficiency is the effect of propeller
Of particular interest in determining relative performance and efficiency is the effect of propeller
slipstream “scrubbing”. “The part of the body, nacelle, wing or other airplane component which is
slipstream “scrubbing”. “The part of the body, nacelle, wing or other airplane component which is
directly located in the slipstream will experience a change in drag, called scrubbing drag. This effect
directly located in the slipstream will experience a change in drag, called scrubbing drag. This effect
can be “counted” as a change (increase) in airplane drag or as a change (decrease) in the installed
can be “counted” as a change (increase) in airplane drag or as a change (decrease) in the installed
thrust of the propeller.” [21].
thrust of the propeller” [21].
The AUXX design requirements result in a body with very large fuselage frontal area ratio of the
The AUXX design requirements result in a body with very large fuselage frontal area ratio of
propeller disk area compared to most similarly configured types. Although the fuselage is very well
the propeller disk area compared to most similarly configured types. Although the fuselage is very
contoured, it inevitably has larger pressure gradients and wetted area contributing to drag, especially
well contoured, it inevitably has larger pressure gradients and wetted area contributing to drag,
scrubbing drag, than comparative size and weight aircraft in the class which have much slimmer
especially scrubbing drag, than comparative size and weight aircraft in the class which have much
fuselages. Figure 19 shows the relative frontal cross-section area of the AUXX compared to legacy
slimmer fuselages. Figure 19 shows the relative frontal cross-section area of the AUXX compared to
types.
legacy types.

Figure 19. AUXX

Figure19. AUXX frontal
frontalarea
areacomparison.
comparison.

The advantages
The advantages of of the
the conventional
conventional single
single front
front mounted
mounted engine
engine configuration
configuration areare clear
clear and
and
acknowledged in the design requirements. Commercial experience in the
acknowledged in the design requirements. Commercial experience in the mission confirms that the mission confirms that the
operating and capital costs of twin engine (ICE) configurations must be avoided.
operating and capital costs of twin engine (ICE) configurations must be avoided. It is also a known It is also a known
problemof
problem oflight
lighttwin
twinturbine
turbinepowered
poweredaircraft
aircraftthat
thattypical
typicallocation
locationof ofwing
wingmounted
mountedengines
enginesplaces
places
significant risks of uncontained turbine blade failure affecting
significant risks of uncontained turbine blade failure affecting the cabin [22]. the cabin [22].
However,the
However, theability
ability to locate
to locate electric
electric motorsmotors and propeller
and propeller units on units on thepresents
the wings wings an presents
excellentan
excellent opportunity
opportunity to improvetothe improve the propulsive
propulsive efficiency, efficiency,
by reducing bypropeller
reducingdisk propeller
loadingdisk
andloading
scrubbingand
scrubbing drag, while retaining the advantage of single front mounted engine
drag, while retaining the advantage of single front mounted engine placement. The electric motor is placement. The electric
motor
low is low temperature,
temperature, low speedlow and speed andbylow
low cost cost by comparison
comparison to equivalent to power
equivalent power equipment,
gas turbine gas turbine
equipment, thereby eliminating the gas turbine blade failure risk while providing
thereby eliminating the gas turbine blade failure risk while providing an economical, higher-efficiency an economical,
higher-efficiency
distributed distributed
propulsion propulsion installation.
installation.
Another advantage
Another advantage to to be
be established
established in in the
the simulation
simulation results
results isisthe
theperformance
performance of ofthe
theelectric
electric
motors at altitude. The X-Plane simulation uses a gas turbine flat-rated to 10,000
motors at altitude. The X-Plane simulation uses a gas turbine flat-rated to 10,000 ft. Above this altitude, ft. Above this
altitude, the maximum power available reduces in proportion to reducing air density. The electric
motor power output remains constant with altitude.
The results for average climb rate of the simulated aircraft and key parameters are shown in
Table 4.
Aerospace 2017, 4, 45 18 of 22

the maximum power available reduces in proportion to reducing air density. The electric motor power
output remains constant with altitude.
The results for average climb rate of the simulated aircraft and key parameters are shown in
Table 4.

Table 4. X-Plane aircraft simulation model parameters and climb rate.

X-Plane Aircraft Installed Power Empty Weight 1 Payload Weight 1 Average Climb Rate
Model (kW) (kg) (kg) to 14,000 ft (ft/min)
AUXX
670 2400 800 1320
Conventional
AUXX Hybrid 2 670 3300 800 1620
C208 Conventional 670 2200 800 1550
C208 Hybrid 2 670 3000 800 2150
Real Aircraft Data
850HP C208 3 635 2200 1800 * 1460 4
1 2
Weight given as mass in kilograms including nominal mission fuel; HP = 0.66, 1× Front mount gas turbine
plus 2× wing-mounted electric including battery and electrical components; 3 [23,24]; 4 * Initial rate at maximum
gross weight.

These results show a clear trend of improved climb rate with the application of HEP at an HP of
0.67 even with the necessary increase in weight. Since only the weight and the number and location of
propellers was changed in the model, it has to be assumed the improved performance in simulation
was due to increased efficiency.

4.1. Multi-Role
The analysis above was concentrated on the particular mission of high frequency climb and
descent cycles with an assumption that the electrical propulsion battery would be changed out or
recharged for each cycle. The feasibility of the mission is shown as viable with an attendant reduction
in fuel consumption and, therefore, direct operating cost and emissions. However, varying the mission
requirements for the in-service aircraft, perhaps for regional passenger transport or freight operation,
will render the range and endurance inadequate when using any significant degree of hybridisation
due to the limitation of current and near-term battery energy density technology. Such a reduction
in role versatility is likely to prevent an operator investing in this new technology aircraft equipped
with hybrid electric components. The benefits of the hybrid electric installation remain clear; the
redundancy of including two separate propulsion systems, but without the problems inherent in
conventional twin engine layouts; the possibility of utilizing non-hydrocarbon energy sources; the
improved propulsion and aerodynamic efficiency etc. So, how can these conflicting objectives be
resolved in order to allow the best future concepts to emerge?

4.2. Modularity
A solution to the problem is to introduce a new paradigm for aircraft propulsion modularity.
Different roles and missions can be achieved using mixtures of basic component parts all designed
to fit standardized interfaces. The concept is currently used for example on military aircraft external
stores. A standard rack can carry a large variety of payloads, munitions, sensor pods, fuel tanks etc.
For new propulsion, where a range of different hybridisation degrees, sizes of engine, battery packs
etc., allow a variety of different performance outcomes, this concept can allow economic viability.
As an example, using the aircraft modeled above with a 223 kW ICE installed, and 447 kW of EM,
we note that the effective range is severely limited. The battery size may be reduced to allow carriage
of more fuel, but the remaining propulsive energy of the EM is then reduced, and the propulsive
power of the ICE is inadequate for safe flight across all phases. In this case, removing the battery and
installing a larger ICE to support electrical energy demands of the EMs would provide acceptable
Aerospace 2017, 4, 45 19 of 22

power and range, though at potentially lower propulsive efficiency due to the removal of the wing
mounted propellers With some compromise in overall structural mass efficiency, it is a straight-forward
engineering process to provide a firewall forward change-out of the ICE components. Such a task
could realistically be achieved within minutes if the design were suitable. It may be useful for some
missions to remove the EM units or fit different sizes etc. It is the capability in practice for such module
interchange in the airworthiness and certification process which would currently cause the most delay.
The legacy airworthiness and certification process was not designed for and is unfit for this type of
approach, but just as that process was developed according to the requirements and constraints of the
time, so a new system can be developed for new requirements and constraints.
An operator could invest in a set of components based on a standard fuselage and tail group.
Various ICE, EM, and wing group parts suiting different missions could be interchanged as necessary
for the best cost/performance outcomes.

5. Future Analysis
The aircraft concepts in this paper have been explored according to fundamental mission
requirements and the constraints of propulsion technology. Future analysis will extend this approach
into a whole of system design domain using advanced conceptual design methodologies to evaluate
the performance attributes of these hybrid-electric propulsion concepts. It will approach this using an
analysis based on conceptual design methodologies such as the concept design analysis (CODA) [13],
quality function deployment (QFD) [25,26] , decision matrices (DM) [27,28] and value driven design
(VDD) [29,30] approaches. The methodology will establish mission requirements and needs in relation
to provisions for system performance, sustainability, certification, weight and cost metrics. Given that
the system solution space may include hybrid combinations of ICE and EP configured in multiple
multi-motor architectures, and/or operated to various battery charging strategies, it is likely that
numerous potential concepts will result. One particular method used has been the application of
general morphological analysis techniques [31,32] to evaluate various technology combinations and
options. This is achieved using a concept morphological matrix approach which develops technology
vectors which can be evaluated within integration requirements. Different concepts are therefore
developed by combining various possible solutions exhaustively to ensure that a rigorous examination
of the design space is conducted. Later steps in this methodology will therefore involve selection
of the “best candidate” concepts, and optimization of the solution based on change propagation
analysis [33–36]. This change propagation analysis method will also use matrix methods combined
with various visualization techniques to assess the impact of changes resulting from HEP related
aircraft modifications. This analysis methodology will assess the impact of change propagation on
integration risk and evaluates technology readiness level. In addition, this methodology can assist in
evaluating technical performance attributes, sustainability and value proposition of the HEP solution.

Safety and Certification

Commercially operated aircraft are subject to stringent certification and standards control. In many
jurisdictions, skydiving lift aircraft comply to FAA Part 23 normal category standards. This category
allows up to 5700 kg maximum take-off weight (MTOW) [28]. Aviation certification and standards and
regulations often lag technological development and may become anachronous in view of disruptive
technologies. Yet, the foundation of these processes remains vital to the ongoing safety of aviation and
will not disappear. However, the adoption of conceptual design methodologies as described above
provides a means to assess those certification requirements impacted by HEP aircraft modifications.
This methodology would build on change propagation analysis techniques as described above. It is
anticipated that this would a research project in its own right which would inform regulatory changes
accounting for these new propulsion technologies and maintaining the salient hard-won safety
principles developed over the past 100 years.
Aerospace 2017, 4, 45 20 of 22

6. Conclusions
A novel aircraft design has been analysed as a case study to highlight the positive advantages of
hybrid electric propulsion for aircraft. Whereas negative compromises of electric propulsion remain
significant due to increased system weight compared to pure internal combustion alternatives, various
efficiencies and advantages can be shown to allow overall performance improvement for particular
missions and some new aircraft roles become viable only as a result of hybrid electric propulsion.
It has been shown how a short duration high power mission such as skydiving can use HEP
equipped aircraft to reduce fuel consumption, and how even simply-configured distributed propulsion
benefits the efficiency to offset the problematic aspects of increased HEP system weight.
The use of a hybrid electric propulsion system could yield a viable bridge between legacy
certification standards and new evolving standards for fully electric aircraft. The way in which
the traditional ICE is integrated with electrical components can provide enhanced performance as
well as system redundancy. This changes the whole risk profile for the aircraft capital investment,
development and operation. It is evident that more and more hybrid and electric aircraft concepts
are emerging from small light sport types through to intercontinental heavy transport. It is inevitable
that the new opportunities for aircraft design will result in a range of new types with technical and
commercial viability, but requiring reform and advancement of regulatory and certification systems.
Many studies of electric and distributed propulsion for aircraft look at the opportunities which
may only exist once significant further battery storage technology and other future EPS improvements
take place. The study presented here exemplifies the fact that HEP technology can have utility
in aviation today with current levels of technology. Moreover, the study shows that new aircraft
developed using current HEP technology can lead progress, and will only benefit as future technology
emerges, rather than being superseded.

Acknowledgments: The subjects of these case studies are private development projects used by courtesy of the
developers. The “AUXX” Skydiving aircraft project is owned by Mr Tibor Glesk, Air Ute Pty Ltd., Caloundra,
Queensland, Australia.
Author Contributions: Richard Glassock: Richard is a Research Fellow at the University of Nottingham Institute
for Aerospace Technology. Richard wrote the body of the manuscript and developed the MATLAB and X-Plane
modelling tools, as well as the 3D CAD models used in design development and illustrations for the case
study aircraft. Michael Galea: Michael received his PhD in Electrical Machines Design from the University of
Nottingham, UK. He is currently a Lecturer in Electrical Machines and Drives within the Power Electronics
Machine and Control research group of the University of Nottingham. Michael reviewed the manuscript and
provided input for all items regarding electrical systems. Warren Williams: Warren is a professional aeronautical
engineer in private practice in Australia and is currently completing a PhD in Aeronautical Engineering. Future
Analysis topics of Safety and Certification were contributed by Warren. Tibor Glesk: Tibor is a professional
skydiver who has operated commercial skydiving centres around the world for 30 years. Tibor designed the
conceptual requirements of the AUXX aircraft, owns and manages the design program. Tibor provided advice
and feedback on all areas of commercial and operational requirements for the skydiving aircraft concept.
Conflicts of Interest: The aircraft used in this paper is subject to ongoing development projects toward
commercialisation. Contribution from private project resources was limited to allowing use of data and figures.
No funding, sponsorship or financial consideration of any sort was given.

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